1

CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Demand for electrical power has become one of the major

challenges faced by the developing countries. Considering the relatively

low per capita power consumption, there is a constant need for power

capacity addition and technological upgradation whereas non-

conventional energy systems have proved to be good alternative sources

for energy. In developing countries like India most of the additional

power has been met by conventional electric sources. Hence, the

emphasis has shifted towards improving the reliability of transmission

and distribution systems and ensuring that the innovations are not

harmful to the environment.

Air insulated power transmission and distribution substations

suffer variations in the dielectric capability of air to withstand varying

ambient conditions and deterioration of the exposed components due to

oxidization and the corrosive nature of the environment. The size of the

sub-station is also substantial due to the poor dielectric strength of air.

In order to enhance the life and reliability of a power transmission and

distribution sub-station, it is desirable to protect the sub-station

components from a corrosive and oxidizing environment. Metal

encapsulation of the sub-station elements provides a simple and effective

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solution to the problem of durability of the substations. The use of a

busduct, with pressurized nitrogen gas, is a good example of devices with

metal encapsulation used in power sub-stations. The size of the container

is a direct function of the dielectric strength of the insulating medium.

The container/enclosure sizes are thus large with a poor insulation like

air or nitrogen.

The use of a gaseous medium with higher dielectric strength like

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) Instead of air helps in manifold reduction in

the size of the sub-station component. The grounded metal

encapsulation, on the other hand, makes the equipment safe, as the live

components are no longer within the reach of the operator. The electric

field intensity, at the enclosure surface, is reduced to zero as the

enclosure is solidly grounded. Using this design philosophy, sub-

station/switchyard equipment, like circuit breakers, disconnector,

earth switches, busbars and instrument transformers (both current and

voltage), have been metal-encapsulated or metal-enclosed and pressurized

with SF6 since 1968. The assembly of such equipment at a sub-station is

defined as Gas Insulated and Metal Enclosed System (GIMES) by the

International Electro technical Commission (IEC). The equipment is

popularly known as a Gas Insulated Sub-station (GIS) system. The term

GIS is also sometimes used to refer to Gas Insulated Switchgear [1].

Rapid urbanization and overgrowing population is making the task

of expanding transmission network very difficult due to right of way

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problem and limited space availability. In addition, conventional air

insulated substations have many problems such as pollution by salt or

dust, meteorological difficulties, safety etc. Hence, there is a need to

replace the conventional transmission lines and substations with

underground cable and Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) to overcome the

above problems. Due to its many advantages, most of the utilities and

industrial units are opting for Gas Insulated Substations [2].

In this context, Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) have found a broad

range of applications in power systems for more than two decades

because of their high reliability, easy maintenance and small ground

space requirement etc. In our country, a few GIS units have been in

operation and a large number of units are under various stages of

installation. Although, GIS has been in operation for several years, some

of the problems need full attention. These problems include generation of

over voltages during switching operations like enclosure faults and

particle contamination.

The introduction of SF6 gas has revolutionized not only the

technology of circuit breakers but also the layout of substations. The

usefulness of SF6 gas is mainly due to its High dielectric strength, unique

arc quenching ability and Good thermal stability and conductivity.

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is a man-made gas that became commercially

available in 1947. Now a days, it is one of the most extensively and

comprehensively studied molecular gases largely because of its many

 4

commercial and research applications. Besides the use of SF6 by the

electric power industry, other uses include: semiconductor processing,

blanket gas for magnesium refining, reactive gas in aluminum recycling

to reduce porosity, thermal and sound insulation. Its basic physical and

chemical properties, behavior in various types of gas discharges, and

uses by the electric power industry have been broadly investigated [3-7].

In its normal state it is chemically inert, non-toxic, nonflammable, non-

explosive and thermally stable (it does not decompose in the gas phase at

temperatures T<500C). Because of its relative inertness and nontoxic

characteristics, it is generally assumed to be an environmentally safe and

acceptable material in the sense that it does not interact unfavorably

with the biomass.

Sulphur hexafluoride exhibits many properties that make it

suitable for equipment utilized in the transmission and distribution of

electric power. SF6 is a strong electronegative (electron attaching) gas

both at room temperature and at temperatures well above ambient,

which principally accounts for its relatively high dielectric strength and

good arc-interruption properties. The breakdown voltage of SF6 is nearly

three times higher than that of air at atmospheric pressure [8].

Furthermore, it has good heat transfer properties and it readily reforms

itself when dissociated under high gas pressure conditions in an

electrical discharge or an arc (that is, it has a fast recovery and is self-

healing). Most of its stable decomposition byproducts do not

 5

significantly degrade its dielectric strength and are removable by filtering.

It produces no polymerization, no carbon, or other conductive deposits

during arcing and is chemically compatible with most of the solid

insulating and conducting materials used in electrical equipment at

temperatures up to 2000 C.

Besides its good insulating and heat transfer properties, SF6, when

contained has a relatively high pressure at room temperature. The

pressure required to liquefy SF6 at 21oC is about 2,100 KPa [6,9,10]; its

boiling point is reasonably low - 63.8oC, and allows pressures of 400 KPa

to 600 KPa to be employed in SF6-insulated equipment. It is easily

liquefied under pressure at room temperature, allowing for compact

storage in metal cylinders. It presents no handling problems, is readily

available, and is reasonably inexpensive. The current price of SF 6 for

quantity purchases is about 1.2 lakh per cylinder of 50kg. The electrical

industry has become familiar and experienced in using SF6 as electrical

equipment.

However, SF6 has some undesirable properties: it forms highly

toxic and corrosive compounds when subjected to electrical discharges;

nonpolar contaminants, e.g., air, CF4, are not easily removed from it; its

breakdown voltage is sensitive to water vapour, conducting particles, and

conductor surface roughness; and it exhibits non-ideal gas behavior at

the lowest temperatures that can be encountered in the environment,

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i.e., in cold climatic conditions (about-50oC), SF6 becomes partially

liquefied. Sulphur hexafluoride is also an efficient infrared (IR) absorber,

and due to its chemical inertness, it is not rapidly removed from the

earth’s atmosphere. Both these latter properties make SF6 a potent

greenhouse gas, although due to its chemical inertness (and the absence

of chlorine atoms in the SF6 molecule) it is benign with regard to

stratospheric zone depletion.

