Perovskite Solar Cell

1/11/2018 Perovskite solar cell - Wikipedia
Perovskite solar cell

A perovskite solar cell is a type of solar cell which includes a perovskite structured compound, most commonly a
hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active layer.[1][2] Perovskite
materials such as methylammonium lead halides are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture.
Solar cell efficiencies of devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009[3] to 22.7% in late 2017,[4]
making this the fastest-advancing solar technology to date.[1] With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies
and the very low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become commercially attractive, with start-up
companies already promising modules on the market by 2017.[5][6][7] In February 2016, a TED talk was dedicated to
this technology.[8]
Contents
Features
Materials
Processing
Physics
Efficiency limits
Architectures
History
Stability
Hysteretic current-voltage behavior
Perovskite in tandem cells
See also
References
Features
Metal halide perovskites possess unique features that make them exciting for solar cell applications. The raw materials
used, and the possible fabrication methods (such as various printing techniques) are both low cost.[9] Their high
absorption coefficient enables ultrathin films of around 500 nm to absorb the complete visible solar spectrum.[10]
These features combined result in the possibility to create low cost, high efficiency, thin, lightweight and flexible solar
modules.
In July 2015 major hurdles were that the largest perovskite solar cell was only the size of a fingernail and that they
degraded quickly in moist environments.[11] However, researchers from EPFL published in June 2017, a work
successfully demonstrating large scale perovskite solar modules with no observed degradation over one year.[12]
Materials
The name 'perovskite solar cell' is derived from the ABX3 crystal structure of the absorber materials, which is referred
to as perovskite structure. The most commonly studied perovskite absorber is methylammonium lead trihalide
(CH3NH3PbX3, where X is a halogen atom such as iodine, bromine or chlorine), with an optical bandgap between 1.5
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell 1/14
and 2.3 eV depending on halide content. Formamidinum lead trihalide

(H2NCHNH2PbX3) has also shown promise, with bandgaps between 1.5
and 2.2 eV. The minimum bandgap is closer to the optimal for a single-
junction cell than methylammonium lead trihalide, so it should be capable
of higher efficiencies.[14] The first use of perovskite in a solid state solar cell
was in a dye-sensitized cell using CsSnI3 as a p-type hole transport layer
and absorber.[15] A common concern is the inclusion of lead as a
component of the perovskite materials; solar cells based on tin-based
perovskite absorbers such as CH3NH3SnI3 have also been reported with
lower power-conversion efficiencies.[16][17][18][19]
In another recent development, solar cells based on transition metal oxide

