UNIT 3: CLIMATE - Microclimate – SITE PLANNING & SURVEYING

The climate of an area is determined by numerous factors such as temperature, precipitation, fog, and wind;
"the sum total of atmospheric conditions that influence plant growth and development." It is also influenced by
the area's latitude and longitude, topography, and position relative to large bodies of water. Climates have
different levels of influence; there are regional climates, local climates, and microclimates.

Microclimates are, dependent on regional and local climate regimes, but are determined most specifically by
properties of the vegetation and soil, on the time it has taken the ecosystem to develop. Each specific site has
its own unique climatic characteristics that need to be analyzed. The climatic aspects of the specific site or
areas on the site are called the microclimate

DEFINITIONS

Temperature - dry-bulb temperature.

Humidity - expressed as relative humidity or absolute humidity, or the web-bulb temperature or dew-point
temperature may be stated, from which the humidity can be deduced.
Air movement - both wind speed and direction are indicated.
Precipitation - the total amount of rain, hail, snow, dew, measured in rain gauges and expressed in mm per unit
time (day, month, year).
Cloud cover - based on visual observation and expressed as a fraction of the sky hemisphere (tenths, or 'octas'
= eights) covered by clouds.
Sunshine duration - the period of clear sunshine (when a sharp shadow is cast), measured by a sunshine
recorder which burns a trace on a paper strip, expressed as hours per day or month.
Solar radiation - measured by a pyranometer, on an unobstructed horizontal surface and recorded either as the
continuously varying irradiance (W/m2), or through an electronic integrator as irradiance over the hour or day.

CLIMATE ELEMENTS

1. Sun - The sun's movement on the site has to be assessed. Existing elements (natural or man-made) on and
around the site will have definite shading patterns. Understanding those patterns can help in determining the
building location and configuration.

2. Wind - Wind at the site and at different locations on the site can vary from the general wind data given for
the area. There are five basic principles of air movement: velocity, direction, pressure, density and the
venturi effect.

- First, as a result of the friction, air velocity is slower near the surface of the Earth. The cause of this reduction
in velocity is the roughness of the ground, including contour changes and vegetation configuration. Ground
wind velocities measured at the site are frequently much lower than those measured at the top of an airport
tower. Likewise, exposed sites or buildings at altitudes higher than the airport tower are likely to experience
much higher wind velocities.

- The second principle is that air tends to continue moving in the same direction when it encounters an
obstruction. As a result it tends to flow around objects like water flows around a rock in a stream, rather than
reflecting off the objects.

- Third, air flows from high-pressure to low-pressure areas. For example, cross ventilation is created by a
positive pressure being built up on the windward side of a structure and a negative pressure being created on
the leeward side.
- The fourth principle of air movement is convection, which involves the temperature and density of the air.
For example, air flowing from a forested area to a meadow will tend to rise because air in the meadow is
exposed to more solar radiation, making that air less warmer and dense

- And finally, when the air flow is channelled and restricted, the pressure rises and the velocity increases. This
is called the venturi effect

The wind pattern near large bodies of water is generated by the heat gain, heat loss, and heat storage variations
between land and water. Water will have more stable temperatures. The wind is usually moving toward the
land during the day when the land is heating up faster than the water and when the water is absorbing solar
heat. At night the direction is reversed, with the breezes flowing from the land, as it cools, to the water, as it
radiates stored heat to the night sky

In valleys, the wind moves uphill during the day as the sun warms the air, causing it to become less
dense. At night, air flows back down the valleys like a river, as it cools and becomes heavier. Pockets or lakes
of this cool night air can be damned just as water can. This kind of wind pattern is similar to fog that forms in
the cool air pockets

One of the more important principles for ventilation is that high pressure and low pressure areas develop
around an object that obstructs the path of air flow. Some of the aerodynamic principles that result are that the
windward side usually creates a high pressure area as air stacks up and attempts to move around the object,
creating a cavity of negative pressure (low pressure area) on the leeward side of the object. The velocity of air
movement increases as it rushes around and over an object, and it can also create a dead air space on the
leeward side of the object.

3. Humidity - Sites located near large bodies of water or rivers tend to be more humid than inland areas. Wind
direction also affects humidity. Downwind from the water is more humid than up wind. Vegetation will also
increase moisture in the air.