Contamination by metallic particles in compressed gas insulated

power transmission line equipment is commonly encountered. The

insulation strength of GITL apparatus deteriorates mainly depends on

particle shape, size and location .Due to an exceptional combination of

physical and chemical properties, SF6 has become an indispensable

insulation and switching medium for electric power transmission and

distribution equipments, in which it has been successfully used for more

than three decades. However, SF6 turned out to be strong green house

gas this prompted an intense search for equivalent substitution gases

with the disappointing results that the 'second best' gas suited for

electrical equipment would be Air. As Air has a much lower functional

performance than SF6, it would acquire a complete and much larger

redesign of the equipment, entailing the use of more materials and

correspondingly increased environmental impact. The best response to

the concerns regarding the possible impact of SF6 on global warming is to

prevent the release of SF 6 into the environment. A way to achieve this

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goal is to use alternative environmentally more acceptable gaseous

dielectrics. The search for SF6 substitutes traces back many years. Its

aim recently has been shifted from finding gases/mixtures "superior" to

SF6 to finding gases / mixtures that are comparable in dielectric strength

and performance to SF6 but are environmentally acceptable.

Generally, there are four major types of electrical equipment that

use SF6 for insulation and/or interruption purposes: Gas Insulated

Substations, Gas Insulated Circuit Breakers, Gas Insulated Busduct /

Gas Insulated Transmission Lines and Gas Insulated Transformers. It is

estimated [11-13] that for these applications the electric power industry

uses about 80% of the SF6 produced worldwide, with circuit breaker

applications accounting for major component of power transmission and

distribution systems all over the world, and it employs SF6 almost

exclusively. It offers significant savings in land use, is aesthetically

acceptable, has relatively low radio and audible noise emissions, and

enables substations to be installed in cities very close to the loads.

The increased application of SF 6 in Gas Insulated Switchgears /

Substations (GIS), Gas Insulated Cable, electrical accelerators and X-ray

equipment etc. have led to growing concern for investigating the

mechanism of SF6 decomposition and the effects of decomposition

products. In the presence of corona (PD), spark breakdown and electric

power arc, SF6 decomposes into lower oxy-fluorides of Sulphur. These

 8

may react with the electrodes or gas impurities or other solid dielectrics

to form a number or chemically active products. Although SF6 is

chemically inert and nontoxic, the decomposition products of SF6 are

known to be toxic and corrosive. The accumulation of decomposition

products tin the equipment has caused concern regarding personal

safety and material compatibility.

The decomposition of SF6 is greatly influenced by gaseous

impurities. In industrial grade of SF 6 the typical impurities are CF 4, N2,

O2 (air) and H2O. The gaseous impurities are generally introduced during

filling and partly due to the decomposition of moisture into the dry SF6

after filling. A survey of major North America utilities revealed that the

average air concentration in SF6 compartments is 500ppmv (parts per

million volt) and the average moisture content is about 500ppmv. In

practical, GIS environments having the presence of such impurities are

unavoidable.

The Various modules of GIS are factory assembled and are filled

with SF6 gas at a pressure of about 0.3 (Mega Pascal's (MPa)) to 0.6 MPa.

They are taken to site for final assembly, such substations are compact

and can be installed conveniently on any floor of a multi-stored building

or in an underground substation. As the units are factory assembled, the

installation time is substantially reduced. Such installations are

preferred in cosmopolitan cities, industrial townships, etc., where cost of

land is very high and higher cost of SF6 insulated switchgear is justified
 9

by saving due to reduction in floor area requirement. They are also

preferred in heavily polluted areas where dust, chemical fumes and salt

layers can cause frequent flashovers in conventional out door air

insulated substations.

A Gas Insulated Switchgear is a compact, multi component

assembly enclosed inside a grounded metallic encapsulation, which

shields all energized parts from the environment. GIS are available

internationally, covering the complete voltage range from 11 kV to 800

kV. The thermal current-carrying capacities and the fault-withstanding

capabilities are tailored to meet all the sub-station requirements. More

than 100,000 GIS bays have been in service all over the world since the

introduction of such sub-station systems in the transmission and

distribution field.

Various circuit components in main circuit are Circuit Breakers,

Busbars, Isolator earthing switches for conductors, Current

Transformers, Disconnecting switches, Voltage Transformers, Cable

ends, Gas supplying and gas monitoring equipment, Earth Switch,

Densimeters and Local control. The various modules are connected in

accordance with the single line diagram shown in Fig. 1.1

As one is aware of the attractive features of a Gas Insulated

Substation (GIS), they also suffer from certain drawbacks. One of them is

the outage due to seemingly innocuous conducting particles, which

accounts for nearly 20% of the GIS failures [14]. Flash over in a GIS is, in
 10

general, associated with longer outage times and greater costs than in a

conventional air insulated substation. A conducting particle can short-

circuit a part of the insulation distance, and thereby initiate a

breakdown, especially if electrostatic forces cause the particle to bounce

into the high field region near the high voltage conductor[15].

It is well known that the presence of particles in a compressed gas

insulated system can deteriorate its electrical performance. These

particles may result from mechanical abrasions and damage the system

as well as the enclosure during assembly. The particles may either be

insulating or conducting. They may be free to move under the influence

of the applied field or may be fixed on the electrodes in the form of a

protrusion or electrode surface roughness [16].

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Some investigations [3,4] have involved the calculation and

measurement of particle lift off stresses, flash over levels and evaluation

of the type and pressure of gases, and the motion of particles under the

influence of direct, alternating and impulse voltages. All studies agree

that conducting particles can drastically influence the dielectric strength

of SF6, reducing it as low as 10% of the uncontaminated value [16].

Lahari et al reviewed the electrical performance of gases under particle

contamination. It is very difficult to predict the magnitude of the

reduction in the breakdown voltage as it depends on the stress level, the

 11

type and polarity of voltage applied, the electric field, the type and

pressure of gas insulation and above all, the shape and the size of the

particle contaminant.

Several authors conducted experiments on insulating particles.

Insulating particles are found to have little effect on the dielectric

behaviour of the gases [5-9]. However the presence of atmospheric dust

containing conducting particles, especially on the cathode, reduces the

breakdown voltage. Bolloud et al. [17] showed that currents of the order

of 10-8A have been observed to flow in uniform fields in SF6 in the

presence of these dust particles. On the other hand, the breakdown

voltage of SF6 is highly reduced [18] in the presence of conducting

particles especially at high pressures. In addition, depending on the

shape of particles as well as the geometry and voltage level of the system,

the particle gets more or less influenced by the electric field, which in

turn makes it hazardous to the electrical system. The type of gas is found

to influence the particle motion in a gas insulated system containing free

particles. The modes of motion and the necessary stresses for the particle

motion are different in different gases.

A.Diessnner and J.G.Trump [9] first reported the movement of

particles in SF6 and N2 mixtures and showed that the type of particle

movement depends on both the gas insulation and polarity of the non-

uniformity.
 12

The free conducting particles become charged and oscillate

between the electrodes under the influence of the applied field. As a

charged particle approaches an electrode, it loses the charge to the

electrode through gas micro discharges. The motion of the particle is

different under dc, ac and impulse voltages. The investigations of

Cookson [5] revealed that the reduction in the break down voltage is

especially more severe under dc applied voltage than under ac or impulse

voltages. It was also observed that the reduction in the break down

voltage in the presence of the particles under dc voltages is more

pronounced in uniform fields than in non-uniform fields.