Crystal structure of CH3NH3PbX3
perovskites and heterostructures thereof such as LaVO3/SrTiO3 are
perovskites (X=I, Br and/or Cl). The
studied.[20][21] methylammonium cation (CH3NH3+)
is surrounded by PbX6
Processing octahedra.[13]
Perovskite solar cells hold an advantage over traditional silicon solar cells
in the simplicity of their processing. Traditional silicon cells require expensive, multistep processes, conducted at high
temperatures (>1000 °C) in a high vacuum in special clean room facilities.[22] Meanwhile, the organic-inorganic
perovskite material can be manufactured with simpler wet chemistry techniques in a traditional lab environment.
Most notably, methylammonium and formamidinium lead trihalides have been created using a variety of solvent
techniques and vapor deposition techniques, both of which have the potential to be scaled up with relative
feasibility.[23][24]
In one-step solution processing, a lead halide and a methylammonium halide can be dissolved in a solvent and spin
coated onto a substrate. Subsequent evaporation and convective self-assembly during spinning results in dense layers
of well crystallized perovskite material, due to the strong ionic interactions within the material (The organic
component also contributes to a lower crystallization temperature). However, simple spin-coating does not yield
homogenous layers, instead requiring the addition of other chemicals such as GBL, DMSO, and toluene drips.[25]
Simple solution processing results in the presence of voids, platelets, and other defects in the layer, which would
hinder the efficiency of a solar cell. Recently, a new approach[26] for forming the PbI2 nanostructure and the use of
high CH3NH3I concentration have been adopted to form high quality (large crystal size and smooth) perovskite film
with better photovoltaic performances. On one hand, self-assembled porous PbI2 is formed by incorporating small
amounts of rationally chosen additives into the PbI2 precursor solutions, which significantly facilitate the conversion
of perovskite without any PbI2 residue. On the other hand, through employing a relatively high CH3NH3I
concentration, a firmly crystallized and uniform CH3NH3PbI3 film is formed. Another technique using room
temperature solvent-solvent extraction produces high-quality crystalline films with precise control over thickness
down to 20 nanometers across areas several centimeters square without generating pinholes. In this method
"perovskite precursors are dissolved in a solvent called NMP and coated onto a substrate. Then, instead of heating, the
substrate is bathed in diethyl ether, a second solvent that selectively grabs the NMP solvent and whisks it away. What's
left is an ultra-smooth film of perovskite crystals."[27] In another solution processed method, the mixture of lead iodide
and methylammonium halide dissolved in DMF is preheated. Then the mixture is spin coated on a substrate
maintained at higher temperature. This method produces uniform films of up to 1 mm grain size.[28]
In vapor assisted techniques, spin coated or exfoliated lead halide is annealed in the presence of methylammonium
iodide vapor at a temperature of around 150 °C.[29] This technique holds an advantage over solution processing, as it
opens up the possibility for multi-stacked thin films over larger areas.[30] This could be applicable for the production of
multi-junction cells. Additionally, vapor deposited techniques result in less thickness variation than simple solution
processed layers. However, both techniques can result in planar thin film layers or for use in mesoscopic designs, such
as coatings on a metal oxide scaffold. Such a design is common for current perovskite or dye-sensitized solar cells.
Both processes hold promise in terms of scalability. Process cost and complexity is significantly less than that of silicon
solar cells. Vapor deposition or vapor assisted techniques reduce the need for use of further solvents, which reduces
the risk of solvent remnants. Solution processing is cheaper. Current issues with perovskite solar cells revolve around
stability, as the material is observed to degrade in standard environmental conditions, suffering drops in efficiency
(See also Stability).
In 2014, Olga Malinkiewicz presented her inkjet printing manufacturing process for perovskite sheets in Boston (USA)
during the MRS fall meeting - for which she received MIT Technology review's innovators under 35 award.[31] The
University of Toronto also claims to have developed a low-cost Inkjet solar cell in which the perovskite raw materials
are blended into a Nanosolar ‘ink’ which can be applied by an inkjet printer onto glass, plastic or other substrate
materials.[32]
Physics
An important characteristic of the most commonly used perovskite system, the methylammonium lead halides, is a
bandgap controllable by the halide content.[14][33] The materials also display a diffusion length for both holes and
electrons of over one micron.[34][35][36] The long diffusion length means that these materials can function effectively in
a thin-film architecture, and that charges can be transported in the perovskite itself over long distances. It has recently
been reported that charges in the perovskite material are predominantly present as free electrons and holes, rather
than as bound excitons, since the exciton binding energy is low enough to enable charge separation at room
temperature.[37][38]
Efficiency limits
Perovskite solar cell bandgaps are tunable and can be optimised for the solar spectrum by altering the halide content
in the film (i.e., by mixing I and Br). The Shockley–Queisser limit radiative efficiency limit, also known as the detailed
balance limit,[39][40] is about 31% under an AM1.5G solar spectrum at 1000W/m2, for a Perovskite bandgap of 1.55
eV.[41] This is slightly smaller than the radiative limit of gallium arsenide of bandgap 1.42 eV which can reach a
radiative efficiency of 33%.
Values of the detailed balance limit are available in tabulated form[41] and a MATLAB program for implementing the
detailed balance model has been written.[40]
In the meantime, the drift-diffusion model has found to successfully predict the efficiency limit of perovskite solar
cells, which enable us to understand the device physics in-depth, especially the radiative recombination limit and
selective contact on device performance. [42] There are two prerequisites for predicting and approaching the perovskite
efficiency limit. First, the intrinsic radiative recombination needs to be corrected after adopting optical designs
which will significantly affect the open-circuit voltage at its Shockley–Queisser limit. Second, the contact
characteristics of the electrodes need to be carefully engineered to eliminate the charge accumulation and surface
recombination at the electrodes. With the two procedures, the accurate prediction of efficiency limit and precise
evaluation of efficiency degradation for perovskite solar cells are attainable by the drift-diffusion model.[42]
Along with analytical calculations, there have been many first principle studies to find the characteristics of the
perovskite material numerically. These include but are not limited to bandgap, effective mass, and defect levels for
different perovskite materials.[43][44][45][46] Also there have some efforts to cast light on the device mechanism based on
simulations where Agrawal et al.[47] suggests a modeling framework,[48] presents analysis of near ideal efficiency, and
[49] talks about the importance of interface of perovskite and hole/electron transport layers. However, Sun et al.[50]
tries to come up with a compact model for perovskite different structures based on experimental transport data.
Architectures
Perovskite solar cells function efficiently in a number of somewhat

