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Drilling architecture
2
The tubes that contain these casings are made from high resistance
steel, of lengths between 9 and 14 m (for the guiding casing), equipped on
both ends with special threads.
The wall thickness value is usually from 5,2 to 16,1 mm, and its
diameter can vary between 114 mm (4 ½ in) and 500 mm.
The lengths and diameters of different drilling phases are decided
based on the geological information and the results from the nearby wells (if
any), giving into consideration the soil nature and the fluids that could be
met during drilling.
Knowing the drilling architecture allows you to foresee: choosing the
drilling rig; duration of the operations; necessary supply; material
consumption; total duration and the final cost of the drilling.
The deepest well worldwide has reached 9 583 m. Presently, the
deepest drilling well is situated in Murmansk (Russia), with over 12 390 m
and a projected depth of 15,000 m. In our country, the record is set at 7001
Tufeni well (Baicoi) with over 7 025 m depth.
3
2
Short history
4
supported by the Lord of Unification, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, which had the
main purpose the industry development.
The hydraulic-rotary drilling is tried for the first time at Tecsani
(Moinesti) and then at Tuicani (Moreni), in 1906. But the first productive
well is drilled in 1911, at Filipestii-de-Padure, at 1 170m depth.
5
3
The principle of rotary drilling and turbo-drilling
The rotary drilling method consists of using some bits (with cutters,
insertions, cone or with diamonds) on which it is operated with a weight and
a certain rotation speed. The combined action of the weight Gs and the
rotation n allows the bits with roller cone shattering the rock by crushing and
splintering (most of the times), and the bits with diamonds, by splintering
and washout (more precisely: the bits with inserted diamonds bit shatter the
rock by crushing and washout, and the ones with soaked diamonds, by
washout).
The equipment for drilling this holes is the drilling rig. Most rigs work
on the rotary system (fig. 3.1).
A bit rotates at the end of a pipe. As the bit rotates, it cuts and crushes
the rock at the bottom of the hole. The bit rotation is obtained through the
turning of the drill string (an assembly to “singles” or “joints”: drill pipes,
drill collars, joints, reduction junctions e.o.), which makes the connection
between the bit and the surface. Each joint or single is a hollow section of
pipe. By help to the Kelly (square or hexagonal), which is situated in a seal
bore with the same form in the small walls of the rotary table, the rotation of
this assembly is obtained. So: the rotary table turns the Kelly, the Kelly turns
the string, and the string turns the rotary bit.
6
The weight on the bit is obtained by around 100 - 200 m of tubes with
high wall thickness, called drill collars, with the unitary weight of
100 - 300 daN/m and placed above the bit. These pipes, having the diameter
close to the bit`s, will maintain the verticality of the borehole.
7
the borehole and the drill rod and stimulates the detritus, during ascension,
towards surface (fig. 3.2).
It is often enough, before re-sending the fluid back to the circuit, to
eliminate detritus (a part is recovered by geologists, for analysis) by using
some cleaning devices, frequently represented by shale shakers, mud settlers
and hoppers.
But the mud is not only used for carrying the cuttings up to the
surface. It is also used for keeping the bit cool. The mud engineer or “mud
man” is in charge of the mud. For example, he tells the floormen how to mix
the mud at the mud tanks.
Fig. 3.2. The mud system: 1 – mud pumps; 2 – shale shaker; 3 – mud tank;
4 – Kelly hose; 5 – standpipe; 6 – annulus; 7 – bit; 8 - nozzles
8
It is often necessary to pull the string out of the hole. There are
different reasons for this. Perhaps, for example, the drill bit is dull. If the bit
is dull, it must be changed. To do this, the driller and the floormen must trip
the pipe (fig. 3.3). They must pull the string out (fig. 3.3, a), change the bit
(fig. 3.3, b), and then run the string back into the hole (fig. 3.3, c). Tripping
the pipe is also called “making a round trip”. Round trips are expensive.
Oilmen make them only if they must.
a. b. c.
Fig. 3.3. Trip of the string (after Sandler P.L., 1980)
9
Fig. 3.4. The scheme of the turbodrill:
1- stator; 2- axis; 3- thrust bearing; 4- bit
In this case, the drill string stops rotating, and the power is directly
transmitted to the bit. The turbodrills (kinetic motors) conduct 100 - 250
floors, each one of them being made from a mobile and a fix element. They
have the powers of 150 HP and can provide rotary speeds of between 700
and 1000 rot/min, for pressure drops of 60 ÷ 100 bar.
10
4
The drill string. Bits
11
To project a drill string means to establish: the nominal diameter, wall
thickness, steel quality, tear and wear class etc.
Drill pipes
Note: The 6 5/8 in drill pipes are rarely used, and the 2 ⅜ and 2 ⅞ in
are mostly used on instrumentation, in reduced spaces. The most used drill
pipes are the ones with the nominal diameter of 5 in and 3 ½ in.
Drill collars
12
Gs
lg = , (4.1)
⎛ ρf ⎞
c qg g ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ ρo ⎟⎠
where:
qg is the unitary mass of drill collars;
ρf – fluid density;
ρ0 – steel density from which the drill pipes are made;
c – coefficient (c ≈ 0,75).
To increase the weight and the rigidity of the drill collars, without
reducing the flowing space of the drilling fluid (which would lead to high
pressure drops and the walls washout), there are being used drill collars with
other sections then the circular one: square, triangular or helical.
The heavy weight drill pipes have the nominal diameter identical with
the one of the normal drilling pipes, but with much thicker walls (up to
25 mm). For the usual drilling conditions, 2 or 3 pieces of heavy weight drill
pipes are inserted (or thick walls drill pipes) between the drill pipes and the
drill collars; these realize a graduate passing from the high rigidity of the
drill collars to the small rigidity of the drill pipes (for difficult drilling
conditions there can be used up to 20 pieces of heavy weight drill pipes).
13
The Kelly
The Kelly is used to transmit the rotation movement from the rotary
mass to the rest of the drill string. In the oil industry are used Kellies with
hexagonal or transversal section.
The usual dimensions of the nominal diameter:
2 ½ (64); 3 (76,2); 3 ½ (88,9);
4 ¼ (108); 5 ¼ (133,3); 6 in (152,4 mm).
Stabilizers
Stabilizers are elements placed in the drill collars assembly, with the
purpose of centralizing and stabilizing the drill string in the borehole. There
are being built stabilizers with cutters, with sheaves and with diamonds.
As a general idea, the first stabilizer is placed above the bit, the
second 10 m from the first, the third 25 m and so on.
The main solicitations the different drill string`s elements are put to
refer to:
- tension;
- torsion;
- internal pressure;
- external pressure;
- combined solicitations: - tension – torsion;
- tension – pressure.
14
Simplified, we take into account the main solicitations (for a given
work situation), then the different safety coefficients are being calculated.
Solicitations have a static and a dynamic character. At the submerged motor
drilling, the drill string`s solicitation conditions are lighter; the static
character of the many solicitations mentioned is mainly manifested.
Tension
When the drill string (fig. 4.2) is suspended in a borehole filled with
drilling fluid, the effective tension
⎛ ρ ⎞
Gg = (l p q p g + l g qg g ) ⎜⎜1 − f ⎟⎟ , (4.2)
⎝ ρo ⎠
or
⎛ ρ ⎞
(l p q p g + l g qg g )⎜⎜1 − f ⎟⎟
⎝ ρo ⎠
σ tmax = , (4.3)
Ap
where Ap is the area of the transversal section of the drill pipes body in the
most solicited section (acc. fig. 4.2).
It is imposed that:
F t =G g +F R ≤ F a , (4.4)
where:
15
FR represents the reserve of traction (margin of over pull); regularly,
FR = 45 000 daN;
Fa – the admissible traction force:
F max
F a= , (4.5)
cs
⎛F ⎞ 1
l p = ⎜⎜ max − FR − lg qg g f f ⎟⎟ (4.6)
⎝ ct ⎠ qp g f f
16
Torsion
2 2
⎛ Ft ⎞ ⎛ M t ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≤ 1 , (4.7)
⎝ Fmax ⎠ ⎝ M max ⎠
From where
2
⎛ F ⎞
M t ≤ M max 1 − ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ . (4.8)
⎝ Fmax ⎠
17
The external pressure (fig. 4.4)
pcr
ρ f g H ≤ pad = , (4.9)
ct
For the optimum use of the available drill strings and to grow the
working depth, there are sometimes used combined drill strings.
18
In this way it is calculated the traction reserve in the head of each drill
strings reach and it is imposed that the two reserves should be equal.
For example, if we have E grade drill strings and X95 grade one, then
it is calculated:
Fmax ( E )
FRE = − (l p ( E ) q p ( E ) g + l g qg g ) f f , (4.10)
cs
respectively,
Fmax ( X )
FRX = − (l p ( X ) q p ( X ) g + l p ( E ) q p ( E ) g + l g qg g ) f f , (4.11)
cs
Fmax ( E ) F
− l p ( E ) q p ( E ) g f f = max ( X ) − l p ( X ) q p ( X ) g f f − l p ( E ) q p ( E ) g f f −
cs cs , (4.12)
lg qg g f f + lg qg g f f ,
from where:
Fmax ( X ) − Fmax ( E ) 1
l p(X ) = ⋅ . (4.13)
cs qp(X ) g f f
19
can be used 3 ½ in drill pipes; properly to the precedent 9 ⅝ in casing, there
can be used 5 in drill pipes and so on.
20
- from 2 500 m to 3 000 m clay and intercalations of quartz sandstones
(gas presence!).
Tests from neighbor wells have indicated a 325 bar pressure at
2 750 m (relative pressure).
Propose, for the realization of 12 ¼ in phase, a composition of the
drill string.
Solution
The drill string weight in the drilling fluid must be calculated, that`s
why we begin with calculating it`s density.
The equivalent density of the bottom pressure (Z = 2 750 m), in the
gas area, results from:
p f =ρech g Z ,
21
from where
pf 325 ⋅ 10 5
ρech = = = 1205 kg / m 3 = 1,21 kg / dm 3 .
Z g 2750 ⋅ 9,81
To find out the minimum density of the drilling fluid it is applied the
“plus 5 points” rule or the “plus 10 bar” rule (in the end, the smallest value is
chosen).
Through applying the “plus 5 points” rule,
ρf =
(325 +10) ⋅105 = 1242 kg / m3 = 1,24 kg / dm3 ,
2750 ⋅ 9,81
22
b. The bit weight Gs
23
Dg = 0,75 · 12,125 = 9,187 in,
so we choose Dg = 9 ½ in (if the deviation tendency is reduced, drill collars
with 7 ¾ in diameter can be used), dg = 2 13/16 in (71,4 mm), qg = 327,5
kg/m.
According to relation (4.1), the drill collars necessary length
Gs 3600 ⋅ 9,81
lg = = = 175 m ,
⎛ ρf ⎞ ⎛ 1260 ⎞
0,75 qg g ⎜⎜1 − ⎟ 0,75 ⋅ 327,5 ⋅ 9,81 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ ρo ⎟⎠ ⎝ 7850 ⎠
meaning 175 : 9,15 = 19,12 (round off 19 pieces), meaning 6 steps and a
piece.
24
e. The Kelly
f. Stabilizers
Tension
According to relation (4.5), for a tension reserve of FR = 45 000 daN,
cs = 1,1, ff = 0,84,
⎛F ⎞ 1
l p = ⎜⎜ max − FR − l g qg g f f ⎟⎟ =
⎝ ct ⎠ qp g f f
⎛ 138 000 ⋅ 10 ⎞ 1
⎜ − 45 ⋅ 10 4 − 175 ⋅ 327,5 ⋅ 9,81 ⋅ 0,84 ⎟ = 1298 m.
⎝ 1,1 ⎠ 31,06 ⋅ 9,81 ⋅ 0,84
25
In this case,
⎛ 175,6 ⋅ 104 ⎞ 1
l p = ⎜⎜ − 45 ⋅ 104 − 175 ⋅ 327,5 ⋅ 9,81 ⋅ 0,84 ⎟⎟
⎝ 1,1 ⎠ 31,83 ⋅ 9,81 ⋅ 0,84
3178,6 > 3000 m.
Fmax(X) − Fmax(E) 1
l p(X) = ⋅ =
1,1 f f ⋅ q p(X) ⋅ g
(175,6 − 138) ⋅ 104 ⋅ 1
= 1303 m ( ≈ 145buc).
1,1 0,84 ⋅ 31,83 ⋅ 9,81
pcr 487
pca = = = 423,6 bar .
ct 1,15
26
The appliance of torsion and tensile stress combination
2 2
⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ 86183 ⎞
M t ≤ M max 1 − ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ = 4380 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 3421 daN ⋅ m ,
⎝ Fmax ⎠ ⎝ 138800 ⎠
the limitation in the torsion torque for the X grade drill pipes,
2
⎛ F ⎞
M g ≤ M t 1 − ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ ,
⎝ Fmax ⎠
2
⎛ 120359 ⎞
M g ≤ 5540 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 4033,9 daN ⋅ m (the surface torsion
⎝ 175600 ⎠
limitation).
4.2. Bits
The main bits types used in the hydrocarbons drilling are the ones
with roller cone and diamonds.
27
The bits with roller cone (Sandler) are mainly constituted from 3
teethed roller cone, mounted through the roller bearings on the axes of three
bars joined by welding. A threading allows the bit spin-up with the drill
collars (fig. 4.6).
In the case of liquid fluid circulation, for the bits with roller cone there
are two options: with internal washing (central) and, respectively, with
external washing (with steam) (the external washing is characteristic to the
modern bits).
The number and the size of the bits` heel teeth depend on the working
terrain nature. The drilling system parameters are also chosen according to
the terrain`s nature: orientative, the roller cone bits rotation speed varies
between 50 and 300 rot/min, and the specific weight comes to the order of
25 ÷ 1 000 daN/cm of bit diameter.