Conducting particles placed in a uniform ac field lift-off at a certain

voltage. As the voltage is raised, the particles assume a bouncing state

reaching a height determined by the applied voltage. With a further

increase in voltage, the bounce height and the corona current increase

until break down occurs [10]. The lift off voltage is independent of the

pressure of gas. After the onset of bouncing, the offset voltage is

approximately 30% lower than the lift-off voltage.

Metallic fillings on the inner conductor of a co-axial line cause a

reduction in the impulse break down voltage. According to studies made

by Kuwahara et al. [10] using copper particles of diameter less than

30 m decreases the impulse break down voltage by 22% and 8% under

negative and positive polarities respectively in a uniform field. The

negative flash over voltage is lower than the positive flash over voltage[5].
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Chathan M. Cooke et al [19] discussed High-voltage breakdown

measurements made in two similar particle contaminated coaxial test

systems, one with AC and the other with DC voltages. Information is

presented on the effects of particle size, shape, and material for both SF6

and N2 gases at pressures up to 15 atm in a plain coaxial gap and a

coaxial gap including a post-type support spacer. Particle motion and

location were found to strongly influence insulation performance.

Measured values of electric fields which lifted and drove the particles, so

that they bounced vertically and laterally, compare favorably with

calculated levels. Movement into the higher stress region at the center

conductor was correlated with the initiation of spark over. These

breakdowns could be at levels more than a factor of five lower than those

obtained when contamination was not introduced. Large variations in

breakdown voltage of as much as 3 to 1 encountered under DC

correspond to conditions where particle motion could be restricted,

presumably by corona discharge, to motion near the outer electrode. AC

spark over levels were typically at the lower limits of the DC range. Both

free and attached particles on the dielectric spacer surface would trigger

flashover at the same low levels as were measured in the gas gap.

A. K. Chakrabarti et al [20] observed the influence of freely moving

wire particles on 60 Hz ac surface flashover of epoxy and acrylic disk

spacers in a 76/250 mm coaxial system is examined in sulphur

hexafluoride gas at pressures of 300 and 500 kPa. The experimental

 14

results show that 0.45 mm diameter aluminum wire particles, 6.4 mm

long, will lift and reach a nearby spacer at voltages comparable to system

operating voltage.

Utility demands systems that require minor supervision, or

systems that can be easily monitored. Several methods for monitoring

the insulation of GIS systems, including acoustical, chemical and

electrical have been developed by Pettersson et al [21]. Recently,

manufacturers have developed systems based on high frequency capacity

couplers [22,23].

Several methods of conducting particle control and de-activation are

given. Some of them are:

a. Electrostatic trapping

b. Use of adhesive coatings to immobilize the particles

c. Discharging of conducting particles through radiation, and

d. Coating conducting particles with insulating films

The dielectric coatings improve the insulation performance.

Authors [24,25] showed the importance of volume resistivity of the

coating material. Free conducting particles situated inside the GIS

enclosure decrease high local fields caused by conductor roughness. The

coating reduces the charge on the particle colliding with the coated

enclosure, which in turn reduces the risk of a breakdown due to increase

of the lift-off field of metallic particles. An electrostatic force is exerted on

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the particle and at an appropriate value of the applied field, this force is

sufficient to overcome the gravitational force thus resulting in levitation

and movement of conducting particle. A dielectric coating on the inner

surface of a GIS enclosure will inhibit the movement of metallic particle.

Coating reduces the degree of surface roughness on conductor is

explained by K.D. Srivastava et al [26,27]. Also the high resistance of the

coating impedes the development of pre-discharges in the gas thus

increasing breakdown voltage of the gas. A very good description of the

above phenomena is given by Parekh et al [28].

A metallic particle resting on a coated enclosure surface may

acquire free charge through several physical processes such as charging

from a charged dielectric surface, conduction through the coating and

through a Partial Discharge (PD), between the particle and the coating

[29]. The electric field necessary to lift a particle resting on the bottom of

a GIS enclosure increases due to the coating. Once a particle begins to

move in the gas gap under the applied voltage, it may collide with either

conductor. The experiments of M.Knapp et al. [30] revealed that if the

conductors were coated, the particle would acquire a smaller charge,

thus reducing the risk of a breakdown initiated by a particle.

Contamination by metallic particles in Compressed Gas Insulated

Power Transmission Line (GITL) equipment is commonly encountered.

The insulation strength of GITL apparatus deteriorates depends mainly

 16

on the particle shape, size and location. M.M.Morcos et al. [31],

conducted experiments in the laboratory, which indicate that dielectric

coatings on electrodes not only improve gaseous insulation but also rise

the voltage necessary for initiating a conducting particle movement in

GITL apparatus. The work reported by M.M.Morcos et al. summarizes

the results of a ten-year investigation into the usefulness of dielectric

coating in GITL apparatus in the presence of metallic contamination.

The effect of dielectric coatings on the insulation performance of

vacuum, compressed gas and oil insulated electrodes has been studied

by several researchers. It is generally believed that such coatings

improve the insulation performance. A variety of coating materials has

been used in these studies, for example, polymeric films, varnish,

epoxies, paraffin wax, Teflon and anodized aluminium. These materials

have a broad range of physical properties like volume resistivity,

dielectric constant hardness, etc. The volume resistivity of the coating

material is considered to be an important parameter; however,

experimental evidence concerning the relative importance of various

physical properties of the coating materials is inconclusive.

Coating thickness has been varied from a few microns to several

millimeters, and the influence of coated electrodes on the insulation

performance has been studied under dc, 60 Hz ac and lightning impulse

voltages. R.F. Gossens et al. [32] found that although a layer of bakelized

paper on the central conductor of a coaxial electrode arrangement gave a

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higher lightning impulse breakdown voltage, the 60Hz breakdown voltage

was lower. For uniform field, and coaxial electrode systems, Skipper and

McNeall [33] used nitrogen and Sulphur hexafluoride at pressures of 3.4

MPa and 1.4 MPa respectively, and used a variety of polymeric films, and

anodized aluminium with thickness up to 130m. For nitrogen gas and

uniform electric field, the impulse breakdown strength resulting from

coating the electrodes increased about 50 percent over the uncoated

electrodes, and this value did not differ greatly for pressures between

0.34 Mpa and 3.4 Mpa for all the coating materials used.

Cookson and McAlpine [5,34,35] extended the scope of the above

work, using 40 m and 130 m thickness of high-density polythene

coatings in uniform field geometry with pressures up to 1.5 Mpa for

sulphur hexaflouride and 5 Mpa for nitrogen. Using impulse voltages,

they found that the breakdown fields increased about 50 percent over

those for bare electrodes. Dust particles, however, had a deleterious

effect, particularly at higher pressures, and could reduce the breakdown

value by as much as 30 percent.