different architectures depending either on the role of the perovskite
material in the device, or the nature of the top and bottom electrode.
Devices in which positive charges are extracted by the transparent bottom
electrode (cathode), can predominantly be divided into 'sensitized', where
the perovskite functions mainly as a light absorber, and charge transport
occurs in other materials, or 'thin-film', where most electron or hole
transport occurs in the bulk of the perovskite itself. Similar to the
sensitization in dye-sensitized solar cells, the perovskite material is coated
onto a charge-conducting mesoporous scaffold – most commonly TiO2 – as
light-absorber. The photogenerated electrons are transferred from the Schematic of a sensitized perovskite
perovskite layer to the mesoporous sensitized layer through which they are solar cell in which the active layer
transported to the electrode and extracted into the circuit. The thin film consist of a layer of mesoporous
TiO2 which is coated with the
solar cell architecture is based on the finding that perovskite materials can
perovskite absorber. The active
also act as highly efficient, ambipolar charge-conductor.[34] After light
layer is contacted with an n-type
absorption and the subsequent charge-generation, both negative and material for electron extraction and
positive charge carrier are transported through the perovskite to charge a p-type material for hole extraction.
selective contacts. Perovskite solar cells emerged from the field of dye- b) Schematic of a thin-film
sensitized solar cells, so the sensitized architecture was that initially used, perovskite solar cell. In this
architecture in which just a flat layer
but over time it has become apparent that they function well, if not
of perovskite is sandwiched
ultimately better, in a thin-film architecture.[51] More recently, some
between to selective contacts. c)
researchers also successfully demonstrated the possibility of fabricating Charge generation and extraction in
flexible devices with perovskites,[52][53][54] which makes it more promising the sensitized architecture. After
for flexible energy demand. Certainly, the aspect of UV-induced light absorption in the perovskite
degradation in the sensitized architecture may be detrimental for the absorber the photogenerated
electron is injected into the
important aspect of long-term stability.
mesoporous TiO2 through which it is
There is another different class of architectures, in which the transparent extracted. The concomitantly
generated hole is transferred to the
electrode at the bottom acts as cathode by collecting the photogenerated p-
p-type material. d) Charge
type charge carriers.[55] generation and extraction in the
thin-film architecture. After light
History absorption both charge generation
as well as charge extraction occurs
These perovskite materials have been well known for many years, but the in the perovskite layer.
first incorporation into a solar cell was reported by Miyasaka et al. in
2009.[3] This was based on a dye-sensitized solar cell architecture, and
generated only 3.8% power conversion efficiency (PCE) with a thin layer of perovskite on mesoporous TiO2 as
electron-collector. Moreover, because a liquid corrosive electrolyte was used, the cell was only stable for a matter of
minutes. Park et al. improved upon this in 2011, using the same dye-sensitized concept, achieving 6.5% PCE.[56]
A breakthrough came in 2012, when Henry Snaith and Mike Lee from the University of Oxford realised that the
perovskite was stable if contacted with a solid-state hole transporter such as spiro-OMeTAD and did not require the
mesoporous TiO2 layer in order to transport electrons.[57][58] They showed that efficiencies of almost 10% were
achievable using the 'sensitized' TiO2 architecture with the solid-state hole transporter, but higher efficiencies, above
10%, were attained by replacing it with an inert scaffold.[59] Further experiments in replacing the mesoporous TiO2
with Al2O3 resulted in increased open-circuit voltage and a relative improvement in efficiency of 3–5% more than
those with TiO2 scaffolds.[30] This led to the hypothesis that a scaffold is not needed for electron extraction, which was
later proved correct. This realisation was then closely followed by a demonstration that the perovskite itself could also
transport holes, as well as electrons.[60] A thin-film perovskite solar cell, with no mesoporous scaffold, of > 10%
efficiency was achieved.[51][61][62]
In 2013 both the planar and sensitized architectures saw a number of developments. Burschka et al. demonstrated a
deposition technique for the sensitized architecture exceeding 15% efficiency by a two-step solution processing,[63] At a
similar time Olga Malinkiewicz et al, and Liu et al. showed that it was possible to fabricate planar solar cells by thermal
co-evaporation, achieving more than 12% and 15% efficiency in a p-i-n and an n-i-p architecture respectively.[64][65][66]
Docampo et al. also showed that it was possible to fabricate perovskite solar cells in the typical 'organic solar cell'
architecture, an 'inverted' configuration with the hole transporter below and the electron collector above the
perovskite planar film.[67]
A range of new deposition techniques and even higher efficiencies were reported in 2014. A reverse-scan efficiency of
19.3% was claimed by Yang Yang at UCLA using the planar thin-film architecture.[68] In November 2014, a device by
researchers from KRICT achieved a record with the certification of a non-stabilized efficiency of 20.1%.[4]
In December 2015, a new record efficiency of 21.0% was achieved by researchers at EPFL.[4]
As of March 2016, researchers from KRICT and UNIST hold the highest certified record for a single-junction
perovskite solar cell with 22.1%.[4]
Stability
One big challenge for perovskite solar cells (PSCs) is the aspect of short-term and long-term stability. The instability of
PSCs is mainly related to environmental influence (moisture and oxygen),[69][70] thermal influence (intrinsic
stability),[71] heating under applied voltage[72], photo influence (Ultraviolet light)[73] and mechanical fragility.[74]
Several studies about PSCs stability have been performed and some elements have been proven to be important to the
PSCs stability.[75][76] However, there is no standard stability protocol for PSCs.[73]
The water-solubility of the organic constituent of the absorber material make devices highly prone to rapid
degradation in moist environments.[77] The degradation which is caused by moisture can be reduced by optimizing the
constituent materials, the architecture of the cell, the interfaces and the environment conditions during the fabrication
steps.[73] Encapsulating the perovskite absorber with a composite of carbon nanotubes and an inert polymer matrix
has been demonstrated to successfully prevent the immediate degradation of the material when exposed to moist
ambient air at elevated temperatures.[77][78] However, no long term studies and comprehensive encapsulation
techniques have yet been demonstrated for perovskite solar cells. Besides moisture instability, it has also been shown
that the embodiment of devices in which a mesoporous TiO2 layer is sensitized with the perovskite absorber exhibits
UV light induced instability.[79] The cause for the observed decline in device performance of those solar cells is linked
to the interaction between photogenerated holes inside the TiO2 and oxygen radicals on the surface of TiO2.[79] The
measured ultra low thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/(Km) at room temperature in CH3NH3PbI3 can prevent fast
propagation of the light deposited heat, and keep the cell resistive on thermal stresses that can reduce its life time.[80]
The PbI2 residue in perovskite film has been experimentally demonstrated to have a negative effect on the long-term
stability of devices.[26] The stabilization problem is claimed to be solved by replacing the organic transport layer with a
metal oxide layer, allowing the cell to retain 90% capacity after 60 days.[81][82] Besides, the two instabilities issues can
be solved by using multifunctional fluorinated photopolymer coatings that confer luminescent and easy-cleaning
features on the front side of the devices, while concurrently forming a strongly hydrophobic barrier toward
environmental moisture on the back contact side.[83] The front coating can prevent the UV light of the whole incident
solar spectrum from negatively interacting with the PSC stack by converting it into visible light, and the back layer can
prevent water from permeation within the solar cell stack. The resulting devices demonstrated excellent stability in
terms of power conversion efficiencies during a 180-day aging test in the lab and a real outdoor condition test for more
than 3 months.[83]
Advancements in the engineering of interfaces allowed the creation of a 2D / 3D mixed perovskite, which enabled the
creation of a solar cell with over 10000 hour (more than 1 year) stable performance without any loss in efficiency,
pointing towards the viability of commercialization.[84] The intrinsic fragility of the perovskite material requires
extrinsic reinforcement to shield this crucial layer from mechanical stresses. Insertion of mechanically reinforcing
scaffolds directly into the active layers of perovskite solar cells resulted in the compound solar cell formed exhibiting a
30-fold increase in fracture resistance, repositioning the fracture properties of perovskite solar cells into the same
domain as conventional c-Si, CIGS and CdTe solar cells.[85]
Hysteretic current-voltage behavior