For example: a rough soil bit, with 311 mm diameter, could use
100 rot/min and a weight of 900 31,1 = 28 000 daN (28 tf).
28
The advance speed of the roller cone bits is also dependent on the soil
nature and varies from 1 ÷ 2 m/h, for rough formations, at about 30 m/h, at
moist formation. The work period of the roller cone bits rarely exceeds more
than 24 hours and the extraction cause can be (most often):
- heel teeth wear (it can go up to their disappearance);
- bearings wear (sometimes can train the loss of a roller cone at the
bottom hole);
- a loss of diameter in the abrasive formations.
In rough formations, the diamond bits are mostly used.
A diamond bit is composed, mainly, of four elements: bit body 1, bit
core 2, the matrix 3 and the circulation channels 4 (fig. 4.7).
From the point of view of diamond – matrix report, there are 2 types
of bits:
- with inserted diamonds;
- with soaked diamonds.
Considering the rocks nature, big diamonds are used for weak rocks
and small diamonds for rough rocks. Orientative, there are being used
12 stones/carat for weak rocks (clays, weak marls etc.) and
12 - 15 stones/carat for hard and abrasive rocks. At the diamond bits with
soaked diamonds are used 80 - 1 000 stones/carat.
New types of diamond bits – Stratapax – require diamonds installation
on a tungsten carbide support. With these kinds of bits 700 – 800 m can be
reached, in a hundred hours. On the other side, the cost of these bits is very
high: about 25 times bigger than the cone cons bits.
29
Fig. 4.7. Diamond bit:
1 – bit body; 2 – matrix core;
3 – matrix; 4 – circulation channel
The drilling operation, especially choosing the bit and the drilling
system parameters (thrust, rotation, flow) which will give the minimum cost,
constitutes a delicate operation. Mostly, the rocks met during drilling are
extremely heterogeneous, and the means to know them before, still limited.
30
5
Wells pressure and around them
Under tectonic aspect, in a rock massif there are three main tensions:
- a vertical one σ1 = σv;
- two tensions situated in a horizontal plan, σ2 and σ3.
For homogeneous and isotropic rocks,
μ
σ 2 =σ 3 =σ o = σ
1− μ V (5.1)
σo
= 0,7. . .0,8
σV
σo
= 0,9
σV (5.2)
σo
=1
σV
Because the three tensions are in compression, they are often called
pressures.
31
So, we have:
p1 = σ1 =ρr g H, (5.3)
p c = σ2 = σ3 . (5.4)
ph = ρa g H, (5.5)
32
layers which can be crossed with non-weighted muds, with densities of
1 200 – 1 250 kg/m3). There are supra-normal and under-normal pressures.
where:
k1 is the contact pressure coefficient;
σt – rock tension resistance.
Practical situations:
k1 = 0,5 – 0,7; H < 1 500 m;
k1 = 0,75; H > 1 500 m;
k1 = 1; σt ≈ 0 for impermeable rocks and so on.
p
Γ= . (5.7)
H
33
Abnormal pressures
34
c) Gas exponent variation
The importance and the composition of gas exponents (the report
C2/C3+) can vary near the abnormal pressure area.
f) Drilling difficulties
These difficulties can be due to plastic, swelling clay.
35
We consider a certain property variation, followed along the depth
(fig. 5.2).
In point B,
36
pp = ρr g (H – Hech) + ρa g Hech. (5.12)
D cn
p p =ph (5.13)
D co
37
4. In the 1 900 – 2 000 m interval, how is characterized the pressure
differential between the formation and the drilling fluid?
5. What is your estimate pressure at 2 050 m? (ρa = 1,02 kg/dm3).
6. Is it good a mud density of 1,39 kg/dm3 at 2 170 m? Why?
Solution
1. The normal compaction clay line:
Z = 1 100 m, “d” = 1,00,
Z = 2 150 m, “d” = 1,5.
2. Sub-compaction area roof: Z = 1 800 m.
3. BAT appearance (gases) between 1 810 and 1 830 m. Then, “d”
exponent values stabilization starting with 1 800 m; possible estimation of
the sub-compaction area roof, during drilling, around 1 800 m value.
4. The progressive growth of the gas fund. It is imposed a growth of
the drilling fluid density ρf.
5. According to (5.13),
D cn
p p =ph ,
D co
where:
ph = ρa g H = 1020 ⋅ 9,81 ⋅ 2050 = 205 bar,
Dcn = 1,5,
Dco = 1,2 ,
1,5
p p = 205 = 256,2 bar,
1,2
38
Fig. 5.3. Chart review of pore pressure
39
A drilling fluid density ρf = 1,3 kg/dm3, can ensure the pressure
balance (equilibrium).
6. Pore pressure estimation at 2 170 m (in equivalent density units):
- the ratio method:
HA
Γ p = Γl − (Γl − Γ n ) , (5.14)
HB
1100
p p = 2,10 − (2,1 − 1,02) = 1,55 kg / dm3 (equivalent density
2170
value).
So: all the conditions are made so that, in this area, we have an
eruptive manifestation (sub-compaction state, progression gas fund a.o.).
40
Questions:
1. What fluid pressure will be take to respect the “+5 points rule”?
2. What fluid density must be taken to respect the “+ 10 bar” rule?
3. If the reservoir roof starts at 1 425 m, what will be the chosen density
for the drilling fluid?
4. What is the minimum value of overpressure and at what depth?
(phd = 7 bar).
5. What is the maximum value of overpressure and at what depth?
6. What orders will be given for the reservoir traceability?
Answers:
1. The pressure gradient or the equivalent density are maximum in the
reservoir roof, due to the hydro-carbides minimum density.
Pressure at 1 500 m,
41
pp = 180 · 105 – (1 750 – 1 625) · 9,81 · 735 – (1 625 – 1 500) · 9,81 · 105 =
169,7 bar.
The equivalent density
pp 169,7 ⋅ 105
ρech = = = 1,16 kg / dm 3 .
g H 9,81 ⋅ 1500
The chosen fluid density to respect the “+5 points” rule is:
42
4. The overpressure will be minimum in the reservoir roof (1 425 m),
in the beginning of the ascendant maneuver of the tubular material.
The borehole pressure will be
pp = 168,92 bar,
43
S = pgs – pp = 48,22 bar.
Notes:
1) Small depth is an aggravating circumstance.
2) The risk of gas appearance will be seriously analyzed.
3) The diagram p = f(H) will be traced.
44
6
Drilling fluids
a. Density:
M
ρf = (6.1)
V
ph + Δp
ρf = . (6.2)
gH
45
The drilling fluid density determination is made through weighting.
dv
F=A ηp , (6.3)
dr
F
η p=
dv , (6.4)
A
dr
with ηp in [Ns/m2]
As a practical unit is used cP:
1 cP = 10-3 Ns/m2.
46
Fig. 6.1. Flowing models τ = f (dv/dr):
1 - for Newtonian fluids; 2 - Binghamian fluids.
Meanings: θ is the static shearing tension;
τo – dynamic shearing tension.
The plastic viscosity and the dynamic shear tension are determined
with the help of some viscosimeters and shearometers.
Usually, is used the FANN type viscosimeter.
In the site, there is used the conventional or relative viscosity notion
(or March): it expresses the fluid flowing time from a funnel of a
standardized construction (VM – [s]).
47
deposit in the rock superficial pores and on the well walls, deposit known as
clogging (or mudding, or plugging).
The determination of the filtration and clogging capacity is made,
currently, with devices called filter presses (a large utilization has the Baroid
type filter press).
48
Observation:
The diverse types of drilling fluids are used depending on the crossed
soil nature.
So, for the crossing of a salt layer, there are being used salty–saturate
drilling fluids. In the case of consolidate and no water soils, air drilling can
be used. For details regarding pressure losses in the drilling fluid circuit,
fluid recipes and s.o. are recommended the papers Carnet tehnic – Forajul
sondelor [4] and Fluide de foraj si cimenturi de sonda. [12].
49
7
Wells cementing and casing-off
50
The anchor string (surface). Its fixing depth vary from a few tens
meters (for less deep wells) to 1 500 – 2 000 m (for very deep wells).
Main functions:
- it consolidates the borehole at the surface zone;
- it constitutes a support for the next casings (in the case that they
aren`t consolidated to the surface);
- it constitutes a support for the eruption prevention installation.
They are cemented throughout the whole length.
Their diameter varies, usually, between 10 ¾ and 16 ¾ in; at some big
depth wells, the anchor string has the diameter bigger than 20 in.
51
- allows the selective exploitation of the layers (they will be put into
communication with the casing interior, through perforations, only the layers
that interest the extraction);
- assure the realization of operations regarding the improvement of the
exploitation process: fissures, acidizings, interventions etc.
The diameter of this casing is conditioned by the fluid debit which
will be extracted and the extraction methods used. It is placed between 4 ½
and 6 5/8 in (114,3 mm and 268,27 mm).
52
Technical factors: casings availabilities, bits, drill rods, installation
capacity etc.
Well placement: at offshore wells or the onshore ones executed
nearby more important social or economic objectives, a more safe
construction program will be adopted.
Economical factors: number, length, diameter and the casing joints
thickness; the cement quantities afferent etc.
where:
Γp is the pore pressure gradient;
Γn – drilling fluid pressure gradient (Γn = ρf g);
Γfis – fissure pressure gradient.
Through the graphical representation of the three parameters, results o
possible variant of the casings and casing-off intervals number (fig. 7.1).
A special attention must be given to the anchor string.
Let`s assume that:
- the weakest rocks, with the fissure gradient Γfis, are situated at the
casing shoe at Hc depth;
- casing fluid density is ρf;
- control pressure, at surface, is ps at the fissure moment.
53
Fig. 7.1. Casings number and the casing-off
interval (scheme)
In this case,
from where
ps + ρ f g H
Hc = . (7.3)
Γ fis
The most disadvantageous case is the complete filling of the well with
gases (fig. 7.2). In this case, the surface pressure will be:
ps = pp + ρp g H. (7.4)
54
Fig. 7.2. Well filling
with gas (scheme)
p p − ρg g H g + ρ f g H
H= , (7.5)
Γ fis
55
• intersection between gases “straight” and the pfis line gives us the
minimum casing-off depth, which will allow the safe drilling until the depth
H.
Solution
a. Cashing drive shoe level “N” which will allow a safe drilling up
to the depth of 4 000 m.
The layer pressure (of the pore fluids) at depth H = 4 000 m is
pv = pp - ρp g H.
56
and at depth H = 4 000 m,
So,
ps = 412 – 0,267 · 9,82 · 4 000 · 10-2 = 307 bar.
Intersection of gases “straight line” with the fissure pressure line leads
to a value Z = 2 320 m.
Note. This is, as mentioned before, the minimum level for placing the
cashing drive shoe N, to execute a drilling at the depth of 4 000 m.
b. Cashing drive shoe level “N-1” which will allow a safe drilling
up to the depth of 2 320 m.
Proceeding accordingly to the precedent case, results:
pp = 2 320 · 0,103 = 239 bar, ps = 239 – 0,155 · 10-1 · 9,81 · 2 320 =
204 bar
(ρg = ρg(s) pp = 0,65 · 239 = 0,155 kg/l).
The minimum casing placing level “N-1” is Z2 = 1 430 m (acc. to
fig. 7.3).
Proceeding accordingly to the precedent case, for the casing “N-3” is
obtained Z3 = 580 m etc.
Of course, the casings number afferent to low depths (“N-4” is found
near 400 m and “N-5” near 200 m) seems somehow exaggerated. There are
special situations though, especially at offshore drilling, when the low litho-
static pressures can put serious problems concerning the fissure risk, internal
eruption etc.
57
Fig. 7.3. The minimum casing placing level (scheme)
58
drive shoe. For example, at 3 000 m, pp = 400 bar, then at shoe ps = 400 bar,
then at surface ps = 400 bar and s.o.
Note. Preferentially, a casing shoe is placed alongside marls or clays.
59
casing without difficulties and an efficient cementing of the annular space
(acc. to fig. 7.4). So, δ and R are expressed through the relations:
- radial play
D s − Dm
δ= , (7.6)
2
casing ratio
δ D − Dm
R= = s , (7.7)
Ds 2 Ds
60
Table 7.2. Orientation values for δ and R
Casings` diameters, Normal conditions Complicated conditions
δ, mm R δ, mm R
in (mm)
Dc < 8 5/8 (219,1) 8 - 18 0,05 – 0,065 10 - 25 0,06 – 0,09
Dc > 8 5/8 (219,1) 20 - 40 0,06 – 0,09 25 - 50 0,08 – 0,10
So,
Ds = Dm + 2δ. (7.8)
Di = Ds' + 2a , (7.9)
where a is the radial clearance between the bit and the casing`s interior:
a = 3 … 5 mm (bits with sheaves and diamonds);
a = 5 … 8 mm (bits with cutters).
After [1], a = 2 … 4 mm.
61
It is wanted like Dd < Di, where Dd is the drift diameter (the internal
guaranteed passing diameter) of the casings made with the fabrication laws
(fig. 7.5).
The wall thickness, steel quality and the joints type will be established
depending on the nature and size of the solicitations that act upon the
casings.
Cemented intervals
62
casings` anticorrosive protection, increasing their resistance, avoiding
dangerous solicitations during exploitation etc.
The anchor string is cemented on all its length, with the purpose of:
− consolidating the unstable surface formations;
− isolating the phreatic water;
− ensuring a stable and safe support for the eruption preventing
installation and the following casings.
The other casings are cemented with at least 200 m above the last
permeable layer.
At the gas wells, it is recommended cementing of all the casings, on
all the length.
At the exploitation wells, in areas poorly known, it is used to cement
about 100 m in the interior of the precedent casing.
63
− 0,108 bar in Pontian (1 000 ÷ 3 000 m);
− 0,118 bar/m in Meotian (3 000 ÷4 000 m).