In additional work, McAlpine and Cookson [35] observed, in

contrast to the work of Skipper and McNeall [33], that the breakdown

strength is influenced by resistivity of the film material, probably because

this controls the charging of dust particles on the coating and their

ability to act as electron emitting sites. The Vycoat and Neoprene layers,

with a resistivity of about 10 ohm-m, gave the lowest breakdown fields.

 18

The polystyrene varnish and polyolefip layers, with a resistivity greater

than about 10 ohm-m, gave higher breakdown fields.

Chee-Hing and Srivastava [36]conducted an extensive investigation

on the dielectric coated electrodes in compressed SF6 gas for pressures

up to 0.68 Mpa gauge, and under dc and lightning impulse voltages.

Polyurethane, paraffin wax, epoxy and anodised aluminium coatings

were investigated in uniform field geometry. Coating thick nesses up to

1.5 mm were used. Their results may be summarized thus:

 For a given gas gap, there is a substantial improvement in the dc

breakdown voltage, and the breakdown voltage increases with the

thickness of coating. Reducing the volume resistivity of a

coating, by loading it with graphite, lowers the breakdown

voltage; however, the pre-breakdown currents for graphite-loaded

coatings are higher.

 The lightning impulse breakdown voltage, for a given gas gap,

resistivity, and thickness of coating is generally higher than the

dc breakdown voltage. No “conditioning” effects appear to occur

for either coated or uncoated electrodes. The coatings punctured

after the first breakdown, and the first breakdown voltage is

always higher (5 to 20 percent) than the subsequent breakdown

voltages.
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 The presence of non-conducting debris from repeated

breakdowns substantially lowers the subsequent breakdown

voltage. However, such debris may lead to glow discharges for

polyurethane and epoxy coatings. Glow discharges were not

observed with anodized aluminium coatings.

The coatings acquire a surface charge under dc voltages, and this

charge decays slowly (over several minutes) when the voltage is removed.

Although efforts were made to determine the magnitude and distribution

of the charge, the results were inconclusive. Vlastos and Rusck [37-40]

have investigated the effect of coatings on power frequency ac breakdown

in compressed SF6 and air at pressures up to 1 Mpa, using a coaxial

geometry. The relative improvement in the breakdown voltage is

substantially higher for the rough electrode as compared to highly

polished electrodes. They also noted that coatings on the outer

conductor did not matter a great deal, that there was not a significant

“conditioning” effect, and that the first breakdown on a freshly coated

electrode was generally the highest in a sequence. Gockenbach [41] and

Rein et al. [42] reported similar results. In this way, dielectric coating

helps in improving the insulation performance of SF6 and hence is

considered to be one of the best techniques.

In compressed GIS, the control of wire particle contamination by

dielectric coating of the enclosure has been demonstrated by Prakash et

al [26]. Assuming that a particle acquires free charge through a particle

 20

discharge, the modelling of particle movement when the inside surface of

a horizontal section of GIS/GITL enclosure is coated, is described. Under

an applied 60 Hz ac voltage, the maximum height reached above the

enclosure by a particle is much lower for a coated than for an uncoated

enclosure. When the applied ac voltage varies, the maximum height

reached depends on the magnitude of the applied voltage, phase and

velocity at which the particle hits the enclosure. Typical results show

that by coating the enclosure, the maximum height reached by a wire

particle in a coaxial system can be reduced, thus inhibiting particle

movement and minimizing the possibility of insulation breakdown.

The dynamic behaviour of free conducting particles of SF 6

insulated systems under switching impulse (SI) superimposed on a dc

voltage has been investigated by Radwan et al. [43]. This study includes

the influence of the most important design parameters on the particle

motion, such as value of dc switching voltage ratio, particle parameters,

shape of switching voltage and system configuration; parallel plane and

coaxial cylinders. The computations have concluded that the behavior of

contaminating conducting particles in GIS when subjected to a dc bias

voltage and SI wave is more onerous than its behavior under pure

switching impulse voltage.

Sakai et al [44] in his paper reported the analysis of spherical

conducting particle motion as well as particle-initiated breakdown in

electric fields between diverging conducting plates with a dc voltage in

 21

atmospheric air. Motion of a spherical particle was estimated by solving

the motion equation numerically, and the results agreed well with the

experimental ones. It was found that when the particle is placed on the

horizontal electrode surface where the electric field is nearly equal to the

lifting field, the particle progresses towards a higher electric field region

by the effect of Coulomb force and electric gradient force. This is true for

a non-spherical conducting particle. The obtained results for particle

motion suggest that much attention should be paid in the design of GIS

particle traps to forces acting on the particle directly towards the higher

electric field region. Moreover, the particle-initiated breakdown is

discussed on the basis of the experimental and theoretical results. It

was found that one of the reasons for reduction of the breakdown voltage

is the effect of micro discharge between the particle and an oppositely

charged electrode.

The Ultra High Frequency (UHF) technique has been used to study the

partial discharges produced by free conducting particles in Gas Insulated

Substations (GIS) with a view to predicting the probability of particle-

triggered breakdown. Statistical techniques have been developed to

describe the motion of a single particle. It is possible to identify whether

the particle is capable of crossing to the busbar, which is a necessary

condition for particle-triggered breakdown. In addition, the technique

can be used to assess the size of the particle, which is useful for making

a qualitative assessment of the breakdown rise. The implications for the

 22

continuous discharge monitoring of GIS are discussed by Sellars et al.

[45].

Understanding of the dynamics of a metallic particle in a coaxial

electrode system is of vital importance for the presence of metallic

contamination in GIS. If the motion pattern of a metallic particle is

generally known, the probability of a particle crossing a coaxial gap

causing a flash over can be estimated. Moreover, it is of interest to

understand the influence of dielectric coating of electrodes on the particle

charge when the particle is in contact with the dielectric coating.

This study does not include particles that are stuck to an

insulating or energized surface, since the problems with fixed conducting

particles are different from those with free conducting particles. However,

in order to make appropriate mathematical models of particle motion in

GIS, it is important to understand the charging mechanism of metallic

particles, which are in contact with coated or naked electrodes [46].

