Biology Matters for G.C.E.

'O' Level - Internet Links (Ch 04)

Internet Links

Chapter 4 Nutrients

How a Peptide Bond Is Formed - Internet Link on page 64

R1 and R2 denote different hydrocarbon chains. The —NH2 and —COOH groups can link up with an
amino acid each in a similar way. This is how an amino acid chain grows.

If three or more amino acids are linked up by peptide bonds, a polypeptide or peptone (Greek: poly =
many) is formed. Polypeptides in turn may be linked up to form a very long chain of amino acids. An
average amino acid chain can contain about 500 units.
A protein molecule may be made of one or more such chains. The amino acid chains in a protein
molecule are not straight but coiled up to give the protein a distinctive three-dimensional shape. The
coils are held in place by weak cross-links (hydrogen bonds), which are easily broken by heat, acids
and alkalis. The breaking of these cross-links causes the denaturation of the protein and affects its
function(s).
Link…
What is denaturation? Read more about it in textbook chapter 5.

Although only 22 different amino acids are known to occur in proteins, they are combined in various
ways to form millions of different protein molecules, just as the 26 letters of the alphabet can be used to
form a very large number of words.

The exact order in which the amino acids are arranged within a protein molecule is very important.
Changing only one amino acid at a particular position may alter the nature of the protein. Some
proteins such as insulin can now be synthesised. The full structures of several haemoglobins are now
known. We also know that the haemoglobin of a fetus differs from that of its mother. The change of one
amino acid can transform normal haemoglobin into a form which results in the dangerous and often
fatal hereditary disease known as sickle-cell anaemia.

As protein molecules are very large, they cannot pass through living membranes, so the proteins that
are ingested cannot be absorbed directly into the body of the animal. They have to be broken down by
enzymes. This digestion is another instance of hydrolysis. The proteins are first broken down into
polypeptides, which in turn are split into their constituent amino acids.

proteins  polypeptides  amino acids

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Biology Matters for G.C.E. 'O' Level - Internet Links (Ch 04)

Amino acids are simpler and much smaller molecules. They are soluble in water and small enough to
diffuse through living membranes so they can be absorbed into the body of the animal. When amino
acids enter the body cells, they are linked up again to form the animal's kind of protein.

Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids - Internet Link on page 64

An animal may not need all the 22 naturally occurring amino acids as it can manufacture some of them
itself. It only needs certain amino acids. However, the proteins it eats may not contain all the amino
acids it needs so it must eat the right types of protein which provide the necessary amino acids. These
are called the essential or indispensable amino acids because they cannot be synthesized in the body
and have to be obtained from food. There are 10 essential amino acids. Other amino acids are called
non-essential or dispensable as the animal can manufacture them in its body.

Quality of Proteins - Internet Link on page 66

The value of proteins foods depends on whether or not they are able to supply the body with all the
indispensable amino acids. Protein foods that provide the body with all the indispensable amino acids
in the proportions that it needs have high biological value. Protein foods that lack one or more
indispensable amino acids have low biological value.

Generally, protein foods of animal origin have high biological value; some examples are eggs, milk,
dairy products, meat and seafood. Protein foods of plant origin usually lack one or more indispensable
amino acids and so have low biological value; two examples are beans and peas. The only exception is
the soya bean, which has all the indispensable amino acids.

Protein foods of low biological value also have their importance. They can be combined in such a way
that the indispensable amino acid(s) lacking in one is (are) present in the other, and vice versa. For
example, a cereal food can be eaten with milk, as milk contains lysine, an indispensable amino acid
which is lacking in cereals. In other words, the protein content of one food compensates for the other’s
deficiency. Similarly, when two protein foods of low biological value are eaten together, the total value
adds up, as the two foods together contain the essential amino acids. In this case, they complement
each other. They are therefore known as complementary proteins. For example, bread and baked
beans, two plant foods, provide complementary proteins when eaten together.

Problems of World Food Supplies - Internet Link on page 66

We live in a world where food and resources are not distributed equally. For example, some countries
may have large populations but inadequate food supplies, and vice versa. This results in food supply-
related problems such as starvation, malnutrition and over-nutrition.

Starvation occurs when a human does not get enough energy from food to meet the body’s basic
energy needs. During starvation, the body uses up its energy reserves stored as fat and glycogen. When
the fat and glycogen stores are used up, the body begins to break down proteins. Since muscles are
mostly made of protein, starving people eventually lose their own muscles. This may cause the
shrinkage of vital organs, such as the heart. The body's structure, as well as its functions, can be badly
affected.

Malnutrition results from dietary imbalance, i.e. taking in too little or too much of nutrients over a
period of time. Deficiency diseases caused by a lack of vitamins and minerals, as well as protein
deficiency disease such as kwashiorkor, are examples of malnutrition.

Over-nutrition is also a form of malnutrition when a person consumes more energy than he or she can
expend, for example, overeating or not exercising enough, leading to the problems of overweight and
obesity. Consuming too much of food rich in saturated fats and cholesterol increases the risk of heart

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Biology Matters for G.C.E. 'O' Level - Internet Links (Ch 04)

disease. Obese people are also more likely to develop diabetes and may expect their life expectancy to
be shortened.

Generally, dietary imbalance may be due to:

• Poverty (for example, eating cheaply and therefore an imbalanced diet)
• Poor eating habits due to lack of nutritional knowledge
• Unwillingness to follow nutritional guidelines
Link…
Learn more about heart disease in textbook chapter 8 and diabetes in chapter 15.

A Balanced Diet and Food Values - Internet Link on page 68

For healthy growth and development of our bodies, we need a balanced diet. A balanced diet contains
the right amount of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water and roughage to meet the
daily requirements of the body. The type and amount of nutrients required by our bodies vary according
to lifestyle, physical activities and age.

Energy is required to do work while we are awake, and to perform vital activities when we are at rest or
asleep. Even when the body is physically well and emotionally at rest, energy is needed to keep it alive,
for example, to keep the heart beating. The minimum amount of energy required to maintain vital life
processes of the body when it is at complete rest is known as basal metabolism. Your metabolism, or
basal metabolic rate (BMR), is the energy expended by the body at rest to sustain bodily functions
and is measured in joules or calories.

Read more about metabolism and factors affecting the BMR on the following website:
http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/BHCV2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Metabolism_explained?open

Check out the energy values of different types of food here:

http://www.healthyeatingclub.com/info/books-phds/books/foodfacts/html/data/data2a.html

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