Fissure pressure system (LOT):
− 0,128 bar/m (0 ÷750 m);
− 0,142 bar/m (750 ÷1 500 m);
− 0,156 – 0,176 bar/m (1 500 ÷2 500 m) (grows from 0,156 to
0,176 bar/m from 1 500 to 2 000 m);
− 0,176 bar/m (2 500 ÷4 000 m);
Requirements:
1. Propose and justify the levels for different casings.
2. Establish the drilling diameters and those of casings knowing that the
main tank will be drilled with a borehole of 6 in.
Solution.
1. It is traced, depending on the problem`s data, the variations of the
layer pressure pp, of the fissure pressure pfis and the lithostatic ones p1
depending on the depth.
The gases “lines” for the depths of 4 000 m and 1 400 m lead to the
following minimum placing casing shoe levels (fig. 7.6): 2 420 respectively
1 040 m.
So, it is imposed:
a. The anchor casing shoe should be between 150 and 200 m;
preferential drilling stop in an clay section.
b. The intermediate casing shoe 1 between 1 050 m and 1 075 m:
− minimum level resulted from the gases “line” for H = 1 400 m;
64
− maximum level, imposed by the head (roof) of the gas zone is
1 100 m;
− preferential drilling stop in an clay section.
c. The intermediate casing shoe 2 towards 1 600 m:
- shutting down the gases and the sandy – sandstone formations;
- drilling will be stopped after we ensured that the clay zone was
penetrated.
d. The intermediate casing shoe 3 (or exploitation one) will be at
about 50 – 75 m under the first carbonic geological pointer,
approximately at 3 965 m:
- minimum level, imposed by the gases “line” accordingly to the
4 000 m depth, is 2 420 m;
- maximum level, imposed by the gases zone body is 4 000 m;
- drilling shutting down after the reasonable crossing of the carbonatic
pointers.
e. Liner between 3 865 m and 4 200 m(of course, an option is a free
borehole, in the case of consolidated formations).
Possible variants in the case of not confirming the gases presence in
the 1 100 – 1 400 m interval:
− the intermediate casing shoe 2 can attain towards 2 500 m, and the
reservoir tracing will be made without the proper placing of the
intermediate casing 3;
− the placing of the intermediate casing shoe 2 at 3 965 m;
− attacking the drilling phase for the zone of after casing the
intermediate casing in reduced diameter (afterwards enlargement, if
65
gases presence is confirmed, or remaining in reduced diameter,
otherwise).
66
− the stability of the phases crossed by drilling;
− the casings number and weight;
− the detritus circulation and surface bringing;
− the production capacity evaluation etc.
Still, the initial program remains… interesting.
67
7.4. Making the casings
In the making of a casing the following elements must exist: the shoe,
the baffle collar, the casings and, eventually, centralizers and wall
scratchers. The main elements are, obviously, the casings.
68
Table 7.4. Main characteristics of casings steels [2]
69
In the case of corrosion due to CO2 presence, it is recommended the
use of special steels, like: C – 75 VC, L – 80 VC, N – 80 VC (13 % Cr),
L – 80 VCM (9 % Cr + 1 % Mo) or VS 22; VS 28; VS 42 N. There are 14
nominal diameters of the casings columns: 4 ½; 5; 5 ½; 6 5/8; 7; 7 5/8;
9 5/8; 10 ¾; 11 ¾; 13 3/8; 16; 18 5/8; and 20 in.
The casings jointing to form columns is realized through screwing on
(in very rare cases is used the screw on by welding).
The main joints types are:
− triangular screwed connection (short or long);
− Buttress;
− Extreme Line;
− screwed connection in two levels (in ladder);
− screwed connections for high diameter casings;
− non-screwed connection.
70
The Butress joint has four types:
• normal:
71
Screwed connection with a 2 level thread (ladder) is of 2 types:
− NCT – K – casing connection Hydrill;
− FJ – P – with threads realized directly from the body.
The shoe is positioned on the inferior side of the casing and, by its
rounded form, ensures the casing introduction. There are simple shoes and
shoes with retaining valve. The best ones are the shoes with retaining valve,
with a special construction, which opens when the pressure difference
between the upside and the downside areas exceeds a certain pre-established
value.
72
− stopping the cement plug above the shoe.
The hanger and the casing launcher are used to suspend the liner
(of the lost casing) in the interior of the precedent casing.
The most important solicitations that the casing columns are subject to
are: external pressure, the tension and the internal pressure. To these must be
added the solicitations that accidentally appear: bending (in deviate
boreholes), compression (buckling), torsion, time degradation, corrosion,
improper use of the maneuver tools etc.
73
If the value of the external pressure exceeds the casing`s resistance on this
solicitation, the immediate consequence is its collapse (or ovalisation). So it
is determined a critical collapse pressure for vary situations:
2E 1
pcr = ⋅ (7.10)
1 − μ D ⎛ D ⎞2
2
⎜ − 1⎟
t ⎝ t ⎠
⎛ A ⎞
pcr = σ c ⎜ − B⎟ (7.11)
⎝ D / t ⎠
74
Table 7.6. Values D/t, A, B, σc for the transition domain [2]
⎛ A' ⎞
pcr = σ c ⎜⎜ − B' ⎟⎟ − C (7.12)
⎝ D/t ⎠
The values for D/t, A`, B` and C are given in table 7.7.
75
d. in the pure plastic domain,
⎛ A' ⎞
pcr = σ c ⎜⎜ − B' ⎟⎟ − C (7.13)
⎝ D/t ⎠
Table 7.8. Values D/t for the pure plastic domain [2]
⎛ ρ ⎞
Fq = ∑ li qi ⎜⎜1 − f ⎟⎟ , (7.13)
⎝ ρo ⎠
where: li represents the casings lengths that form the column (i = 1 … n);
qi – corresponding unitary weights;
ρf, ρo – drilling fluid densities, respectively the steel`s from which the
casings are made of.
76
In the case of casing introducing maneuver, the traction force
becomes
⎛ v ⎞
Fq1 = Fq ⎜⎜1 + i − f ⎟⎟ (7.14)
⎝ ti g ⎠
⎛ v ⎞
Fq2 = Fq ⎜⎜1+ e + f ⎟⎟ (7.15)
⎝ te g ⎠
⎡ 6Eh ⎤
Fq3 = Fq ⎢1 + 1 +
⎢⎣ (ρo − ρ f ) g L ⎥⎦ ,
2 ⎥
(7.16)
77
b. The traction force due to temperature variation appears in case
of casings considered with the heads trapped (in cement – lower part; in the
leak proof installation – surface).
By definition, the force due to temperature variation
Ft = σ t A (7.17)
where A represents the casing`s transversal section area, and the unitary
stress
σt = ε E, (7.18)
ΔL
ε= . (7.19)
L
ΔL = L α ΔT, (7.20)
78
Ft = E A α ΔT. (7.21)
pi D
σ=μ , (7.22)
2t
pi D A
Fp = σ ⋅ A = μ (7.23)
2t
79
t
pi = 2 σ c , (7.24)
D
Other solicitations
ED
σ inc = (7.25)
2R
80
One of the methods to form the casings profile is building the pressure
difference curves
Δpe = pe – pi , (7.26)
Respectively
The casings used and the reaches lengths are determined through the
intersection of the afferent lines of the admissible collapse pressures with the
pressure curve Δpe.
81
Fig. 7.7. The curve of the pressures difference Δpe and Δpi
where
pt
pea = , (7.29)
ct
82
Now is build the curve Δpi for the most disadvantageous situations
(acc. to fig. 7.7, 7.8 and 7.9):
- the casing is filled with gases;
- it is taking into account the maximum pressure during the pressure
tests (samples) time.
In exterior it is considered that we have water with the density ρa = 1
000 kg/m3.
In the case when the casing is filled with gases, the surface pressure
(fig. 7.8)
ps = pp – ρg g H. (7.30)
83
Analogous, for the case when the pressure is maximum at the surface,
when the pressure tests are taken (fig. 7.9).
where
p sp
p ia = , (7.32)
c sp
where psp is the critical buckle pressure, and csp – the safety coefficient
(csp = 1,1).
84
Afterwards, it verifies if the established profile resists to traction. The
imposed condition:
Fq ≤ Fad, (7.33)
where
F max
F ad = , (7.34)
cs
85
Simplified calculus
Are taken into consideration separately the external pressure and the
traction. Is to be verified at internal pressure, for dangerous section
(sections).
The calculation starts from toe to top. As, at the casing`s shoe, the
external pressure is maximum (we consider the case of total scavenging),
then
from where results the maximum depth up to which it can be cased with a
casing of wall thickness t1 chosen depending on pad1.
For the next wall thickness from STANDARD,
p ad 2
H 2= (7.36)
ρf g
l1 = H – H 2 , (7.37)
and of reach i,
86
Fig. 7.10. Casing profile (external pressure solicitation)
Fad 1
l1 = , (7.39)
q1 g
l1 q1 g + l2 q2 g ≤ Fad2 (7.40)
87
F ad 2 − l 1 q 1 g
l 2= , (7.41)
q2 g
88
Next is the internal pressure checking for the most disadvantageous
situation: the casing is full of gases or the maximum pressure is taken, at
surface, during the pressures tests.
Fig. 7.12. Establishing the casing profile through the graphical way
89
Casings calculus at composed solicitations
σ 2c =σ 2t +σ 2z − σ t σ z , (7.43)
y2 + z2 – yz = 1, (7.44)
which, in a yOz plane, represents the plasticity ellipse equation, with the
axes inclined at 45o (acc. to fig. 7.13).
90
Fig. 7.13. The plasticity ellipse
σt p ρ g H ef
y= = ef = f , (7.45)
σ c pad pad
σz F
z= = q . (7.46)
σc A σc
91
Fig. 7.14. Casing diagram [2]
92
prepared, depending of wall thickness and material qualities, keeping into
consideration the introduction order in the well.
The well is controlled on all its depth and is corrected (after the bit
reached the bottom hole, a more prolonged circulation is made).
For the proper casing operation, the following will be known:
− keeping the casing introduction order;
− controlling each casing`s interior, with the help of a drift mandrel;
− making the welding, in points, at the first joints, to prevent their break
out;
− the carefully execution of each casing`s screwing on;
− the thread lubrication at the surface of the hole;
− launching the casing with such a speed, therefore not producing
dangerous hydrodynamic pressures, which could affect the layer –
well equilibrium;
− making circulations at certain intervals, to evacuate the filter cake of
the well;
− maneuvering the casing column at the end of the operation, with the
purpose of removing filter cake by the wall scratchers; in the same
time, the drilling fluid circulation is made.
93
● F 9 5/8 in + T 7 5/8 in at 3 500 m (exploitation column); gas
presence !
It is asked making a simplified casing calculation.
Solution.
1) Phase: drilling 24 in – casing 16 in
This casing will be object to some “easy” drillings: the risk of gas
presence doesn`t exist in the next phase, nor of the sulfured hydrogen and so
on. It will be cemented on all its length.
So, we will take the following safety coefficients:
− at collapse: “ct” = 0,85;
− at breaking: csp = 1,1;
− at traction: cs = 1,6.
94
b. Internal pressure verifying
We consider, at the exterior of the casing, sea water with density ρa =
1 020 kg/m3, and at the interior the maximum pressure from the casing head
from the time LOT (Leak of Test), executed with a mud with density
ρf = 1 100 kg/m3.
The maximum value inside the casing, during the pressure test, was
120 bar (12 MPa). As, for steel K 55, the maximum breaking pressure is
15,5 MPa, the verifying in the wanted sense is obvious.
c. Traction verifying
For q1 = 94,9 daN/m,
⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎛ 1100 ⎞
Ft = l1 q1 ⎜⎜1 − f ⎟⎟ cs = 500 ⋅ 94,9 ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ 1,6 = 65291 daN < Fmax = 450 000 daN .
⎝ ρo ⎠ ⎝ 7850 ⎠
95
a. External pressure calculation
We will consider the casing empty inside, and at its exterior a drilling
fluid with density ρf = 1 200 kg/m3.
Thus
pe = ρf g H cs = 1 200 · 9,81 · 2 200 · 0,85 = 220 bar = 22 MPa.
We pick a tube of 10 ¾ in, 51 # N 80. (of course, next, there can still
be chosen other wall thicknesses or steel qualities; it seems that the cost
prices are not changing substantially, so, for commodity, it can be accepted
only steel with the degree N-80).
p cr 40,4
= = 36,7 ,
1,1 1,1
96
c. Traction verifying
For the dangerous section, from the surface, the maximum traction
force is about 159 331 daN, so way inferior to the maximum traction
resistance value Fmax = 518 000 daN (Fad = 296 000 daN).
We will propose then, for the upper part, a tube with the wall
thickness smaller. Be it 10 ¾ in, 40,5 # N 80 which could be cased up to the
depth (according to the solicitation at external pressure) which results from:
p cr 119
p = = 95,2 bar
ρ f g H ≤ cr (now cs = 1,25), c s 1,25 ,
cs
so
92,5 ⋅ 105
H≤ = 809 m .
1200 ⋅ 9,81
97
- traction: cs = 1,75.
98
7.9.1. Cementing methods
99
Fig. 7.15. The scheme of cementing with 2 plugs [2]
100
− at the exploitation casings, through which will be separated more
productive areas in which impermeable rocks exist;
− in case of high volumes of cement paste, and discharge fluid, that
would lead to a great number of aggregates, self-containers etc., with
a big placement space etc.
In figure 7.16 is presented the principle scheme in the case of stage
cementing (2 stages).
101
The first installment is made analogous with the method earlier
presented.
For cementing the other installments, at certain heights, the casing has
a special female union with ports that close and open with the help of some
plugs (balls) or “keys” (the guiding marks 1 … 4 from figure 7.16). The
staged cementing can be continuous (case above) or with interruptions (in
stages).