For an ac field, one may expect the motion of a particle to be

random like, since the charge on the particle interacts with the

continuously changing electric field. Also, since the charge on it depends

on when it hits the electrodes, the charge varies after each consecutive

impact. However, by statistical analysis of the time between impacts of

the particle with the enclosure, one can find that the motion of the

particle is, in fact, influenced by the power frequency [28, 47]. For an
 23

applied, ac field, the maximum height that the particle can elevate from

the electrode is limited compared with a dc field. If the applied voltage is

sufficient, several voltage cycles might be necessary for the particle to be

able to cross the gap. When isolated conductor GIS and three phase

common enclosure GIS were compared with respect to the effects of

criticality of moving particles M.Knapp et al. [48] compared single and

three-phase SF6 gas insulated switchgear (GIS) with respect to the effects

and the criticality of moving particles. He presented the sensitivity of

different GIS designs to moving particles, an evaluation of many

calculated trajectories. Some of the calculated results are verified by

optically recorded trajectories of a particle moving in the laboratory GIS

setup. As an evident result, which is also supported by acoustic

measurements, the particle movement is minor in three-phase

enclosures. Characteristic flight patterns demonstrate if the particle,

depending on its size, contacts the high-voltage electrode or not. In the

first case, a breakdown of the isolating distance gets predictable. The

experimental setup, the test-vessel, and the modular components are

described. The comparison is limited to rated voltages up to U = 170 kV

(AC, 50 Hz). Suitable designed, manufactured, and tested one- and three-

phase GIS have proven their high reliability in service. For single-phase

insulated GIS possibly some more precautions concerning prevention of

particles during the production process may be necessary. It can be

added, that only a neglectful difference between two patterns appears,

 24

when single- or three-phase voltage is applied to the setup. Even if an

experiment is repeated using apparently equal conditions, a larger

influence has to be tolerated. Obviously, invisible burs at the particle tips

get modified during the experiments and lead to changing conditions of

corona discharges.

The primary goal of the simulation was to create a satisfactory

mathematical model of the particle motion in the GIS bus, which would

enable future simulations of the motion of particles with arbitrary

shapes. The simulation considers several parameters like the

macroscopic field at the location of the particle, its weight, viscosity of

the gas, Reynolds number, drag coefficient and coefficient of restitution

on its impact to enclosure. During return flight, a new charge on the

particle is changed based on the instantaneous electric field. The above

simulation yields the particle movement in radial direction only.

However, the configuration at the tip of the particle is not sufficiently

smooth enough to enable the movement unidirectional. The randomness

of the particle can be adequately simulated by Monte-Carlo method [49].

Theoretical and experimental work on particle behavior in electric

fields has shown that the field required to cause “lift-off” of a particle

from an electrode, say, the enclosure of a GIS system, is independent of

gas and pressure, electrode separation and the length of the particle, but

proportional to the mass (or) density of the body [49,50]. The equations

governing the particle charge Q and “lift-off” field Elift from a metallic
 25

surface is given in the following chapters. These equations show that

when a wire particle is lifted from the horizontal to the vertical position

(standing on the electrode surface), the particle acquires more charge

and begins to move actively in the electric field. A vertical wire requires a

smaller field to maintain this position than the field required for lifting it

from the horizontal to vertical position. This means that once a particle is

lifted it will maintain this position at a lower field than the lifting field.

The reduction in the electric field strength on the electrode surface is

typically 60% of the “lift-off” field. The particles do not respond to

instantaneous changes in the field because of their inertia. Thus, under

ac voltages, particles do not fall when zero voltage occurs but respond in

a time average fashion to the ac wave form with the motion of a particle

depending on the magnitude and sign of the net particle charge with

respect to the ac field.

The elevation above the lower electrode reached by a particle in

field increases with increasing field above the “lift-off”. For 6.4mm long

aluminum wire [51] in a 76/250mm coaxial system, a doubling of the

field from lift-off is typically required before the particle crosses to the

conductor. In the absence of corona discharges from wire particles, the

bouncing activity increases with increasing particle length because the

particle charge-to-mass ratio increases with the length. With spherical

particles the activity decreases with sphere radius because the charge-to-

mass ratio decreases with radius. Thus, elongated particles can cross the
 26

electrode separation at lower fields than can spherical particles of the

same mass, the crossing field being inversely proportional to the length

of the particle. Breakdown can occur when the particle gets close to (or)

terminates on the conductor. The longer the particle, the lower is the

resulting breakdown voltage [50,51].

A great contrast between the particle behavior in ac and dc is that

once the particle is lifted in a unidirectional field, it crosses to the other

electrode, and as the field is increased, the frequency of the particle

motion between the electrodes increases [52]. Whereas in the ac case as

discussed above, a substantial field increase is required after the particle

is lifted, before the particle crosses the gap [51].

Corona discharges (or) avalanche formation occurring from the

particles can greatly affect the motion of the particles by altering the net

charge on particle. One example of such a phenomenon is the “fire-fly”

motion observed with direct voltages [52,53] where a particle can remain

hovering at the negative electrode with intense corona discharges. With

positive polarity dc voltages in a coaxial electrode system the particles

usually move continuously between the electrodes, but at higher fields

they can also remain in a “fire-fly” position on the outer electrode [52,53].

The discharge activity also greatly affects the motion, and particle can

remain in the mid gap region for long periods of time and can take

several cycles to cross the gap.

 27

Particles that are at rest in the bottom of a coaxial system under

normal operating conditions do not represent a direct threat to the

insulation integrity of the system. However, such particles are a potential

hazard. Recent work on superposition voltage studies by Karner et al.

[52] demonstrated that particles normally at rest under the ac voltages

may be activated by a switching impulse superimposed on the 50 Hz ac

voltage level above the “fall down” level for the particles. Similar effects

can be obtained by mechanical methods, e.g., a hammer blow to the

enclosure. Although, under ac voltages at normal operating levels, the

“lifted” particles may not represent a threat for an insulation failure in

the gas gap. These particles are free to move and thus can be deposited

onto the solid insulators of the system. Once a particle is on the

insulator, it will tend to remain there because of electrostatic adhesion to

the solid insulation. In particular, dc voltages tend to cause particle

migration to spacer surface. [54,55].

Particle contamination of solid insulator surfaces can result in

surface flashover well below the clean breakdown voltage for insulators.

Wire type particles on insulators can cause reductions in the system

insulation level corresponding to that of free particles in the gas gap [51].

The effect of different types of voltages on the dielectric strength of

insulators for various types of contaminants are shown in the report

published by USA, Dept. of Energy [56]. The breakdown voltage for

 28

contaminated insulators with an oscillating switching impulse compared

to the standard switching impulses. [52,53,56].

Fine metal powder has also been found to affect the ac breakdown

level of solid insulation. While the free conducting particles spend only a

fraction of their levitated life-time in a position at the conductor where

they can trigger a break down, a particle adhering to a solid insulator

has similar vulnerable conditions. Thus, flashover along a spacer

surface, once polluted, is more likely to occur than for the gas gap,

particularly, if lightning and switching transient over-voltages are

considered.

