Civil Reference

Cement Consumption Coefficients for
Various Construction Works

Construction works involving cement as one of the material requires cement consumption
coefficients for estimation of quantities and cost of such works. Coefficients of cement
consumption works for various construction activities involving cement mortar, concrete etc. are
presented in table.
S.
Construction Work Details Coefficient
No.
1 P.C.C. (1:5:10) 2.6 Bags/cu.mt.
2 P.C.C. (1:4:8) 3.4 Bags/cu.mt.
3 P.C.C. (1:3:6) 4.4 Bags/cu.mt.
4 R.C.C. M-15 (1:2:4) 6.3 Bags/cu.mt.
8.00
5 R.C.C. M-20 (1:2:4)
Bags/cu.mt.
12.20
6 R.C.C. M-25 (1:1:2)
Bags/cu.mt.
1.32
7 Brick work in CM (1:6)
Bags/cu.mt.
1.90
8 Brick work in CM (1:4)
Bags/cu.mt.
0.213
9 Half Brickwork in (1:4)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.131
10 Plastering in CM (1:4) – 15mm thick
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.109
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.055
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.086
Bags/Sq.mt.
14 Plastering in CM (1:6) – 12mm thick 0.072

Bags/Sq.mt.
0.073
15 Plastering in CM (1:6) – 6 mm thick
Bags/Sq.mt.
20mm thick sand face plastering in two layers. (13 mm thick plaster in 0.220
16
CM 1:4 and 7 mm thick plaster in CM 1:2) Bags/Sq.mt.
0.157
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.117
18 Plastering in CM (1:4) – 13 mm thick
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.228
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.170
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.044
21 Floating coat of neat cement
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.138
22 Brick on edge pitching in CM (1:4)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.185
23 Brick on edge pitching in CM (1:3)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.031
24 Flush pointing in brick work with CM (1:3)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.32
25 40mm thick Damp proof course in M-20
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.244
26 25 mm thick IPS in M-15
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.340
27 40 mm thick IPS in M-15
Bags/Sq.mt.
50mm thick granite flooring, 1st layer 35mm thick (1:1.5:3), 2nd layer 0.433
28
15 thick (1:2) Bags/Sq.mt
0.034
29 125mm high plaster skirting in CM (1:3)
Bags/R.M.
0.24
30 25mm thick kota stone over 20mm thick bedding in CM (1:6)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.264
31 40mm thick kota stone over 20 mm thick bedding in CM (1:6)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.264
32 18mm thick kota stone over 12 mm thick bedding in CM (1:6)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.088
33 6 mm thick glazed tiles fixing
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.218
34 25mm thick CM screed in CM (1:5)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.228
35 20mm thick mosaic tiles over 25mm thick bedding in CM (1:6)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.200
36 18mm thick mosaic tiles over 20mm thick bedding in CM (1:6)
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.160
37 18mm thick marble skirting over 12mm thick bedding in CM (1:6)
Bags/Sq.mt.
Water Proofing treatment with 50mm thick screed in CM (1:5), 115 1.18
38
thick brick bats in CM (1:3), third layer of 25 mm thick in CM (1:3) Bags/Sq.mt.
Fixing of rainwater Pipes
0.048
110 mm diameter PVC
39 Bags/Opening
0.075
160mm diameter PVC
Bags/Opening
Joining & Fixing of CI rainwater Pipes
0.176 Bags/100
100 mm diameter
40 mtr.
0.264 Bags/100
150 mm diameter
mtr.
Fixing wooden Frame/Steel frame doors in M-15 concrete of block size. 0.129
41
350 x 100 x 100 mm Bags/Door
Fixing of steel louvers/windows in M-15 grade concrete of block 150 x 0.008

42
50 x 50 at 750 mm c/c. Bags/Sq.mt
0.70 Bags/ 100

43 Fixing of rolling shutters.
Sq.Mt.
0.329
44 Providing and Fixing of 50mm thick RCC jali.
Bags/Sq.mt.
0.051
45 Fixing of 50 mm thick RCC Jali.
Bags/Sq.mt.
46 Fixing of glazed earthen ware Orissa pan type water closet. 0.5 Bags/No’s
47 Fixing of white glazed EWC. 0.05 Bags/No’s
48 Fixing of large flat back urinal. 0.03 Bags/No’s
49 Fixing of hand wash basin/sink 0.03 Bags/No’s
50 Fixing of floor trap of 100/100 mm 0.05 Bags/No’s
Jointing and fixing of soil waste Pipe.
80mm diameter. 0.132 Bags/RM

51
Fixing of GI water pipes concealed work.
0.642
15 mm diameter
Bags/100M
52 0.770
20 mm diameter
Bags/100M
25 mm diameter 0.90 Bags/100M
32 mm diameter 0.96 Bags/100M
Construction of brick masonry valve chambers of size 300 x 300 x 600