Launching the liners is made with the help of the drill string. Between
the lost casing and the string is placed the hanger and the casing launcher
(fig. 7.17). After cementing the liner (always, this is cemented on its entire
length), the drill pipes are withdrawing with the prolonging pipe above the
liner and the paste excess is eliminated, usually by reverse circulation.
In the case of high diameter casings (16 – 30 in), is used, most often,
cementing with drill pipes (fig. 7.18).
102
Fig. 7.17. Scheme Fig. 7.18. Scheme of casings
of liner cementing [1]. cementing through drill pipes
103
two plugs cementing. To avoid the cement paste entering the perforated
zone, the nipple has, on its exterior, a membrane.
From the secondary cementings, the most frequent case is the
cementing through perforations.
104
g. Cement plugs
They meant the cement filling of the well on a length of 100 ÷ 200 m,
at the shoe or above, for:
− temporary or permanent isolation of some inferior layers, for testing
or exploiting the superior ones;
− changing the direction of the borehole at a certain depth;
− preserving or abandoning the well;
− isolating some zones with circulation losses and so on.
In this purpose it is used:
− equilibrium cementing;
− retaining plug cementing;
− bailer cementing.
The equilibrium cementing is the most used methodology. The cement
paste, placed between two plugs, is inserted through the drill pipes or the
extraction pipes (fig. 7.20).
105
Fig. 7.20. Equilibrium cementing [1]
106
ΔV = V αv ΔT, (7.47)
107
A few conditions that must be respected, in order to obtain a good
cementing:
− realization of some boreholes that would admit tubing ratios
(r = (Ds –D)/2) of 20 – 40 mm;
− cleaning and degreasing the casings exterior;
− equipping the casing with distant centralizers, in conformity with the
well caliper and the diagram of the lateral forces born in the casing.
The technological factors refer to: nature and properties of the drilling
fluid displaced and of the cement paste; the nature of the overflush; the
flowing in the annular space, the method and the cementing technology etc.
As a general idea, it is admitted the fact that a good mud displacement by the
cement paste, in the annular space, is obtained with the help of the turbulent
flowing.
108
Fig. 7.22. The final cementing
moment (scheme)
V pc =
4
(
π 2
) π
Ds − De2 k1 H c + d i2 h ,
4
(7.48)
v a + vc = 1
(7.49)
va ρa + vc ρc = ρpc,
109
from where, then,
ρ pc − ρa
qc = ; (7.52)
ρ 1⎛ ρ ⎞
1 − a + ⎜⎜1 − a ⎟⎟
ρc k ⎝ ρs ⎠
qc
q s= ; (7.53)
k
1 ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
va =
ρa ⎢ ρ pc − qc ⎜1 + k ⎟⎥ , (7.54)
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
110
where k represents the rapport, in weight, between the cement quantities and
the added material, and ρs – added material density.
π 2
Vr = d i (H − h ) . (7.55)
4
111
In the main points 1, 2, 3 and 4, the aggregates working pressure will
be:
p1 = pθ + pc1, (7.56)
where the necessary pressure for the friction beating from the circulation
system pc can be calculated, simplified, with the help of the following semi-
empirical relations:
in the case of pumping with mare cementing aggregates (the depth H will be
taken in meters).
112
pc = pce + pci + pm, (7.62)
where: pce is the necessary pressure for beating the frictions in the annular
space;
pci - the necessary pressure for beating the frictions inside the casing;
pm - the necessary pressure for beating the frictions in the cementing
manifold.
There are different calculus relations for pc [1-4].
Then, the necessary pressure for beating the gel resistance in the
annular space
4Hθ
pθe = , (7.63)
Ds − D
4 Hθ
pθi = , (7.64)
di
113
pressure at the lowest speed (the 1st speed) is higher then the cementing
maximum pressure, which means
114
Vi
tc = ∑ + (10 ÷ 15 min ) , (7.68)
Qi
where Vi is the fluid volume pumped with the flow Qi. There have been
added 10 ÷ 15 minutes for the lines washing, connections changing,
launching the second plug etc.
Note: To determine the times Vi/Qi, the graphic from figure 7.23 will
be taken into consideration.
tc
na = +1 , (7.69)
tap
115
ρ pc vsi (Ds − D )
Re× = . (7.70)
⎡ τ (D − D ) ⎤
η pc ⎢1 + 0 s ⎥
⎢⎣ 6 v si η pc ⎥⎦
2
η pc Recr ⎡ η pc Recr ⎤ τ 0 Recr
vcr ≥ + ⎢ ⎥ + . (7.71)
2 ρ pc (Ds − D ) ⎣⎢ 2 ρ pc (Ds − D ) ⎦⎥ 6 ρ pc
Usually,
vcr = 1,5 m/s (the case of anchor columns and the intermediate ones);
vcr = 1,8 … 3 m/s (exploitation casing).
Is made through:
− temperature logging (thermometry);
− acoustic logging;
− radioactive logging;
− leak proof samples (tightness tests).
For example, regarding the temperature logging, there are being made
recordings of the temperature before and after the cementing (fig. 7.24).
116
Fig. 7.24. Cementing efficiency evaluation through thermometry [1]
117
a. Cement paste volume:
V pc =
π
4
( ) π
k1 Ds2 − D 2 H c + di2 h =
4
π
4
( ) π
⋅ 1,1 0,3112 − 0,24452 ⋅ 1500 + ⋅ 0,24452 ⋅ 20 = 48,63 m3 .
4
1800− 1000
q c= 3150 = 1172 kg / m 3 pc ,
3150− 1000
3150− 1800
v a= = 0,628 m3 / m 3 pc .
3150− 1000
π 2 π
Vr = di (H − h ) = ⋅ 0,22452 (2500 − 20 ) = 98,169 m3 .
4 4
118
Notes.
• If a separation plug is placed, with a height in the annular space of hs
= 200 m,. then its volume is
Vs =
4
(
π 2
Ds − D 2 ) hs = (0,3112 − 0,24452 ) ⋅ 200 = 5,8 m3 .
π
4
Mc 59840
nnc = = = 4,98 ≈ 5 .
12000 12000
V pc 48630
Qp = = = 1389,4 l/min = 23 l / s .
tc 35
119
pmax = pc4 + (Hc – h) (ρpc – ρf) g.
Simplified,
so
pmax = 66 · 105 + (1 500 – 20) (1 800 – 1400) 9,81 = 124,07 bar.
2
46 ⋅ 10− 3 ⋅ 2300 ⎡ 46 ⋅ 10− 3 ⋅ 2300 ⎤ 14 ⋅ 2300
vcr = + ⎢ ⎥ + 6 ⋅ 1800 =
2 ⋅ 1800 (0,311 − 0,2445) ⎣ 2 ⋅ 1800 (0,311 − 0,2445) ⎦
0,442 + 1,78 = 2,22 m / s.
120
π 2
Qcr = vcr Asi = vcr
4
( ) π
(
Ds − D 2 = 2,2 ⋅ 0,3112 − 0,24452 =
4
)
3
= 0,0644 m / s = 64,4 l / s = 3864 l/min,
Qcr 3864
na = +1 = + 1 (4 agregate AC − 350) .
Qmax 1158
f. Cementing duration
V pc Vr
Tc = + + (10 ÷ 15 min ) =
Qa naQa
,
98,169 ⋅ 103
= 35 + + 15 = 35 + 26 + 15 = 76 min,
4 ⋅ 926,4
121
Tmax = 1,5 Tmin = 1,5 · 114 = 171 min.
pp < pag,
pint ≤ pia,
122
8
Drilling system
123
8.1.2. Drilling speeds
− instantaneous:
dh
vm = , [ m / h] (8.1)
dt
respectively
H
vm = , [ m / h] (8.3)
Ts
b. Drilling rate:
− bit run:
h h
v0 = = , [m/h] (8.4)
t0 t s + t m
124
− on an interval H:
24 H
v0 = , [m/I day] (8.5)
Ts + Tm
c. Technical speed:
720 H
vt = , [m/IMP] (8.6)
Tp
where:
Tp = Ts + Tm +Ta represents the productive time, respectively:
Ts – drilling time;
Tm – maneuver time;
Ta – the necessary time for measuring the deviation, casing-off,
cementing, layers testing etc.;
I day - installation – day (specific index);
IMP – installation – month – productive (specific index).
720 H
vc = , [m/IMW] (8.7)
Tc
where:
Tc is the calendar time;
Tn – not productive time (technical and organizer stops);
IMW – installation - month - in work.
125
e. Cyclic speed: the time for installing and taking to pieces is also
taken into consideration.
cs + c ff +c i (ts + tm )
cm = , [lei/m] (8.8)
h
C
cm = as + a f + , (8.9)
vo
126
8.2. Mechanical parameters determination
where Gsp is the specific weight, tf/in (Gsp = 0,6 … 2,5 tf/in).
a
Gs = , (8.11)
nb
where the constants a and b have the values from table 8.1 [2].
127
There are different optimization methods of the mechanical
parameters of the drilling system, like: Gale –Woods, Preston – Moore,
Young – Don Murphy, Bourgoyne – Young etc.
8C p 18 C p
Gs min = ; Gs max = , [daN] (8.12)
3 3
10 668 28 448
nmin = ; nmax = , [rot/min] (8.13)
Ds Ds
128
− for productive rocks, a fluid that, through his filtrate will not affect the
rocks permeability (for example, oil based fluids).
π
At = Ds2 , (8.16)
4
129
where Asi is the annular space area in the biggest section (right next to the
drill pipes):
π
Asi = ( Ds2 − D p2 ) , (8.18)
4
and vsi is the minimum flowing speed in the annular space. Orientatively,
vsi = 0,4 - 1,3 m/s.
More precisely, in the case of binghamin fluid, it imposes that the
flowing system in the annular space to be turbulent, so at limit,
ρ f vsi (Ds − D )
Re× = = 2 300, (8.19)
⎡ τ (D − D ) ⎤
η pc ⎢1+ 0 s ⎥
⎢⎣ 6 v si η pc ⎥⎦
from where results the minimum flowing speed in the annular space vsi.
l0 ≤ 6 d0, (8.20)
130
− it is chosen, from the pump flows, a flow Qp bigger or equal to the
minimum technological flow (the corresponding pressure of this flow
is pp);
− it is chosen the jet speed for which, at the wells drilled in similar
conditions, good advancing speeds (most often between
80 – 100 m/s);
− the jet orifices?(bottom-hole choke) area is calculated
Qp
Ad = , (8.21)
vj
4 Ad
dd = , (8.22)
πi
131
pci' = (α1 L p + α 2' ) ρ n g Q p2 , (8.23)
ρ f v 2j
psi = , (8.24)
2ϕ 2
Lp = H – lg; (8.25)
132
Note. In the case of diamond bits, the circulation channels afferent
diamonds cooling, can be assimilated with some chokes, realizing pressure
break-downs of 50 - 80 bar.
For realizing an efficient drilling it is recommended that at the bottom
hole? to ensure a minimum specific power Phsp = 368 W/cm2 (0,5 HP/cm2).
So, the total hydraulic power will be
P hs P hsp At π 2 P hsp
Q= = = Ds (8.28)
ps ps 4 ps
133
There are also known: α1 = 23 s2/m6; α2 = 60 · 103 s2/m5; lg = 150 m;
Lp = 850 m; Ds = 444.5 mm; Dp = 168,3 mm; ρf = 1 200 kg/m3.
Solution.
a. Fluid flow (technological minimum flow Qmin)
To determine the bottom hole washing flow, it is accepted
Qsp = 0,045 dm3/s·cm2, so
Qdeg = Qsp At = 0,045 · π/4 D2s = 0,045 · π/4 · 44,452 =
69,8 dm3/s.
It will be working with 2 pumps 2PN – 1 250 (acc. to table 8.2) with
covers of 7¾ in, at a frequency of 65 cd/min, realizing a flow
134
Table 8.2. Characteristics of the pump 2 PN – 1 250
Covers diameter in 8 7¾ 7½ 7¼ 7 6¾ 6½ 6¼ 6
mm 203, 197 190, 184, 177, 171, 165 158, 152,
2 5 1 8 5 7 4
Pressure bar 156 166 179 193 209 27 247 271 300
Frequency, Training Effective The flow, dm3/s
cd/min power, hydraulic
CP power, CP
65 1250 955 46,2 43,1 40,0 37,0 34,3 31,6 29,0 26,4 23,9
60 1155 883 42,6 39,7 37,3 34,3 31,4 29,2 26,8 24,4 22,2
55 1058 810 39,1 36,4 33,9 31,4 29,0 25,8 24,3 22,4 20,2
50 963 736 35,6 34,0 30,8 28,6 26,4 24,3 22,3 20,4 18,4
45 866 663 32,3 29,8 27,6 25,6 23,8 21,9 20,0 18,4 16,65
40 770 590 28,4 26,4 24,6 22,8 21,0 19,4 17,8 16,4 14,75
35 675 517 24,8 23,2 21,7 20,0 18,5 17,0 15,6 14,3 12,9
c. Chokes area:
Q 86,2 ⋅ 103
Ad = = = 9,58 cm2;
vj 90 ⋅ 100
π 2 86,2 ⋅10 −3
Ad = 3 22 = 9,42 cm , and v j = = 91,5 m/s
4 9,42 ⋅10 −4
135
d. Pressure break-downs in the circulation system
In the bit orifices,
ρ f v 2j 1 200 ⋅ 91,52
psi = = = 55,66 bar.
2ϕ 2 2 ⋅ 0,952
and the pumps pressure, for the covers of 7 ¾ in and the frequency of
65 cd/min is pp = 166 bar, so
pc < pp (OK)
136
9
Technical accidents and difficulties in drilling
(fishing jobs)
137
Drilling cannot continue until the fish or the junk is recovered from
the hole. To recover the lost item, a fishing job is necessary. Special fishing
tools are used for latching on to the fish and hoisting it up to the surface.