Another major challenge for perovskite solar cells is the observation that current-voltage scans yield ambiguous
efficiency values.[86][87] The power-conversion efficiency of a solar cell is usually determined by characterizing its
current-voltage (IV) behavior under simulated solar illumination. In contrast to other solar cells, however, it has been
observed that the IV-curves of perovskite solar cells show a hysteretic behavior: depending on scanning conditions –
such as scan direction, scan speed, light soaking, biasing – there is a discrepancy between the scan from forward-bias
to short-circuit (FB-SC) and the scan from short-circuit to forward bias (SC-FB).[86] Various causes have been
proposed such as ion movement, polarization, ferroelectric effects, filling of trap states,[87] however, the exact origin
for the hysteretic behavior is yet to be determined. But it appears that determining the solar cell efficiency from IV-
curves risks producing inflated values if the scanning parameters exceed the time-scale which the perovskite system
requires in order to reach an electronic steady-state. Two possible solutions have been proposed: Unger et al. show
that extremely slow voltage-scans allow the system to settle into steady-state conditions at every measurement point
which thus eliminates any discrepancy between the FB-SC and the SC-FB scan.[87] Henry Snaith et al. have proposed
'stabilized power output' as a metric for the efficiency of a solar cell. This value is determined by holding the tested
device at a constant voltage around the maximum power-point (where the product of voltage and photocurrent
reaches its maximum value) and track the power-output until it reaches a constant value. Both methods have been
demonstrated to yield lower efficiency values when compared to efficiencies determined by fast IV-scans.[86][87]
However, initial studies have been published that show that surface passivation of the perovskite absorber is an
avenue with which efficiency values can be stabilized very close to fast-scan efficiencies.[88][89] Initial reports suggest
that in the 'inverted architecture', which has a transparent cathode, little to no hysteresis is observed.[55] This suggests
that the interfaces might play a crucial role with regards to the hysteretic IV behavior since the major difference of the
inverted architecture to the regular architectures is that an organic n-type contact is used instead of a metal oxide.
The observation of hysteretic current-voltage characteristics has thus far been largely underreported. Only a small
fraction of publications acknowledge the hysteretic behavior of the described devices, even fewer articles show slow
non-hysteretic IV curves or stabilized power outputs. Reported efficiencies, based on rapid IV-scans, have to be
considered fairly unreliable and make it currently difficult to genuinely assess the progress of the field.
The ambiguity in determining the solar cell efficiency from current-voltage characteristics due to the observed
hysteresis has also affected the certification process done by accredited laboratories such as NREL. The record
efficiency of 20.1% for perovskite solar cells accepted as certified value by NREL in November 2014, has been
classified as 'not stabilized'.[4] To be able to compare results from different institution, it is necessary to agree on a
reliable measurement protocol, as it has been proposed by [90] including the corresponding Matlab code which can be
found at GitHub.[91]
Perovskite in tandem cells