4. Temperature - The microclimate temperatures of the site may be different from the general data collected
at the airport and can vary significantly at the site. Again, large bodies of water will tend to stabilize
temperatures on the land adjacent to them. Through evapotranspiration, trees and other vegetation cool the air
around them. A moist lawn is 10° to 15°F cooler than bare soil and 30°F cooler than unshaded asphalt. The
shade temperature of a large tree can be 10° to 15°F cooler than the unshaded lawn during a summer day.

Sites with a more southern slope will be warmer than a flat site because radiation from the sun is more
perpendicular to its surface. Likewise, a northern sloping site would not receive as much radiation and would
therefore be cooler.

Factors Affecting Climatic Design

The local micro-climate and site factors will affect the actual environmental conditions of the building. The
important site-related factors should be considered when making the climate analysis:
 Topography - elevation, slopes, hills and valleys, ground surface conditions.
 Vegetation - height, mass, silhouette, texture, location, growth patterns.
 Built forms - nearby buildings, surface conditions.
Major thermal design factors to be studied include: solar heat gain, conduction heat flow and
ventilation heat flow. The design variables in architectural expression that are important will include:
 Shape - surface-to-volume ratio; orientation; building height.
 Building fabric - materials and construction; thermal insulation; surface qualities; shading and sun
control.
 Fenestration - the size, position and orientation of windows; window glass materials; external and
internal shading devices.
  Ventilation - air-tightness; outdoor fresh air; cross ventilation and natural ventiation.
CLIMATIC ANALYSIS

SUN & SHADE ANALYSIS

1. Solar paths requiring shade

Studying the sunpath diagram for each climatic zone, the shaded areas represent the periods of overheating,
related to undesirable solar gain. In the lower latitudes there is total overheating, whereas in the higher
latitudes overheating only occurs during the summer months.
2. Sunshade analysis (vertical and horizontal)
The diagrams show the optimum location of vertical sun shading, shielding the building from low sun angles
in the morning and evening, and horizontal sun shading blocking the high midday sun. Tropical regions need
both vertical and horizontal shading throughout the year. In higher latitudes, horizontal and vertical shading is
only needed during the summer on the south-facing sides of buildings.
3. Insolation
The sunpath becomes more southerly as we move north, changing from a 'bow-tie' pattern near the equator to a
heart-shape pattern in the temperate zones.
4. Sun requirements during winter
There are obviously seasonal variations near the equator. Solar heating becomes more important than in the
upper latitutdes. Beginning at the equator and moving north, the need for solar heating increases while the
need for solar shading dimishes.
WIND ANALYSIS
1.Wind direction
Desirable and undesirable winds in each the climatic zones depend largely on local conditions. Any breeze in
the lower latitude (tropical and arid climates) is beneficial for most of the year whereas in higher latitudes
most wind is determental and has to be screened. There is also a small percentage of the time in a year (spring
and/or autumn) when comfortable conditions can be achieved naturally, without any need for wind screening
or additional breezes.
 2. Cross ventilation
Cross ventilation is far more important in the tropics
than in temperate zones. The theoretical strategy for
blocking or inducing wind flow into a building is based
on local prevailing wind conditions.
Generally, for the tropical zones as much ventilation
as possible is desired. For the arid zone cross
ventilation is required, but care has to be taken to filter
out high-velocity winds. In the temperate zone, cross
ventilation and shielding are both necessary (for
summer and winter, respectively). In the cool region,
the building should be protected from cold, high-
veolcity winds, although cross ventilation is still
required.
HUMIDITY, RAINFALL AND SEASONAL
VARIATIONS
1. Annual Average Relative Humidity
The curve on the left represents the annual average
relative humidty in the four climatic zones. In the arid
zone, the low level of humidity can be beneficial for
evaporative cooling. In the tropical zone the high level of humidity can be very uncomfortable.
2. Annual Average Rainfall
The middle curve represents the annual average rainfall in the four climatic zones. Rainfall level can be seen
to have a direct relationship with humidity levels.
3. Annual Seasonal Variations
The distance of the angled line from the vertical represents the annual seasonal variations in the four climatic
zones. Higher latitudes, the cold and temperate zones, have pronounced seasonal variations. The lower
latitudes have constant climates throughout the year.
INFLUENCES ON BUILT FORM
1. Zoning for transitional spaces
The black areas represent the traditional spaces used for lobbies, stairs, utility spaces, circulation, balconies
and any othe areas where movement take place. These areas do not require total climatic control and natural
ventilation is sufficient. For the tropical and arid zones, the transitional spaces are located on the north and
south sides of the building where the sun's penetration is not as great. An atrium can also be used a transitional
space. In temperate and cool zones the transitional spaces should be located on the south side of the building to
maximize solar gain.
2. Zoning for solar gain
The black areas are spaces that can be used for solar heat gain. They follow the varying path of the sun in each
of the climatic zones: in the tropical and arid zones the east and west sides; in the temperate and cool zones the
south side.
3. Use of atrium
The diagram show the optimum position for atrium spaces in each building form in each of the climatic zones.
in the tropical zone the atrium should be located so as to provide ventilation within the built form. In the arid
zone the atrium should be located at the centre of the building for cooling and shading purposes. For the cool
and temperate zones the atrium should be at the centre of the building form for heat and light.
4. Potential of roof/ground floor as useable exterior space
The distance of the angled line from the vertical represents the potential of each zone's roof and ground planes
to be used a exterior spaces. In tropical and arid climates there is a high potential to make use of all external
spaces, whereas moving towards the northern latitutdes the external spaces have to be covered to be used.
OTHER ASPECTS – BUILT FABRIC
1. Form
The diagrams show the optimum building form for each climatic zone. Research has shown that the preferred
length of the sides of the building, where the sides are of length x:y, are:
tropical zone - 1:3
arid zone - 1:2
temperate zone - 1: 1.6
cool zone - 1:1
Analysis of these ratios shows that an elongated form to minimize east and west exposure is needed at the
lower latitudes. This form slowly transforms to a ratio of 1:1 (cylindrical) at the higher latitudes. This is a
direct response to the varying solar angles in the various latitudes.
2. Orientation
Orientation as well as directional emphasis changes with latitude in response to solar angles.