There are many types of fishing tools. For example, there is a type of fishing
tool called a junk basket (fig. 9.2), and there is another type called a spear
(fig. 9.3). The junk basket is used for latching on to smaller pieces of junk
(it's used for recovering lost bit cutter, for example). The bottom part of the
basket is a shoe with hard-faced teeth. The shoe has a hole in its centre. The
fish is forced through the hole and enters the barrel of the basket. Spring-
loaded fingers (fig. 9.2) prevent the fish from dropping out of the barrel and
falling back into the well.
The spear is used for recovering lost casings. The spear enters the
bore of the lost pipe. The diameter of the spear, therefore, must be smaller
138
than the diameter of the pipe in the hole. When the spear enters the pipe, its
teeth push out and grip the inner sides of the pipe tightly. Then it is usually
possible to hoist the fish out of the borehole.
Before a fishing job can begin, the string must be tripped out of the
hole. First, the Kelly is broken out and is set in the rathole. Then the string is
broken out in stands and the stands are stood back on the rig floor. When all
of the stands are stood back, the fishing can begin. The toolpusher usually
takes charge of the fishing operation.
139
9.2. Drilling difficulties
140
The rocks with a viscosity-plastic pronounced character are: the clays,
the marls and the salt. It is well known the fact that the lignite, anhydrites,
clays and marls, in contact with the water are swelling and tighten the
borehole walls.
Measurements:
− reducing the free water containment;
− using inhibitive drilling fluid, or drilling fluids based on oil products.
141
friction, gnawing and shattering during the tubular material maneuver (acc.
to fig. 9.4).
g. Circulation losses
In certain situations, the drilling fluid enters the natural or provoked
fissures, in the crossed rocks pores and hollows, provoking the so called
circulation losses.
142
There have been underlined three channels where the drilling fluid
losses appear:
− the thickened formation pores: gravel, sands, moraines;
− natural or artificial fissures;
− dissolving hollows (the case of carbide rocks: limestone,
dolomite etc.).
In principle, drilling fluid losses can occur when the condition
is not accomplished.
But, in the case of subnormal pressures layers, even the layer-well
condition must be re-seen.
It will be written like this:
143
− methods based on the drilling fluid conditioning;
− methods of blocking the rocks channels and leak proofing? the influx
area;
− special drilling methods.
One of the most used methods to block the losses areas is the
cementing. There are, usually, used cement paste with a fast catch, with
different add-ons (cemented clay, blocking materials etc.). In case of some
cavernous areas, there is no longer possible the blocking by placing the
cement paste or other materials that catch or are hardening. In this case, it is
proceeded differently (fig. 9.5). At the inferior part of the string, between
two concentric tubes 1 and 2 a plied sac 3 is introduced, made out of
polyetilenic foliation or from a textile resistant material. When the cement
paste has reached the string`s inferior part, it open the “valve” afferent to the
annular space from its superior side, so that, at a pre-established pressure,
the two tubes will be released.
At the operation`s end, the sac is plied on the borehole wall, releasing
from the drill string, which sets back. The pieces remained in the well are
made from an easy milling material. After the necessary break for
strengthening the cement paste it passes to the milling operation, at an equal
diameter with the borehole diameter. In the case of total losses (catastrophe),
in case of some big caverns, it`s necessary filling the hollows with backfills
with cement or sand balls.
144
Fig. 9.5. Blocking the losses zone by cementing with textile sac [2]:
a – before cementing; b – after cementing
In the zones where the fluid losses are a catastrophe, the drilling
technology on that respective interval is changed, and, after its crossing, a
casings column is cased. Are being used: lost circulation drilling, air drilling,
aerated fluids drilling, mousse drilling, air-lift drilling, local circulation
drilling.
Borehole stucks are the most frequent technical drilling accidents. The
elements that can be stuck are: the bit, the drill string, the casing column,
geological-geophysical investigation instruments and devices.
145
The causes for getting stuck are (the majority we have presented
during drilling difficulties):
− walls breaking (especially in the case of rocks with low natural
cohesion);
− walls shrinking (clays, marls, salt);
− detritus and weighted drilling fluid depositing;
− the bit and rod bushing;
− the bit or rod stuck up: it is produced in case of crossing some rocks
with a high abrasion (during the bit ascending, its diameter is
reducing; so it is formed a tronconic borehole and, when introducing a
new bit, the stuck danger is imminent) or in the deviate zones of the
hole (especially in case of the key seats);
− cement stuck up (in case of forming some cement plugs or liners
cementing);
− soldering the drill string and the casing. Two are the causes in this
case: existence of a big differential pressure borehole – layer and
existence of a filter cake on the well walls with high stickness.
The sided pushing force of the tubular material on the borehole walls
(because the borehole pressure pgs is bigger than the formation pressure pp)
is given by the relation (acc. to fig. 9.6)
where: Ac is the contact area between the tubular material and the well walls:
Ac = φ π D lc ; (9.4)
146
lc – contact length;
D – exterior diameter of the tubular material;
φ – percent from the surface of the tube in contact with the rock;
e – filter cake efficiency;
μ - friction coefficient.
147
occur: accentuation of the stucking, breakings or tear out of the thread from
the string etc.
The first thing that must be done, in case a stucking occurred, is the
circulation control. If it exists, its maintaining is tried; if it misses, is tried
obtaining it (through direct or reverse circulation).
It is established the stucking depth.
The fastest and the easiest procedure is measuring the stretch
produced by a traction force or the twist produced by a known torsion
moment (the last procedure is applicable only in case of the drill string, but
not in casing column).
In the first case, according to the law of Hooke, the specific buckle
ΔL
ε= , (9.5)
Lp
ΔL
Lp = . (9.6)
ε
σ
ε= , (9.7)
E
F
σ= , (9.8)
A
148
so
EA
Lp = ΔL , (9.9)
Ft
ΔL1 − ΔL2
Lp = E A . (9.10)
Ft1 − Ft 2
Similar, if the twisting angles Δφ1 and Δφ2 are measured at two
torsion moments Mt1 and Mt2, the free portion length (the stucking length)
Δϕ1 − Δϕ 2
Lp = G I p , (9.11)
M t1 − M t 2
149
It is often used the stress indicating device (fig. 9.7).
150
Detaches in case of circulation existence
For realizing the petroleum bath, with the help of some cementing
aggregates it is pumped in the borehole a petroleum volume
π
Vp =
4
(D2
s − D p2 ), (9.12)
where
151
The pumping pressure during the operation has the maximum value
when the oil reaches the well sleeper:
where: pc is the necessary pressure for beating the frictions from the
circulation system;
lt – oil column length inside the drill string;
ρp – petroleum density (oil).
The pressure – volume diagram is according to figure 9.8.
After the petroleum press through in the annular space, the drill string
is kept in tension, at a force with 10 - 20 tf bigger than the force came from
its own weight. At intervals of about 30 min the petroleum package is
“moving” through slow pumping, through the string, of a reduced drilling
152
fluid quantity. The beginning of the pick up is marked by the stretching load
showed by the weight index. If after 12 - 18 h the pick was not
accomplished, the petroleum bath can be repeated two or three times.
Note. Besides the petroleum there can be used, with good results,
other products like: oil based fluids, sweet water – with or without tension -
active substances, acid solutions (hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric acid) etc.
The method is also valid in the case when we have circulation, but the
methods previously presented were without results. In this case it will be
made like this:
− the free part of the drill string is detached;
− the space inside the drill string is picked up;
− from the picked up string the parts are picked up and detached.
153
Detaching the free part of the drill string can be made through screw
off, cutting or twist-off.
To ensure a screw-off as safe as possible, the drill string is stretched
with a force equal to the free portion weight. Also, it is recommended the
detonation of a small explosive quantity inside the string, right next to the
joint that will be screwed off.
The rods cutting is made with a circular knife, that actions through the
small diameter extraction pipes or the depth pumping rods.
The twist-off is made through a concentrated explosion (less safe
method).
The pick up off the space behind the strings? is made with a spear or a
washing casing. This is made from many assembled casings (120 ÷ 150 m),
having on the inferior part a pick up head, with the form of a teethed mill,
armed with rough material. When detaching the detached drill string portion,
the spear is re-introduced together with a tap (the drill rod will have in this
case threads left).
Note. The so described procedure is hard and expensive. There is also
the possibility of clothing and recovering the detached portion in a single
run. In this way, in the superior spear part it will be installed a male union or
a completing tap. The detonator must pass right through them.
154
From the non-detachable instruments category belongs the tap (cuts
thread on the interior) and bell socket (cuts thread on the exterior). The tap is
recommended in case of breaking in the jointing area and in case of drill
collars breaking.
The bell socket is recommended in the case of breaking the drill rods
body.
Between the tap and the bell socket is inserted a safety joint (in case
the extraction is not possible, this gives the possibility of detaching the rod
from the instrumentation).
If, after the made investigation, it is found that the strings existence
outside the hole`s nominal perimeter (the salted borehole or the drill string
pushed in the well wall) is necessary bringing the string`s end coaxial with
the borehole. In this way, it is used straighten hook.
Some instrumentation devices are presented in figure 9.9.
155
9.2.3. Solving the technical accidents of the casings columns
156
9.2.4. Extracting metallic pieces from the well sleeper
In case the bit remains at the sleeper, as a screw off result, it is tried
completion through screw on, followed by extraction. If the bit is broken
from the joint, it is tried the pick up with a short tap. In the situations where
the bit can`t be extracted in complete from, it is destroyed through milling.
The metallic pieces found on the well sleeper (bit sheaves, bearings,
pieces escaped from the surface etc.) can be pushed in the well walls with a
fishtail bit, in case of weaker consolidated rocks. If the operation is not
possible, these pieces are extracted.
From the extraction devices category, the most used are the Rodger`s
grab and the magnetic mill. The Rodger`s grab is made out of a casing
portion which has high teeth at the inferior end, with the peaks narrowed al
little bit to the interior (fig. 9.11).
The magnetic mill has a teethed mill at the inferior side, and in the
interior a permanent magnet.
157
Fig. 9.12. Differential pressure sticking (application)
158
● filter cake efficiency e = 0,25;
● hydrodynamic pressure during circulation phd = 7 bar;
● friction coefficient μ = 0,5;
● the force from the drill rod weight Fg = 90 tf;
● the force from the drill collars weight from under the pick up point
Fgg = 15 tf (so the force from the free portion weight Fp = 90 – 15 =
= 75 tf);
● the tension admissible force Fad = 190 tf;
● petroleum density ρp = 890 kg/m3;
● gas density at depth, ρg = 105 kg/m3;
● unitary internal volume of the drill pipes Vip = 9,27 l/m;
● unitary internal volume of the drill collars Vig = 4,56 l/m;
● unitary volume of the annular space alongside drill pipes
Vsip = 62,7 l/m;
● unitary volume of the annular space alongside drill collars
Vsig = 30,3 l/m;
● unitary volume of the annular space alongside the anchor casing
Vsia = 66,1 l/m.
Questions:
1. What traction (compression) must be applied towards 1 925 m to
move the drill string towards the surface (or towards the sleeper)?
2. What immediate measurement can be taken to reduce the drill
string stick up?
3. Will there be a pick up procedure towards the sleeper or towards
the surface? Why?
159
4. What traction, respectively compression will be realized at the
depth of 1 925 m?
5. Determine the necessary petroleum volume for applying a bath.
6. Fluid press through volume.
7. What will happen when the oil volume will reach above the
sandstone reservoir roof? (sandstone reservoir: 1 450 – 1 500 m).
Solution
1. The contact area between the drill collars and the well wall,
according to relation 9.4 (acc. also to fig. 9.9)
The sided pushing force of the tubular material on the borehole wall is
given by relation (9.3):
F1 = Ac (pgs – pp) e μ.
160
In these conditions
As the force from the free portion weight of the drill rod Fp = 75 tf,
results that the necessary traction force to move the rod towards the surface
would be
3. Pick up to the surface attempt. As it was deduced from point 1), the
available force for pick up towards the surface is stranger than the one
available towards the sleeper; plus, a compression appliance is voided from
the point of view of the drill string resistance. Actually, stabilizers lifting
towards the stick up zone represent a favorable factor.
Remark. As specified before, in the case of the “key” holes or a
detritus plug stuck on, it will proceed to the pick up towards “the toe”
(towards the well sleeper).
161
4. The admissible traction force, at the surface, in case of the drill
pipes, is 190 tf. The effective traction in the stick up area will be 190 – 75 =
115 tf (On the other side, as specified before, the theoretical compression
force would be only 75 tf).
which means
162
Fig. 9.13. Necessary petroleum volume for applying the bath
163
To avoid this unbalance, a supplementary oil volume must be injected (acc.
to fig. 9.10):
Observations.
The unbalance created between the string`s interior and the annular
space, in case of using an oil volume of only 58m3, would be
949 (1 150 – 890) 9,81 = 24,2 bar.
The light fluids are applied, as mentioned before, to reduce the
stickness and the frictions between the strings and the filter cake (through
physical and chemical actions it reduces the lateral force F1). As light fluids
are recommended: petroleum, reverse emulsions, gas-oil with lubricants etc.
The borehole situation, when the oil casing reached above the
sandstone reservoir roof, is presented in figure 9.14.
164
Fig. 9.14. The oil volume above the
sandstone reservoir (scheme)
When the oil column reaches above the sandstone gas layer, it can be
written:
165
so pgs < pp = 147,48 bar (Δp = 11 bar).
For the dynamic case, corresponding to the ascending maneuver, for
phd = 7 bar, results an unbalance layer-well of 11 + 7 = 18 bar, so the
immediate danger for an eruptive manifestation.
What will we do?