The probability of breakdown in a GIS or CGIT system occurring

due to free conducting particles is a function of the accumulated time

and the particles position where the resulting maximum local field

enhancement exceeds the limiting field of the dielectric gas. This has

been demonstrated in tests with different numbers of free conducting

particles before being increased to a higher level [51]. These results also

showed that the long-time voltage-pressure characteristics for

breakdown in SF6 were virtually unaffected by the pressure increasing

up to 15 bar.

Particle initiated breakdown occurs at considerably lower fields

than those for the surface roughness breakdown and is in general the

lowest for positive polarity voltages. The breakdown voltage is

 29

characterized by the existence of change of gas pressures where the

break down voltage is considerably enhanced over the corona onset

voltage. In addition to the voltage waveform, the state of the particle,

fixed (or) free to move also significantly affects the voltage-pressure

characteristic. A comparison of the voltage-pressure characteristics was

reported by Dale et al [57]. The enhancement of the break down voltage

was progressively reduced as the particle went from being fixed to the

conductor, fixed but isolated by a small gap, to the free state. Thus

breakdown with free particles occurred well below the value for fixed

particles. The probability of having breakdown with free particles is a

function of the number of particles and the duration of the voltage; the

larger the particle number-time product, the lower is the observed

breakdown voltage. The slight enhanced breakdown voltage for the

particles in the 100 Kpa to 400 Kpa pressure region cannot be regarded

as a “Safety-limit” for operation (or) conditioning of GIS or CGIT systems

but is a statistical event peculiar to the test results.

For Gas Insulated Systems (GIS) to be reliable and economic, it is

necessary for the particle problem to be overcome. Dust and particles

may unintentionally be introduced into the Gas Insulated Transmission

Systems during assembly (or) field installations. The present technique

for the elimination of the effect of conducting particles is the use of

“Particle Traps” [57]. In this system, the particles are caused to move into

a low-field region by the application of a “conditioning” voltage

 30

sufficiently high to cause levitation and migration of the particles into

traps but not high enough to cause flashover. One such design consists

of a slotted metallic cylinder mounted around the spacer and electrically

connected to the enclosure. Particles migrate along the enclosure, fall

through the slot and are trapped in the low field region at the bottom of

the enclosure under the trap.

The combined effect of moisture, temperature and conducting

particles on the discharge behavior of Sulphur hexafluoride has been

reported by D.H. Peng et al. [58]. Measurements have been made of the

dc corona onset and breakdown voltages for both positive and negative

point/plane electrode systems in compressed SF6 gas. Presence of

moisture lowered the onset voltages and raised the breakdown voltages

significantly. Monitoring of GIS is generally done using Ultra High

Frequency (UHF) measuring techniques [59].

The effect of moisture on flashover voltages in the presence of

metallic particles was also investigated and the results showed that there

was little effect except when moisture was likely to be condensing on the

spacer surface; a little effect was observed, when the moisture freezes.

The reduction in flashover voltage due to moisture was explained

independently in addition to the effect of the presence of a metallic

particle. Complete excursion of conducting particles and moisture from

high-voltage equipment using Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) insulation,

throughout its operation provides opportunities for contamination by the

 31

particles from mechanical abrasion [60]. Moisture-free (<15 ppm water)

Sulphur hexafluoride is used particularly in tropical countries. Moist air

may leave a thin film in switchgear even after lengthy evacuation unless

the switch gear is kept sealed from a factory to a site. Similarly,

connecting pipes supplying the SF6 to the switchgear may initially

contain moist air.

SF6 switchgear has been found to contain, as much as 800ppm of

water when due precautions were not taken at manufacturer premises.

Moisture is reported to reduce the breakdown strength in quasi-uniform

gaps [60], but no measurements appear to have been made of the effect

of moisture on corona inception and breakdown voltages or point/plane

geometry. The effect of 100ppm of water vapour on the point/plane

corona onset and breakdown voltages of SF6 gas are reported for various

pressures.

Particle contamination has been known to lower breakdown

voltages for many years, as well as spacer flashover voltages [61,62,63].

Moisture is found to have little effect on flashover voltages in SF 6 while in

the gas phase, but condensation has a marked effect [61]. The combined

effect of conducting particles and humidity on the flashover voltage does

not appear to have been investigated to determine whether there is a

cumulative effect.
 32

In addition, measurements are reported of flashover voltages with

and without a metallic particle at the triple junction where spacer, gas

and electrode meet, for a range of humidity and temperatures.

Measurements of point/plane [64-68] corona onset and breakdown

voltages have shown that for direct voltages and both polarities, the

onset voltages are significantly reduced, whereas the breakdown voltages

are significantly increased. The onset-voltage effect may be due to the

decrease in ionization due to clustering of water molecules with the

electrons and the consequent formation of space charge. On the other

hand, the increases in the breakdown voltages appear to be the effect of

increased corona shielding due to the lower drift velocities of the water-

clustered ions.

For electrodes, however, experiments made with spiral particles [69]

show that it is more difficult to determine the lift-off field, since, in a

series of measurements; the first value of the lift-off field obtained is

considerably higher than those, which follow. Other measurements

performed by Parekh et al. [28] showed that, by conditioning the

electrodes for several hours at a fixed AC voltage, the variance and mean

value of the lift-off field were significantly reduced.

SF6 is the main mode of insulation in a GIS. However, in recent

years, the future use of SF6 has been debated throughout the world in

spite of it having all the desirable properties of a good insulating and arc

quenching medium. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) has been used as a

 33

gaseous dielectric (insulator) in high voltage equipment since the1950s.

It is now known that SF 6 is a potent greenhouse warming gas with one of

the highest global warming potentials (GWP) known. Because of its high

GWP, it is being phased out of all frivolous applications.SF6 is an efficient

absorber of infrared radiation, particularly at wavelengths near 10.5 µm.

Additionally, unlike most other naturally occurring green house gases

(e.g., CO2, CH4), SF6 is only slowly decomposed; therefore its contribution

to global warming is expected to be cumulative and long lasting. The

strong infrared absorption of SF 6 and its long lifetime in the environment

are the reasons for its extremely high global warming potential which for

a 100-yeartime horizon is estimated to be approximately 24,200 times

greater (per unit mass) than that of CO 2, the predominant contributor to

the greenhouse effect. The concern about the presence of SF6 in the

environment derives exclusively from this very high value of its potency

as a greenhouse gas.

However, the present inventors have determined that given the

environmental difficulty of SF6 [70-72], it is necessary to relax certain of

the requirements traditionally held as important and accept as an

alternative gas, compromise candidates with a lower GWP. For example,

gases which are non- toxic are often inert with long atmospheric lifetimes

which can yield high GWP. By accepting a somewhat more reactive gas

than SF6, the GWP can be greatly reduced.

 34

Nitrogen is an ideal gas to use it is abundant, cheap, inert, non-

toxic, nonflammable and unquestionably environmentally acceptable.