3. Vertical cores and structure

The arrangement of primary mass can be used as a factor in climatic design as its position can help to shade or
retain heat within the building form.
For the tropical zone, the cores are located on the east and west sides of the building form, so as to
help shade the building from the low angles of the sun during the major part of the day. In arid zone, the cores
should also be located on the east and west sides, but with major shading only needed during the summer.
Therefore, the cores are located on the east and west sides,but primarily on the south side.
 The arrangement of the primary mass in the temperate zone is on the north face, so as to leave the
south face available for solar heat gain during the winter. The cool zone requires the maximum perimeter of
the building to be open to the sun for heat penetration. Therefore the primary mass is placed in the centre of
the building so as not to block out the sun’s rays and to retain heat within the building.

URBAN MICROCLIMATES
Urban microclimates are complex because of the number and diversity of factors which come into play. Solar
radiation, temperature and wind conditions can vary significantly according to topography and local
surroundings. In addition, layout density can provide further constraints: the precise plot division, the need for
access and privacy, and the noise and impact of atmospheric pollution must all be taken into account.

In winter, most urban microclimates are more moderate than those found in suburban or rural areas. They are
characterised by slightly higher temperatures and, away from tall buildings, weaker winds. During the day,
wide streets, squares and non-planted areas are the warmest parts of a town. At night, the narrow streets have
higher temperatures than the rest of the city. In summer, green spaces are particularly useful in modifying the
environment during the late afternoon, when the buildings are very hot inside.

Strong local winds can modifiy the temperature distribution described above. Usually winds in towns are
moderate because of the number and range of obstacles they face. However, a few configurations such as long
straight avenues or multi-storey buildings can cause significant air circulation. Tall buildings rising above low-
rise building can create strong turbulent wind conditions on the ground as the air is brought down from high
levels. Strong winds can flow through gaps at the base of tall buildings. To protect pedestrians from this, the
turbulent flow has to be prevented from descending to street level, for example by modifying the building
form or by using wide protective canopies. In semi-open areas, adjacent buildings can be used as protective
screens against some winds.( www.arch.hku.hk/%5C%5C~cmhui/teach/65156-7.htm by C DATA)