We must use, first of all, an oil volume less “ambitious”. For example,
for the static case
166
10
Blowout control
1. General aspects
167
Fig. 10.1. Blowout control (P.L. Sandler, 1980)
168
Fig. 10.2. Gas-well blowout (scheme)
Logging the well can provide information which may help to avoid
dangerous situations down hole. Before the logging tools can be run in, the
hole must be clean. If there are any tight spots, for example, it may be
necessary to make a dummy trip before the drill string is pulled out. In a
dummy trip, the string is hoisted only a quarter or a third of the way up; then
it is run back to the bottom again. In this way the bottom hole assembly can
be used to clean up the well and prepare it for logging.
a. During drilling:
− increasing the advancing speed;
− increasing the exit flow;
169
− increasing the mud tank level;
− reducing the pumping pressure, simultaneously with increasing the
pumps courses frequency (due to the annular space fluid density
reduction);
− gasified drilling fluid;
− diminishing the drilling fluid density and so on.
b. During maneuver:
− filling anomalies at extraction;
− anomalies at return, when descending;
− the mud`s exit at derivation when the pumps are shut down etc.
170
p V = ct. (10.1)
p1 V1 = p2 V 2 . (10.2)
ρi − ρ f
Δp = 2,3 log ph , (10.3)
ρf
171
In table 10.1 are presented values of the bottom pressure reduction Δp
for different densities: ρi and ρf respectively different drilling depths Hi:
Table 10.1. Values of the bottom pressure reduction (different densities and
depths)
172
ph + Δp
ρf = (“+ 10 bar” rule) .
gH
173
In a minimum endowment, it is needed a total shutdown preventer
(“on nothing”) and a preventer for shutting down on drill strings and casings.
Usually, to these two is added a so called universal preventer, that can
shutdown the borehole on any drill string, joint, casing, rope and so on – in
the same time allowing the maneuvering and the rotation of the drill string,
thus avoiding its losing. In the case of combined drill string, there will be
used two preventers for shutdown on drill strings. In the case of offshore
drilling, there is an extra preventer with blind rams for rods shearing and
well shutdown.
The eruption through the rod interior is prevented with:
− a superior or inferior kelly cock;
− a safety valve between the rotary swivel and the boring hose;
− a retaining valve, with an unique circulation way, installed alongside
the drill string, most often above the bit.
In figure 10.4 is presented, simplified, a classical scheme: two simple
horizontal preventers, a vertical preventer with sided annular blind ram
(universal) and the eruption manifold.
The preventers are classified on the following criteria:
● after the moving direction of the shutdown elements: horizontal
(with sliders) and vertical (with annular blind ram);
● after the number of shutdowns on a preventer: simple, double and
triple;
● after the blind rams form: plate, oval, cylindrical, annular, tubular;
● after the blind rams action mode: manual, mechanical, hydraulic,
automated (actioned by the well`s fluid pressure) and combined;
● after the blind rams destination: for drill strings or casings, for total
shutdown, for shearing, with sustaining wedges.
174
Fig. 10.4. The scheme of an blow out preventing installation:
I.C. – command installation (accumulator + oil tank + pumps);
P.V. – vertical preventer; P.O. – horizontal preventer
175
11
Directional wells
176
A borehole such as this drilled strait down to a certain depth and is
then deviated away from the vertical in the direction of the target.
A well may also have to be deviated if its direct vertical progress is
blocked (for example, by a fish which cannot be recovered. In a case such as
this, the fish will first be cemented over. Then, by directional drilling, the
fish will be sidetracked and the new section of hole will be continued
parallel to the original (fig. 11.2). At the kick-off point, the hole which is
drilled through the casing is called the 'window'.
177
Fig. 11.3. Production by directional wells
178
On floating rigs, in relatively deep water, the rig floor and the hole are
connected by a flexible riser pipe (fig. 11.5).
The rise column has a sleeve joint in the superior part, and a ball joint
in the inferior part (fig. 11.6).
179
When kicking off, the bottom hole assembly usually consists of a
turbodrill and a bent sub (fig. 11.7). The angle is carefully built up about 1°
to 2° for every 100 meters of hole. During build-up, to make sure that the
angle and direction are correct, the hole is regularly surveyed.
An inclinometer and a camera are run in, through the drill pipe, to
take the required measurements and recordings. For this reason, the collars
above the bent sub are non-magnetic. The survey tools are run on a wire
line. (v. Drilling data handbook).
180
12. Typical setup offshore drilling
181
While excavating, a reduction 2 is assembled on the surface, which is
connected with the template by means of a bayonet system 3, and with the
drill string by threading.
The connection between the template and the platform is made by
the drill string 4 and the temporary cables 5. Before placing the template, a
mobile frame 6 is fitted up, also called temporary frame (actually the
guiding frame), which can be slided along the temporary cables 5, being
actuated by the cables 7. The temporary cables 5, (usually four) are tied by
the template by means of nails 8, that are dimensioned in such a way that
they all stand the weight of the template and in case one of them has to
sustain the template alone they should be able to shear. The whole assembly
is launched until the template reaches the mud level; the reduction 2 is fitted
with nozzles so that, when necessary, the silt is mixed, in order to place the
template on the massive rock MR.
182
Then the drill string is brought to the surface (the reduction 2 is
disconnected from the template just by spinning it) as well as the temporary
metallic frame used for guiding the drilling string so that it does not buckle
under the marine currents’ action (it is brought up to the surface by means of
temporary cables 7). The template is tied to the platform at this time only
with the temporary cables 5.
Usually the diameter of the borehole for the conductor pipe measures 36
in and the depth is of maximum 60 m. The bit has 3 or 4 blades; sometimes the
drilling is started with a 17 ½ in or 26 in bit, then the borehole is extended
until it reaches the desired diameter. The drill string, beginning with the bit’s
insertion, is made by using the temporary mobile frame 6 (cf. fig. 12.2).
Fig. 12.2. The scheme of drilling the borehole for the conductor pipe
183
When the bit penetrates the rock for 2 ... 3 m, the temporary metallic
frame is brought up to the surface. The drilling fluid used is sea water; the
cuttings get out over the template and distributes on the bottom of the sea.
184
Fig. 12.3. The scheme of the conductor pipe casing-off
185
At the same time, the connection between the permanent metallic
frame 3 and the conductor pipe 1, is made by a sustaining ring 7, fitted on
its bottom side with a inclined plane that allows the cementing of the
conductor pipe (the inclined plane has several grooves which allow the
circulation of the cement). After cementing, by spinning to the left the drill
string, it unscrews from the reduction R and is taken out in a guided manner
by means of the supplementary guiding frame 8 on the temporary cable 5
(cf. fig. 12.3).
a. In the casing shoe a row of concentric pipes are installed with the
drill string and the casing. The disadvantage: when run casing, the
cementing pipes and the tubing casing joints have to be handled
simultaneously.
186
b. The cementing method using two plugs (according to the
Halliburton procedure)
Two plugs, d1 and d2 (fig. 12.5), are fixed in the last part of the casing
joint; the plugs are empty inside and have different passing diameters
(D1 < D2). They are tied with the casing joint by means of catch pins
which resist shearing.
The cementing head, assembled on the upper part of the drill pipes 1 is
fitted with a ball b1, that passes the plug d2 but stops in plug d1, and another
ball (plug) b2, that doesn`t pass by plug d1.
Let us follow the diagram pressure – volume when cementing the
conductor pipe using this method (fig. 12.6).
When starting the circulation the aggregate pressure is
p1 = pθ + p c1 , (12.1)
187
Fig. 12.5. The scheme of cementing the conductor pipe according
to the Halliburton procedure:
a) when starting the circulation; b) ball b1 laps over d1 plug;
c) before breaking the catch pins s3; d) after breaking the catch pins s3
After overcoming gel strength,
p 2 = p c 2 = p c1 . (12.2)
188
The ball b1 is set free (fig. 12.5, a), then the cement is pumped. As,
usually, the density of the cement is higher than that of the drilling mud,
there occurs a differential pressure that „helps” the aggregate.
189
l1 being seen in figure 12.5, a.
When ball b 1 reaches plug d 1 the aggregate pressure increases
until the catch pins s1 shears:
p4 = p3 + psupl4 , (12.5)
where psupl4 represents the pressure supplement needed for breaking the catch
pins. When the catch pins are broken, the aggregate pressure becomes
p5 = p3 + pfr5, (12.6)
where pfr5 is the pressure resulted from the remanent pressure between the
plug d1 and the inside of the pipe.
p7 ≈ p6. (12.8)
190
When putting "plug" b2 over plug d2, the aggregate pressure becomes
p8 = p7 + psupl8, (12.9)
where psupl8 is the supplementary pressure needed for breaking the catch pins s2.
Then the aggregate pressure becomes
p9 = p7 + pfr9, (12.10)
where pfr9 represents the pressure due to remanent frictions between plug d2
and the inner part of the casing.
In addition,
psupl11 being the supplementary pressure needed for breaking the catch pins s3.
The cement paste is then passed in the joint pinholes found under ball
b1, to the tubular shoe, in the annular space.
191
When the cementing operation is done, the aggregate pressure is
where
h = L –l1. (12.15)
c. For small diameter casing, the cementing is made by means of the
usual method, with two plugs, without any special changes.
192
Fig. 12.7. The scheme of drilling the borehole for the casing string
193
suspension device. After the cement paste has reached the surface,
reduction male union R is unthreaded, using the left rotation.
The guiding frame 12 is brought to the surface using the cables 13.
Fig. 12.8. The scheme of the casing corresponding to the anchor string
Note. In figures 12.3, 12.5, 12.7 and 12.8 the guiding marks are
maintained.
194
- two connectors: inferior connector 2 is binded to the casing male union
while the superior connector 3 is binded to the montant casing (riser) 4, casing
that connects with the platform (in which case the conductor casing has been
brought to the surface, the riser is no longer necessary, but only a normal
casing);
- above the inferior connector the BOPs are assembled: three BOPs
5 with preventers 5 provided with pipe rams, a preventer 6 (also equipped
with rams), for overall shut down and a vertical Hydrill preventer 7 (some
other times, the usual drilling order is used).
Due to the preventing system rigidity, the link between the superior
connector 3 and the montant casing 4 is made through a spherical
195
articulation 8, that gives the possibility of changing the montant casing`s
position with 100 - 120 degrees. For the same reasons, the link between
montant casing 4 and platform 9 is also made using a spherical articulation
10.
At the surface drilling wells, the shutting of the drilling pipe is
usually found above the overall shutting. The offshore drilling situation is
quite the opposite. The preventers are turned on hydraulically, through
some pressure lines.
The overall shutting preventer is equipped with blind rams which,
in case of necessity, can cut the drill string. In this case, the drilling pipe
preventer is closed, the drill string is cut through the preventer overall
shutting and, for improved (double) security, the vertical Hydril preventer
is also closed, a preventer that can also be an overall shutting one.
If there is time, the drill string is not cut, but we proceed differently.
The drill string is extracted until the combining of the two steps, next to the
preventer 5a, reaches the platform. This link is weakened then the drill string
is re-introduced until the weakened link reaches next to the shutting preventer
5a. The horizontal preventer 5a is then closed on the drill strings, under the
weakened female union (more precisely, which has in it the male union) and
now the drill string from the weakened male union can be screwed off (the
screw off is made in the whole string screwing off direction; the link being
weakened, the loosening will be made, of course, from the afferent zone).
For safety reasons, the vertical Hydril preventer is also closed and, at
this time, the platform can leave the location. There is an important
advantage: the drill string re-completion can be made very easy.
196
12.8. Specific elements to drilling in deep and very deep waters
197
As a consequence of a big number of geological and geophysical
prospects, economically attractive in very deep water regions, most of the
drilling rigs are contracted on long term grounds by different operators in the
complex field of exploration and exploitation of gas and petroleum
reservoirs. The growth of the water depth led to the re-technologization of a
big number of drilling rigs as well as the construction of others. The most
important changes in the construction programs of these wells are related to
both the big depth of waters, as well as the conditions at the bottom of the
well, a hostile environment etc., in which activities are deployed: waves
whose height is over 30 m height; winds that reach 80 knots (148,2 km/h);
air temperatures of -15 °C; the temperature of the sea water under 0 °C;
marine currents of 3 knots (5,5 km/h); the presence of icebergs (in some
regions of Canada, Iceland etc.); the frequent presence of snow, rain or
fog i.e.
In the deep water regions, the drilling activity can be deployed only
by the help of dynamically positioned marine semi-submersible rigs, and by
the help of the drilling ships. As previously mentioned, by the help of
conventional, anchored rigs, drilling in regions deeper than 1836 m was
possible in the Gulf of Mexico. Yet in other parts of the world, the
conditions may be different from the ones in the Gulf of Mexico, and the
presence of bottom currents made the management of riser systems difficult.
In order to maintain the position under the effect of the bottom currents,
more precisely in order to stock the supplementary mud volume, as well as
the supplementary risers that are necessary for the construction of the well,
more and more often large rigs, with a supplementary available power are
demanded.
198
As the operations and the equipment are different from the ones used
in the case of shallow waters, the related regulations, standards and
procedures cannot be directly applied to most of the part of operations
specific to deep waters. The safety of the well and of the operations, as well
as the testing of formations are fundamentally different from the bottom
equipment that is used in deep waters.
Some of the most important activities that need taking into account for
deep water drilling refer to [20-22]:
procedures to prevent and fight against blowout during drilling;
research concerning the growth of material resistance and the
reduction of their weight;
methods of control of hydrates that can appear during the operations
at wells that drill in deep water regions;
methods of control of paraffines for the operations at wells that drill
in deep water regions;
research concerning the integrity of pipes that work in deep water
regions;
modeling the forces that act upon deep water structures and pipes;
behavioral analysis in the case of crude oil pollution and the
assessment measures of bottom blowouts etc.
Most of deep water wells are drilled vertically. At the same time, few
exploitations were developed starting from one single drilling. Due to
economic reasons, the exploitation is expected to be achieved through
directional or horizontal drilling or by means of multiple wells.