A perovskite cell combined with bottom cell such as Si or copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) as a tandem design
can suppress individual cell bottlenecks and take advantage of the complementary characteristics to enhance the
efficiency.[92] For example, using a four terminal configuration in which the two sub-cells are electrically isolated,
Bailie et al.[93] obtained a 17% and 18.6% efficient tandem cell with mc-Si (η ~ 11%) and copper indium gallium
selenide (CIGS, η ~ 17%) bottom cells, respectively. A 13.4% efficient tandem cell with a highly efficient a-Si:H/c-Si
heterojunction bottom cell using the same configuration was obtained.[94] Mailoa et al. used a c-Si bottom cell in a two
terminal tandem design to demonstrate a 13.7% cell.[95]
There have been some efforts to predict the theoretical limits for these traditional tandem designs using perovskite as
top cell of c-Si[96] or a-Si/c-Si heterojunction bottom cell.[97] Also to show that even further output power
enhancement is possible; a bifacial structure has been studied. It was concluded that by a practical albedo reflection
8% extra output power can be extracted from the bifacial structure.[98]
In May 2016, IMEC and its partner Solliance announced a tandem structure with a semi-transparent perovskite cell
stacked on top of a back-contacted silicon cell.[99] A combined power conversion efficiency of 20.2% was claimed, with
the potential to exceed 30%.
In 2016, the development of efficient low-bandgap (1.2-1.3eV) perovskite materials and the fabrication of efficient
devices using these enabled a new concept: all-perovskite tandems, using two perovskites of different bandgaps
stacked on top of each other. The first two- and four-terminal devices reported in this architecture achieved
efficiencies of 17% and 20.3%.[100] The most exciting thing about this all-perovskite tandem technology is its promise,
however - all-perovskite tandems offer the first solution-processable architecture that has a clear route to beating not
only the efficiencies of Silicon, but also GaAs and other expensive III-V semiconductor solar cells.
See also
Dye-sensitized solar cell
Emerging photovoltaics
Hybrid solar cell
List of types of solar cells
Nanocrystal solar cell
Perovskite (mineral)
Polymer solar cell
Thin film solar cell
Third generation photovoltaic cell
Methylammonium lead halide
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and 2.3 eV depending on halide content. Formamidinum lead trihalide

In another recent development, solar cells based on transition metal oxide

Perovskite solar cells function efficiently in a number of somewhat

Hysteretic current-voltage behavior

Perovskite in tandem cells

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