Low concentration of SF6 and N2 mixture can be used in electrical

insulation. Small amount of electron attaching gases such as SF6 in N2

substantially increase the dielectric strength of the mixture. Depending

on the electron attaching properties of the electronegative gas which is

added to N2, the increase in the dielectric strength of mixture may or

may not saturate as the electronegative gas concentration is increases.

Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) owing to their compact nature; offer an

attractive alternative to conventional substations in areas where space is

limited, such as urban are as. Consequently, it is important to address

the issue of environmental conditions within the substation and in the

surrounding areas. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is widely used in

compressed gas-insulted substations. Since SF6 has found to be a green

house gas here and also highly toxic and corrosive components are

formed when SF6 is subjected to an electrical discharge. In this regard

investigations are in progress to evolve substitutes for SF6 to be used in

Gas Insulated Substations. One such alternative that is widely accepted

as the best possible replacement for SF6 is to use SF6-N2 gas mixtures as

the insulating medium in GIS. Therefore, various investigations dealing

with the insulating properties of SF6-N2 gas mixtures are in progress. The

N2 gas is a natural element of the air, is the main component of these

 35

mixtures, even the mixture of very low SF6 content to lend to a

considerable increase of the dielectric strength[72].

Among the environmentally benign insulating gases alternative to

SF6 gas, SF6/N2 gas mixtures (at different percentages of SF6) is regarded

as one of the most attractive gases because of the synergistic effect in

electrical insulation performance. By using SF6/N2 gas mixture, we will

be able to reduce SF6 gas amount for power apparatus and this enables

us to suppress the global warming effect. SF6-N2 mixtures are the most

thoroughly investigated among all known gas mixtures. Breakdown

characteristics for different mixtures [71] stated that the breakdown

strength of Air,CO2 and N2 are almost equal. But when compared to SF6

gas they exhibited only 50% of the dielectric strength under same

experimental condition. At a gas pressure 350Kpa The breakdown

strength of SF6 gas 15% less than that of air as the pressure was

increased to 500Kpa the breakdown voltage of SF6 increased to 20% than

air. Thus mixture of gases like N2, Co2 can offer a good choice alternate

to pure SF6 gas in compressed gas insulated substation.

L.G.Christohorou et. al [71-73]reviewed that the sulphur

hexafluoride gas is the most preferred gas as a dielectric medium besides

air ,has been proved to be a green house gas and hence there is a intense

search for better substitute gases. They made an attempt to find a gas

mixture that could substitute for pure SF6 gas. The best response to the

concerns for the possible impact of SF6 on Global warming is to reduce or

 36

prevent the release of SF6 gas into the environment. A gas used as a

dielectric medium must have high dielectric strength, which is possible only

with strong electronegative gases. Generally strong electronegative gases are

toxic, chemically reactive, and environmentally harmful, with lower vapor

pressure. An environmentally friendly and non electronegative gas like

nitrogen normally has a low dielectric strength normally lower than SF6 by

three times. On the other hand, such environmentally friendly gases may

be used at higher pressures as the main component in mixtures with

electronegative gases like SF6 gas at lower concentrations.

Based on the research conducted worldwide, the optimum

composition of SF6-N2 mixture for practical applications is considered to

be 40% SF6 - 60% N2 mixture [73]. But, recent studies carried out also

suggest that SF6-N2 mixture with SF6 concentration as low as 20% can be

used with an advantage [74]. Even with low SF6 content, this mixture

has been found to exhibit many of the desirable properties of pure SF6

when used as an insulant.

Flashover voltages for spacers in plane-parallel gaps did not

appear to be modified by humidity except where condensation occurred.

It is then presumably controlled by the fluctuations in electric filed near

the electrodes caused by high-permittivity water droplets near, but not

touching, the electrodes. The effect of a metallic particle at the triple

junction was always additional to the condensation effects.

 37

Although the main insulation mode in GIS is SF6 gas, different

sections in Gas insulated substations are separated by spacers. Spacers are

generally either cone shape or disc shape and generally they are

manufactured using alumina filled epoxy. A large number of spacers in

different shapes are manufactured and tested. The current practice is to

use conical type spacer. Generally the internal stress in modern GIS will be

below 4kV/mm (rms) for which GIS is generally designed. Spacers acquire

charge from corona sources, ionization in the gas and discharges from the

metallic particles. Discharges from the metallic particles and spacers

together give lowest breakdown voltage. Metallic particles can attach to

spacer surface and can cause flashover of the spacer surface. A spacer is

supposed to perform many functions in GIS and design must be a

compromise to give satisfactory performance for all the functions. Since SF 6

decomposition products are formed during operation of GIS and spacers

should have resistance for all these decomposition products. Generally

reliability of spacer should be high, as the outage time is very much longer

in the case of GIS when compared to Air insulated substations, though the

frequency of outages is much smaller [75]. The sensitivity of high pressure

SF6 to the presence of metallic particle contamination is the serious

limitation.

Mallik and Qureshi[76] conducted many tests on the performance of

the mixture of gases and reviewed the work on electrical breakdown

strength in mixtures of SF6 and other gases including N2 , they stated that
 38

SF6-N2 gas mixtures containing 50%-60% of SF6 have dielectric strength up

to 85%-90% that of pure SF6 gas and these mixtures exhibit improved

power frequency and impulse breakdown strength in highly non uniform

field gaps and are less sensitive to the presence of the conducting

contaminants and also to the conductor roughness. They further reviewed

that these mixtures can be operated at pressures even higher than 600kPa

which is the upper limit for equipment operating with SF6 gas as the

dielectric medium with reduction in cost.

The best substitute to SF6 gas is one which could be used for the

same set up of hardware or with a little change, procedures and ratings

used for SF6 gas [77,78,79]. Many unitary, binary and tertiary gases or gas

mixtures that have been tested over the last three decades which can

substitute for pure SF6 gas, out of which SF6-N2 gas mixtures is

environmentally acceptable as it can perform well both as an electrical

insulation applications and also arc or current interruption equipment and

this combination is much cheaper when compared pure SF6 gas. Based on

the research conducted over the past three decades the optimum mixture

SF6-N2 of gases that can substitute for pure SF6 in electrical power industry

is 40% SF6-60% N2.

Emel Onal et.al [80] Observed that the dielectric strength of mixture

of gases SF6+N2 containing just 0.125% SF6 in non uniform field increases

and thus, leading to the increase in breakdown voltage of mixture of gases.

The experimental results have revealed that addition of small percentage of

 39

SF6 to N2 even at about pressures of 250Kpa and 25mm gap between the

electrodes the breakdown voltage of mixtures was increased by 74%.

The design stress of SF6 switchgear (GIS) is limited by the destructive

effect resulting from the almost inevitable presence of metallic particle

contamination in gas insulated substation [81-84]. The possible way of

improving the performance of under presence of metallic particle

contamination is my mixing SF6 with other gases.