Designing drilling in deep water regions cannot be considered a
routine procedure. Many operators consider that drilling in deep waters is
199
more complicated when associated to pressures at high temperatures, as well
as when drilling in equilibrium is required.
This involved employing large teams of specialists, from the planning
stage to the final post-constructive stage, in order to review and re-analyze
the future construction programs.
Designing more wells starts with the activity of geologists and
geophysicians, once they start processing the geo-seismic investigation.
Thus, regions with a good potential are picked up and the future location for
exploration and possible exploitation is chosen.
A big volume of information is acquired in the exploratory stage. This
is related both to the geologic criterion, the drilling itself and the production
cores, and to the information concerning the environment-currents, waves,
wind speed etc. Collecting the data in the exploratory stage leads to saving
important costs in the exploitation stage, even when the future drillings are
placed in faraway regions from the exploration drilling (for most projects,
the cost of exploration drilling represents about 50-60% from the total cost
of the project). The evolution in time of the maximum depths of water for
exploration and production drillings is presented in figure 12.10.
200
Fig. 12.10.The evolution in time of maximum depths of water for
exploration and production drilling [20]
201
other limits, given by the depth of operation we will have to take into
account the remote operated vehicle ROV and the types of risers.
At the same time, once the location is established, we need to analyze
the bottom conditions. Mapping the bottom of the sea and the sediment
measurement are usual for most of the wells. Often, we pick up sediment
cores to design the mooring system and the conductor pipe.
Over years, the formations which are not well consolidated at the
bottom of the sea generated many problems for drilling operators. The
presence of shallow gas must be avoided, although it is not considered as
dangerous as the one for shallow waters.
Another thing that needs to be taken into account is the visibility for
ROV, taking into account the fact that this plays an important role in the
initial drilling stage (open water). The relief of the bottom of the sea must be
inspected also in order to ensure the stability of the wellhead and template.
For depths bigger than 1 100 m, taking cores from the bottom of the
sea through conventional geophysical methods, may be applied, but the risk
of losing different devices is higher.
At the same time, collecting cores from the bottom of the sea in waters
deeper than 1 300 m necessitate using drilling ships for geophysical
measurements.
Especially in the Atlantic Ocean, weather conditions play an
extremely important role in well drilling. In other regions of the world,
weather conditions may be taken into account. For instance, hurricanes and
tropical storms must be taken into account before starting drilling (in the
design stage, supplementary plans for unexpected events are taken into
account).
202
The measurements of the marine currents are necessary in more
drilling operations in deep water regions. Before starting drilling, currents at
different levels are analyzed in order to choose the equipment well.
Monitoring the currents will continue during drilling in order to make the
optimum decisions during drilling operations. At the same time, a complete
profile of the currents must be projected in order to anticipate the stress on
the riser casing and the surface joint casing.
Once the new location for drilling is chosen, the marine life must be
taken into account too. Once [20], an operator consciously delayed the
construction program of the well for 12 months, in order to properly
establish the whale migration in the region where the well was going to be
placed. Of course, these pieces of information must be known before the
drilling rig arrives in its location.
Choosing the rig for offshore drilling is above all time consuming.
The drilling rig must correspond to environment conditions. The costs of
operations on drilling rigs increased a lot, and the re-technologized drilling
rigs do not always represent the best solution.
Well known is the situation [20] in which a drilling rig with dynamic
position was re-technologized in 1996 in order to operate in regions with
depths of water between 900 m and 1500 m. Then, in 1998 the second re-
technologization took place in order to operate at a depth of 1800 m.
Afterwards, other problems appeared, meaning: in order to maintain the
position for the new depths, they needed more supplementary pieces of
equipment. They needed to create the possibility to stock risers at bigger
lengths, to increase the work capacity of tensioning devices, supplementary
power required by the system of dynamic positioning etc. The
supplementary power implies installation of several engines in the room that
203
is destined to them where the space is not enough. Placing the engines in
other spaces implies reducing the space allocated to the temporary
depositing of other pieces of equipment necessary for the development of the
project, as well as changing the characteristics of rig stability.
Consequently, it is recommended that these situations are surpassed
by the help of building semi-submersible rigs or drilling ships with complete
dynamic positioning. The new drilling equipment combines the drilling
technology with testing and reservoir exploitation technologies. The
platforms were equipped with dual drilling rigs, improved riser systems,
performance blowout preventers and equipment, efficient systems to
maneuver the pipes and casing pipes, complex systems to test the wells,
ensuring new possibilities concerning the production, stocking and transfer
of the produced crude etc.
The right choice of the drilling rig implies also the understanding of
its operation limits: maximum limits, operation limits in safety conditions,
de-connecting operations, the limits of operation of the bottom equipment,
anchoring, the work duties on the platform, the limits to launch and recover
the ROV etc.
The operation limits actually indicate the moment in which operations
will be suspended in order to avoid dangerous issues. Once the operation
limits and the data relating to weather conditions are known, we can estimate
the time that is necessary in order to operate. This indicates whether we can
or cannot operate during rough weather conditions.
The operation limits in emergency situations will not be, of course,
surpassed, as long as the safety limits are reached. If the drilling rig reaches
a certain distance from the well center (a declivity of 5° in relation to the
vertical) then the risers are de-connected from the well. Due to safety
204
reasons, the operation limits that require the de-connection of risers from the
well must be known.
The operation limits of the bottom equipment are generally
determined by the depth of the water and the marine currents. It is of course
understood that the equipment projected for water depths of 300 m cannot
operate in regions with water depths of 1 600 m. All limits of equipment
must be known and taken into account during the design stage of the well.
For depths of water of less than 1500 m there is a large number of
drilled wells, therefore a volume of information large enough to design wells
afterwards. Water depths of over 2000 m are taken into account for future
projects. At the same time, designing wells for big depths cannot be
separated from choosing the drilling rig.
205
important influence not only on the mud viscosity, but also on the hydrate
formation during blowouts. The cementing networks must be set according
to the temperature at the bottom of the sea or of the conductor pipe.
Some dangerous elements, such as shallow gas or potential water falls
must be taken into account too in the case of designing the well. At the same
time sediments in the stones at the bottom of the sea, result of the last ice
age, generated several problems in the West of Scotland.
The iceberg formation could be met in the polar regions and the
offshore exploitation from Canada etc.
Once all these details are established, the design of the tubing
program starts. Most projects obey the conventional casing-off schemes.
Designing starts from upwards downwards (starting with the conductor
pipe) for the exploration wells and from downwards upwards for the
production wells. Most exploration and evaluation wells are vertical wells. If
these become production wells, it will be necessary to transform the vertical
exploitation well in a horizontal one, aspect which must be taken into
account in the design stage.
Of course, exploitation of deep water wells must be designed in such a
way as to ensure the maximum production. The tubing dimension
determines the dimension of the casing. Maximizing production and
minimizing the cost may imply making developed horizontal drillings or
multiple wells through a central hole. Most of the drillings done in deep
water regions are based on a common casing-off system.
206
The casing string of 30 in (conductor). Casing-off this casing, made
up of singles with thick walls, in the hole which was drilled at 36 in,
represents the later solution adopted by the majority of operators. A series of
troubles at wellheads, respectively at shallow casings were registered
predominantly in the case of the first drillings in the Atlantic Ocean. The
conductor pipes related to deep waters will take over the bending tasks and
the deformation in the case of deviations from the geometric center of the
well. The conductor pipe, having the maximum length of 150 m, is often
fixed in very soft formations.
207
Eliminating this casing from the well construction program necessitates a
careful evaluation. The reduced fracture gradients can lead to underground
blowouts. For instance, continuing drilling to the final depth with a bit of
12 1/4 in can be an economically convenient option as far as the
investigation and the drilling itself are concerned, yet in the case of a high
pressure reservoir there is a big open hole under the casing shoe of 13 3/8 in,
and this leads to the appearance of underground blowouts.
208
bottom of the sea. Pumping the cement along the water sections may lead to
complications during cementing the casing for deep water wells.
For the control of blowout preventers, the most systems used are the
complex multiplex systems. A panel fixed on the BOP stack, acted upon by
the ROV (remote operated vehicle) allows operating the BOP system in the
case of emergency situations.
Most of the wellheads have 18 3/4 in (or 16 3/4 in from the older
systems, that are equipped with a passing reductions assembly). Optionally,
systems of prevention and fighting against hydrate formation can also be
taken into consideration.
The booster lines, placed on the exterior of the riser casing are used in
order to increase the circulation speed of the drilling fluid in the annular
space of the drill string near the risers.
For exploitation, X-mas trees and production lines are used. If high
tensions appear on the production lines, the resistance to additional stress are
checked, for both the conductor pipes as well as the surface casings. In order
to ensure the precise localization of the wellhead, especially in the case of
using ROV, acoustic transmitters are placed.
Preventing and fighting against blowouts refer, among others, to the
following aspects: using bottom valves (bottom adjustable chokes);
eliminating the gas inside the BOP, after the blowout is over; detecting the
blowout at the moment of the gas presence inside the BOP (this confers the
possibility to shut the well when gas is detected inside the BOP); the time
and pumping rates for the killing of the well etc.
209
Evaluating the reservoirs placed at the level of deep water regions
represents the main objective for the exploration and appraisal wells. In this
sense, all standard methods to collect cores and to make geophysical
investigations may be applied. The procedure to disconnect the risers must
always be taken into account, even while measuring the geophysical data
inside the well. The loggings connected to the drilling fluid must be
correlated with the lag time, which is generated by the reduction of the
circulation speed of the mud inside the riser casing, as well as the possibility
to pump through the booster lines in order to make the respective
correlations.
Testing the wells may be done in special safety conditions only when
we take into account disconnecting in emergency situations. Burning the
produced crude oil and the gas is not always possible, stocking hydrocarbons
and the presence of some pieces of testing equipment must be solved before
starting production tests. The reduced temperatures at the bottom of the sea
may lead to the formation of paraffine or hydrates during testing operations.
At the same time, a complete analysis of the operation that requires
supplementary safety measure must be done.
210
The intervention at an exploitation well implies bringing the drilling
rig in the location and reconnecting the BOP. A workover program, which
usually takes one or two days for a common platform, may last 14 days in
the case of a well situated in deep water regions [20].
The fluids produced by the well must be continuously checked in
order to detect the corrosion products, the solids, the paraffine etc, in order
to minimally reduce the well interventions. Introducing intelligent systems
(smart completions type) was done with the purpose to reduce the
interventions at the well. These systems allow isolating some of the well
sections when the water produced by the reservoir becomes a problem.
At the same time, using some permanent bottom indicators eliminates
the necessity to introduce measurement devices in the well. There are
specialized companies that offer permanent bottom indicators, that allow
workers to monitor the well continuously, by means of permanent recorders.
Using coil tubing in the case of wells drilled in deep water regions is
restricted especially for the wells that are drilled horizontally, near the
productive stratum, due to friction and coil tubing buckling.
On the other hand, the new legislation adopted by some countries (for
instance Great Britain and Brazil), as well as the API standards impose
establishing a special program of abounding these types of wells at the very
beginning, meaning in the design stage of drilling. Recovering the wellhead
and the template needs to be taken into account in the design stage. The
conductor pipe of 30 in can be also cut and recovered.
211
in the hostile environment of the Atlantic Ocean, the minimum material
stocks must be ensured even before starting drilling. The procedures to
prevent and fight against blowouts, disconnecting them in emergency
conditions, the BOP equipment and the entire riser casing must be available
even before drilling. The special operations that imply cooperation of several
working teams presuppose a careful analysis of the operations for each stage
and taking account all the necessary precautions.
212
13. Preliminary Test
213
2. When drilling from a floating rig in an area where shallow gas may
be encountered, many operators prefer to drill the surface hole below the
conductor casing without a drilling riser and diverter being connected to the
subsea low pressure wellhead. Explain the reasoning behind this preference.
214
policy states that “the pressure exerted by the circulation drilling fluid at the
shoe shall not exceed fracture pressure minus 250 psi”.
The annular pressure loss in psi (APL) is governed by the
relationship:
APL2 Q22
= , (13.1)
APL1 Q12
where:
Q1, Q2 are initial and final circulating rates in gallons per
minute (gpm);
APL1, APL2 – the annular pressure losses corresponding to Q1 and Q2
respectively.
Calculate the maximum permissible circulating rate while drilling the
8 ½ in hole, assuming that the mud weight and mud reology remain
constant.
215
9. A final well report states that a “Whizbore” 12 ¼ in PDC (Poly
Cristalline Diamond) bit drilled from 6 000 ft to 8 500 ft at a cost of US$
300 per foot. The total drilling time was 42 hours and the round trip time to
run and pull of the bit at the beginning and end of the bit run was 12 hours.
If the cost of the bit was US$ 75000, what was the day rate cost of the rig
used to drill the well?
10. On inspection, a used joint of API 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, grade S135 drill
pipe was found to have an outside diameter of 4,85 in and an internal
diameter of 4,276 in. What is the maximum tensile load that can be placed
on this joint of pipe if the minimum yield stress of 135 000 psi is not to be
exceeded? Assume that the pipe joint is not subject to any applied torque.
11. a. What is the function of the ball bearing race in a roller cone bit
design?
b. A “button” bit may be used to drill very hard rock. How is the rock
failure achieved with this type of bit what is the typical cone offset?
c. Why should API 8- round and buttress threaded connections not be
used for gas or high pressure oil service?
d. Briefly explain the function of a float shoe used in a string of
casing to be cemented in the hole.
216
a. What is the leak-off pressure in psi at the shoe?
b. With the well closed in, what would be the maximum length of gas
column that could be tolerated below the 9 5/8 in shoe without the leak-off
pressure being exceeded?
Please assume that:
● Any gas influx emanates from the formation at 14 000 ft.
● The formation pressure at 14 000 ft is equal to the mud weight in
the hole plus 0,2 ppg.
● The gas hydrostatic gradient is 0,1 psi/ft.
13. Describe the meaning of the following terms and write a few
sentences on what they are and how they are used, or how they affect the
operation of the related equipment used in surface facilities:
1. Sour oil
2. BS&W
3. Cavitation
4. Gravity structures
5. FPSO
217
14. Key to the exercises
G G
p= = , (14.1)
2⋅ A 2⋅ π D2 − D2
( )
p t
4
where:
G is the drill string load on the hook (300 000 lb);
Dp - outside diameter of each motion compensator piston (we have
two pistons with 10 in each);
Dt - the piston rods diameter (5 in).
So:
G G 300 000
p= = = = 2547,479 psi = 175 bar .
2 ⋅ A 2 ⋅ π D2 − D2
( ) π 2 2
(
2 ⋅ 10 − 5 )
p t
4 4
(1 bar = 0,068948 psi).
1.b. The length L of the drill string hanging on the hook results by
relationship:
G=Lq f , (14.2)
218
where:
G is the drill string load (300 000 lb);
q – the weight in air (24,6 lb/ft);
f – the flotability (buoyancy) factor:
ρf
f = 1− , (14.3)
ρs
G 300 000
So: L = = = 14 392,4 ft = 4 386,8 m .
⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
q⎜⎜1 − f ⎟⎟ 24,6 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ ρs ⎠ ⎝ 65,5 ⎠
219
• depending on the water depth, one can renounce the base plate;
automatically, the links between the platform and the base plate
disappear and therefore the process simplifies.
220
A particular problem which appears when runing in the conductor pipe
is represented by its guidance, handling (rotary table RT and inferior working
bridge IWB). If, while penetrating the massive rock, the conductor pipe
presents a deviation tendency, a device 1 is fixed on the inferior working
bridge, device which will bring the column back to a vertical position.
221
lowered in the water. The lower the pontoons lie beneath the surface of the
water, the less they are affected by wave action. This reduces vertical
movement and allows drilling to continue in moderately rough seas.
Drill ships have a broadly conventional ship's hull, but also feature a
large aperture, known as a "moon pool", through which drilling takes place.
Drill ships can be moved easily between locations. They can carry large
stocks of supplies, but are not as stable as semi-submersibles. The surface
exposes to action of wave and currents are higher.
222
tension that appears at the upper part is done by the management riser
system.
Mo details: The telescopic, or slip-joint is used at the top of a
marine riser and functions as follows:
compensates for vertical movement (heave) of the vessel while
drilling;
provides a means of connecting a bell-nipple, or diverter, assembly to
the riser;
provides fittings for rigid conduit, mud booster, choke and kill-line
hoses to the drilling vessel;
provides attachment of the riser-tensioner system.
A telescopic joint is comprised of an outer barrel attached to the marine
riser assembly and an inner barrel attached to the drilling vessel. The bell-
nipple, diverter, assembly is attached to the inner barrel, which in turn is
suspended from the rotary beams of the rig.
The outer barrel is connected to the top joint of the marine riser and has
connections, either fixed pad eyes or a support ring, for attachment of the
riser-tensioning lines. The stroke length of the inner barrel inside the outer
barrel is usually in the order of 40 to 55 feet, newer systems are up to 65
feet. Tie-downs are provided for holding the telescopic joint in the closed
position, particularly for shipping and when being picked up on the rig.
The inner barrel of a telescopic joint is connected to the riser pipe and
remains fixed with respect to the ocean floor. It is suspended from the
floating vessel by means of the tensioning system. It provides connections
for the rigid conduit, mud booster and kill and choke lines. The upper end of
the outer barrel contains one or two resilient packing elements to provide a
pressure seal around the outside diameter of the inner barrel.
223
Rotative table
2984.9
3 x 27,4m Simple risers: t= 13/16 in
1 x 12,2m
Short risers 2896.5
1x 4,6m
19 x 27,4m 2875.2
Risers with floats
for 610 m depth
20 x27,4m 2354.0
Risers with floats
for 1220 m depth
22 x 27,4m 1805.3
Risers with floats
for 1830 m depth
22 x27,4m 1201.8
Risers with floats
for 2438 m depth
15 x 27,4m 598.3
Risers with floats
for 3048 m depth
186.8
5 x 27,4m
Simple risers: t = 13/16 in
1 x 27,4m 49.6
Simple risers: t = 1 in
22.2
Riser for devices
6m
installations
8,7m 8.7
LBOP 18 in. Wellhead
Datum
Fig. 14.2. The riser stack with the length of 3 050 m: LMRP-Lower Marine Riser
Package (upper BOP stack); LBOP-Lower BOP (lower BOP stack)
224
Where two resilient seals are provided, one can be held in reserve to
be actuated if it becomes necessary to use the diverter system or in case of
failure of the other seal.
225
6. Normaly, we have need of many data about the mud weight,
mud reology etc. for the “rigorous”results…
Simplify:
• The fracture pressure at the 9 5/8 in shoe is:
pfrac = Γf ⋅ H, (14.4)
where = Γf is the fracture gradient and H – the depth of the 9 5/8 in shoe.
So: pfrac = 0,7 ⋅ 7000 = 4900 psi.
• “The pressure exerted by the circulation drilling fluid at the shoe
shall not exceed fracture pressure minus 250 psi”:
pfrc,lim = pfrac – 250 = 4900 – 250 = 4650 psi = 320,6 bar.
• In theses conditions
p h = ρ f g H s. (14.6)
226
• The maximum permissible circulating rate while drilling the 8 ½ in
hole result by relation
APL2 Q22
= , (14.7)
APL1 Q12
where APL1 = 350 psi, APL2 = 467,8 psi and Q1 = 500 gpm:
227
8. The fracture gradient resulting from the overburden of the
sediments is generated by sediment densities greater than seawater
hydrostatic only below the mudline. This results in the fracture gradient, in
equivalent mud weigh terms, being much less than for corresponding depth
below the mudline in shallower water and of course onshore where instead
the column of sea water it is only rock formation.
The maximum tensile load that can be placed on this joint of pipe is:
Ft = σcmin ⋅ A, where σcmin is the minimum yield stress for grade S135
(135 000 psi). So: Ft = 135 000 ⋅ 4,11417 = 555 412,95 lb = 555 412,95 ⋅
0,4448 = 247 047,67 daN.
11.a. Hardened steel ring in which the balls of a ball bearing run
(fig. 14.3). The outer and inner bearings support only the radial load. The
228
ball bearings which retain the cutters on the legs and the thrust spindle resist
the longitudinal thrust loads and provide additional support for radial load.
11.b. The button bit is commonly used in drilling hard rocks and in
coring. The button bit crushes and chipping the rock by compression and
produces relatively fine cuttings.
Much of the rock removal results from the tooth sliding (gouging)
action which is affected by the degree of cone profile and cone offset (fig.
14.4). Harder bits require more tooth contact with the bottom hole and the
teeth must be designed to operate at higher WOB levels in order to
overcome the greater compressive strength of the rock. As a result, the bit
229
teeth become shorter, blunter, more closely spaced, and more numerous as
the intended formation hardness increases.
Hard formations are drilled more effectively by a chipping and
crushing action. Hard formations are stronger than softer formation and
more likely to break. Compared to soft formation designs, harder bits utilize
shorter, blunter, more closely-spaced teeth affixed to less curved and low
offset cones. "Harder" bits are typically applied with higher WOB and lower
RPM.
Bit offset is created by offsetting the bearing journals from a
concentric alignment with the bit centerline. The scraping and gouging
action of softer bits is increased by slightly offsetting the bearing journals
from alignment with the bit centerline. This journal arrangement and
resultant cone orientation is called cone offset. Scraping action increases
with cone offset. A non-offset design produces nearly true rolling action.
230
lengthening of the pin and shortening of the box cause load flanks near the
end of pin to open, so rated working pressures is not high.
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It is necessary to impose: pformation – l ⋅ Γg – (1219,2 – l) Γf – ≤ pshoe.
After : Γg = 0,1 psi/ft = 0,1 0,068948/ 0,305 = 0,0226 bar/m; Γf = ρf g =
1438 ⋅ 9,81 = 0,141 bar/m.
So:
611,96 ⋅ 105 – l ⋅ 0,0226 ⋅ 105– (1219,2 – l) 0,141 ⋅ 105 ≤ 518,7 ⋅ 105;
611,96 – 0,0226 l – 1219,2 ⋅ 0,141 + 0,141 ⋅ l = 518,7;
0,1184 l = 518,7 – 611,96 + 171,9; 0,1184 l = 78,64;
l = 664,2 m = 2 179,1 ft.
13.
1. Sour oil is crude oil containing the impurity sulfur. It is common to
find crude oil containing some impurities. When the total sulfur level in the
oil is > 0.5 % the oil is called "sour". Thus sour crude is usually processed
into heavy oil such as diesel and fuel oil rather than gasoline to reduce
processing cost. The majority of the sulfur in crude oil occurs bonded to
carbon atoms, with a small amount occurring as elemental sulfur in solution
and as hydrogen sulfide gas. Sour oil can be toxic and corrosive, especially
when the oil contains high levels of hydrogen sulfide. At low concentrations
the oil has the smell of rotten eggs, but at high concentrations the inhalation
of hydrogen sulfide is instantly fatal. At higher concentrations, the hydrogen
sulfide can damage the olfactory nerve, rendering the gas effectively
odorless and undetectable, while paralyzing the respiratory system.
A hazard of hydrogen sulfide is its drastic effect on high strength
steel. H2S is soluble in water and produces a weak diabasic acid. This acid is
troublesome to high strength steels and often results in embitterment and
catastrophic metal failure. Some understanding of the physical and chemical
232
action of H2S is vital to the safe and successful handling of this gas in
drilling operations.
2. a) BS&W: bottom settlings (or base sediments) and water.
Downstream of production, the first stage in the refining of crude oil is
usually the separation of BS&W at the tank farm. From here, the oil is
pumped via the crude train to the first column in the refinery system.
b) Abbreviation for basic sediment and water. BS&W is measured
from a liquid sample of the production stream. It includes free water,
sediment and emulsion and is measured as a volume percentage of the
production stream.
3. Cavitation: a) The formation of a cavity between the downstream
surface of a moving body and a liquid normally in contact with it. This can
occur in the case of a pump working at excessive speed, or in water turbines
near the draft tube. It causes corrosion of metal swing to liberation of
oxygen from the water. The accepted terminology for pitting and erosion
caused by the action of cavitation.
b) A localized gazeous conditions that is found within a liquid stream.
The formation of local cavities in a liquid as a result of the reduction of total
pressure.
4. Gravity structures: f.e. gravitational platforms, whose basic
structure is fixed on the bottom of the sea: steel gravitational platforms;
concrete gravitational platforms; hybrid gravitational platforms.
Gravitational platforms are designed in such a way that standing on the
bottom of the sea while drilling and stability in any type of weather
conditions are given by their own weight, not needing connection elements
with the bottom of the sea, as fixed platforms. When this is the case, the
inner area of the basic structure needs to have a big surface so that the
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pressure resulted from the weight of the platform, working on the bottom of
the sea, is lower than the accepted pressure of the rock on site. Concrete
gravitational platforms initially designed for the difficult areas in the North
Sea (the water is deeper than 80 m, the height of the waves is over 23 m, and
the speed of the wind is over 56m/s) and then adapted to other types of seas
and oceans, fall into two categories:
¾ tower gravitational platforms with immersion caisson;
¾ cylindrical gravitational towers.
5. a) “FPSO” stands for Floating Production, Storage and Offloading.
An FPSO system is an offshore production facility that is typically ship-
shaped and stores crude oil in tanks located in the hull of the vessel. The
crude oil is periodically offloaded to shuttle tankers or ocean-going barges
for transport to shore. FPSO’s may be used as production facilities to
develop marginal oil fields or fields in deepwater areas. Some FPSOs are
also capable of drilling; in this case they are termed floating production,
drilling and system off loaders (FPSOs).
b) FPSO: Floating Production, Storage and Offloading. Typically a
tanker type hull or barge with wellheads on a turret that the ship can rotate
freely around (to point into wind, waves or current). The turret has wire rope
and chain connections to several anchors or it can be dynamically positioned
using thrusters. Water depths 200 to 2000 meters. Common with subsea
wells. The main process is placed on the deck, while the hull is used for
storage and offloading to a shuttle tanker. May also be used with pipeline
transport.
234
Selective bibliography
235
13. Avram, L.: Îmbunătăţirea consolidării găurilor de sondă cu diametre
mari, în condiţiile respectării echilibrului strat-sondă-coloană, Teză de
doctorat, Universitatea « Petrol şi Gaze » din Ploieşti, 1993.
14. Iordache, G. ş.a.: Forarea sondelor cu diametre mari, Editura Tehnică,
Bucureşti, 1984.
15. Adams, N.: Drilling engineering, PennWell Publishing Company, Tusla,
Oklahoma, 1985.
16. Iordache, G., Avram, L.: Foraje speciale şi foraj marin (volumul 2),
Editura « Help Ministries România », Ploieşti, 1995.
17. Nguyen, J.P.: Le forage, Editions Technip, Paris, 1993.
18. Coroian – Stoiecescu, C.: Economia petrolului, Universitatea « Petrol şi
Gaze » din Ploieşti, 1996.
19. ∗∗∗ MMS - Mineral Management Service, Agenţie guvernamentală
SUA, 2005.
20. Aid, P., Deepwater well design overview, Kingdom drilling, March,
2001.
21. Helgensen, J.T., Stene, F., Tennessen, R., Cementing in low temperature
enviroment, shallow water flows, and hydrates, Offshore magazine,
September, 2000.
22. Furlow,W., Riser development guidelines example of need for
standardization in deepwater, Offshore magazine, September, 2000.
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