Syed.A.Ward[83] presented the performance SF6-Air,SF6-N2,SF6-CO2

in the presence of metallic particulate under applied D.C.Voltages . The

breakdown voltage – pressure characteristics for SF6-gas mixtures with

different fractional concentrations of SF6 in mixtures with particle

contamination sensitivity was sought for different parameters. A optimum

gas mixtures that can suit GIS should have relatively high breakdown

voltage and should exhibit relatively low sensitivity to metallic particle

contamination. Studies conducted reveal that the optimum mixture

definition can be materialized in the case of SF6+N2 gas mixtures with

5%SF6+95%N2 and have a breakdown voltage nearly 70%-80% of pure SF6

gas.

Recent publications [85,73,86,87] suggesting the usage of SF6-N2 gas

mixture in the composition range of 50%SF6-50%N2 mixtures as a standard

option for gas insulated transformers and also can be used in circuit

breakers. The breakdown voltage of SF6-N2 gas mixtures saturates as the

 40

percentage of SF6 in mixtures is increased above 40%.Above this saturation

levels yields limited returns for insulation applications.

Fatheddin et al. [88] focuses on the breakdown properties of SF6-N2

gas mixtures under application of lightning and switching impulse voltages

of both polarities under pressure of 0.05 MPa and 0.5 MPa and it was

found that 40%SF6-60%N2 is excellent choice. A number of investigations

[89-92] revealed that the mixture of SF6-N2 can perform better when

compared to SF6 in the presence of metallic particle contamination.

Metallic particle contamination will always be present within GIS.

With rapid growth in high voltage GIS management of particle

contamination has become more critical. Generally it is difficult to detect

the particles on the spacer [93]. UHF partial discharge techniques are

generally used. A single particle on the spacer is less critical than one on

the high voltage conductor. Multiple particles on the spacer might affect

the insulation properties if they form bridge and this may lead to the

reduction in breakdown voltage.

Diluted SF6/N2 gas mixture can substitute for pure SF6 gas as a

dielectric medium in GIS systems as they have lower environmental impact

when compared to pure SF6 gas for the same electrical equipment [94,

95].The main concern in electrical power industry is behaviour of mixture of

gases in the presence of metallic particle contamination and also due to the

conductor surface roughness. Experimental results [95] reveal that

breakdown of 10%SF6/90%N2 in the presence of metallic contamination of

 41

wire type the dielectric strength of mixture of gases is around 65% of pure

SF6 gas in the case smooth electrode. The breakdown strength of mixtures

with electrode surface roughness of about 50µm thickness at pressures of 3

bar is about 90% of pure SF6 gas. Diluted mixture of SF6/N2 gas mixtures

is of greater interest and can accepted as a better dielectric medium when

compared to pure SF6 gas as it has less environmental impact. Due to

attractive insulation synergism with 10% of SF6 in the mixtures with double

the insulation performance of N2 in a defect free homogeneous field is of

greater interest to substitute for pure SF6 gas in electrical power industry.

Defect induced breakdown fields depend on the gas pressure, the defect

scales and applied test voltage wave shape. General defects in gas insulated

substation are surface roughness and metallic particle contamination .In

both the gases the increase in the pressure to improve the performance in

the presence of metallic particle contamination but, maximum pressure is

only effective upto 5 bar because of saturation of breakdown fields .

Although, GIS has been in operation for several years, some of the

problems need full attention. These problems include generation of over

voltages during switching operations like enclosure faults and particle

contamination. Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) and SF6/N2 gas mixtures are

generally found to be very sensitive to field perturbations such as those

caused by conductor surface imperfections and by conducting particle

contaminants.
 42

Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) thus suffer from certain drawbacks

as reviewed in the above discussions. A study of CIGRE group suggests

that 20% of failure in GIS is due to the existence of various metallic

contaminations in the form of loose particles. These contaminants can be

produced by abrasion between components during assembly or

operations. Flash over in a GIS is, in general, associated with longer

outage times and greater costs than in a conventional air insulated

substation. A conducting particle can short-circuit a part of the

insulation distance, and thereby initiate a breakdown, especially if

electrostatic forces cause the particle to bounce into the high field region

near the high voltage conductor. These particles may exist on the surface

of support insulator, enclosure or high voltage conductor. Under the

influence of high voltage, they can acquire sufficient charge and

randomly move in the gap due to the variable electric field.

Gases are used as an insulating medium for compact substation

components and gas insulated cables. In recent years, sulphur

hexafluoride (SF6) gas has been of considerable technological interest as

an insulation medium in high voltage apparatus because of its superior

insulating properties, high dielectric strength at relatively low pressure

and its thermal and chemical stability. The searches for even better gas

insulation continues in order to develop gases and gas mixtures to

satisfy specific requirements for various devices, provided such gases

have dielectric properties comparable or superior to each other. There are

 43

two basic reasons for carrying out such investigations. Firstly, the aims

are to develop an insulating medium, which is technically as well as

economically attractive. The other reason is to obtain a better

understanding of the breakdown mechanisms operating in compressed

gases, and their gas mixtures.

In addition the fact that SF6 is a strong greenhouse gas has

prompted interest in substitute gases with lower or no environmental

impact. Therefore, there is an increasing interest in the possible

application of mixtures of SF6 and other gases to reduce insulation cost

and to minimize the possible hazard of particle-initiated breakdown.

Many researchers have studied behavior of air, N2 and CO2 mixed with a

small percentage of SF6 as an additive. . Air and N2 have been suggested

as environmentally uncritical insulation media for gas insulated

electrical power equipment. This mixture of SF6+N2 gases is used for

numerous applications, including use as insulation for high voltage

equipment. From a practical point of view, only SF6 mixtures with those

common gases or buffer gases (air, N2) show an importance in most

industrial applications. The mixture of SF6+N2 is suggested to be an

alternative to pure SF6 gas in the optimum mixture ratio of

40%SF6+60%N2 to 60%SF6+40%N2.

The purpose of this project is to develop techniques, which will

formulate the basic equations that will govern the movement of metallic

particles like aluminum, copper and silver and hence to obtain their
 44

movement in a single phase isolated conductor Gas insulated substation

and three phase common enclosure Gas insulated busduct under SF6gas

and also with SF6+N2 gas mixtures environment. Presence of metallic

particle is also considered on the epoxy coated spacer inclined at an

angle of 450 with respect to the enclosure.

Figure 1.2 to Figure 1.4 shows layout of Gas Insulated Substations

operating at voltages of 380kV, 550kV and 800kV voltages.

 45

Fig 1.1 Single Line Diagram of GIS

Fig 1.2: 380 kV Underground Gas Insulated Substation

 46

Fig.1.3: 550kV Gas Insulated Substation

Fig: 1.4: 800kV Gas Insulated Substation