0.700
53 mm CM (1:4) fixing cover in M-15 concrete, M-15 foundation concrete
Bags/No’s
13mm thick plaster on inside & outside exposed surface.
Construction of brick masonry inspection chamber of size 750 x 750 x

54 5.0 Bags/No’s
1000 mm in CM (1:4) RCC of M-15, 13mm plastering in CM (1:3).
Concrete Cover Specifications for
Reinforcement in Different Codes
Concrete cover is assumed to be the first measure considered to prevent influences of aggressive
elements on the reinforcement steel bars. That is why utmost cautions are needed during concrete
cover thickness design and its construction.
Commonly, the thickness of concrete cover is specified based on the type of the
reinforced concrete member and the environment in which the structure is constructed.
In this article, concrete cover specifications based on various most commonly used
codes will be discussed.
The specification of different codes regarding concrete cover is commonly dependent on nature
of the structure, method of construction, environmental factors around the structure, and quality
of concrete utilized in the construction.
Determination of Concrete cover thickness according to the specifications of the

following codes will be explored:
 ACI code
 European Code
 British standard
 Special specifications for structures subjected to considerably sever conditions
Concrete Cover Specifications as per ACI code
The American code institute (ACI 318-11) provides minimum concrete cover thickness
for different elements of reinforced concrete structure. These minimum concrete covers
can be found in the Table 1.
The ACI code specifies certain condition in which this minimum cover thickness would
not be adequate and hence it needs to be increased. These conditions include corrosive
environment, fire protection, and future extension.
For example, for reinforced concrete member subjected to sea water, the ACI code
specifies that thickness of concrete cover should be at least 50mm.
It is desired to set minimum thickness of concrete cover as 65mm to account for

possible construction errors and hence make sure that 50mm cover thickness is
achieved.
The code allows the use of cover thickness smaller than those provided in Table-1 for
precast concrete members.
Table-1: Minimum Cover Thickness for Cast-in-Place

Concrete
Type of structure Concrete over, mm
Concrete cast against and permanently in contact with ground 75
Concrete in contact with ground or water
No. 19 through No. 57 bars 50
No. 16 bar and smaller 40
Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground
Slabs, walls, joists
No. 43 and No. 57 bars 40

Beams, columns
Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, spirals 40
Shells, folded plate members
No. 19 bar and larger 20
Concrete Cover Specifications as per European

Code
The euro code provides exact recommendation and details regarding the thickness of
concrete cover. The code specified minimum concrete cover along with water to cement
ratio, concrete strength, and minimum cement content based on the type of weather
condition to which the structure is exposed.
This can be clearly observed in Table-2 that provided minimum concrete cover
thickness along with other parameters based on the weather condition.
Table-2: Minimum concrete cover according to the

European code and British specifications
Exposure Maximum W/C Minimum cement Minimum concrete Concrete
condition ratio content, Kg/m3 cover, mm grade
Dry 0.65 260 15 C30/37
Humid
No frost 0.60 280 20 C30/37
Frost 0.55 280 25 C35/45

De-icing salts 0.5 300 40 C35/45
Seawater
No frost 0.55 300 40 C35/45
Frost 0.50 300 40 C35/45
Aggressive chemicals
Slightly 0.55 280 25 –
Moderately 0.50 300 30 –
Highly 0.45 300 40 –
It is proven by number of researchers like Browne et. el. and Van Daver that concrete
cover in majority of structures are less than that specified in design.
For example, Browne et. el. reported that average cover thickness of observed
structures was 13.9mm instead of 25mm that specified in the design.
That is why European code states that minimum cover thickness should be increased
by permitted standard deviation which ranges from 5-10mm for cast in situ concrete and
0-5mm for precast concrete.
Concrete Cover Specifications as per British

standard
According to the British standard thickness of concrete cover is based on weather
condition in which the structure is constructed. In addition to the concrete strength, and
quality of concrete that is dependent on cement content and water to cement ratio.
Table-3 provides minimum concrete cover thickness determined according to the British
standard.
Table-3: Thickness and properties of concrete cover
according to British standard
Concrete grade, MPa
30 35 40 45 50
Water/ cement ratio
Environmental conditions 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45
Minimum cement content, Kg/m3
25 20 20 20 20
Concrete cover thickness
Moderate1 25 20 20 20 20
Moderate2 — 35 30 25 20
Hard3 — — 40 30 25
Very hard4 — — 50 40 30
Maximum condition5 — — — 60 50
1
concrete surface protected from external weather or hard condition
2
concrete surfaces protected from rain or freezing and concrete under water or concrete
adjacent to no affected soil
3
concrete surface exposed to rain and wetting and drying
4
concrete exposed to seawater spray or melting ice by salt or freezing
5
concrete surface exposed to abrasion such as seawater containing solid particles, or
moving water at pH 4.5 or machines or cars
Special specifications for structures subjected to
considerably sever conditions
Commonly, offshore structures are directly subjected to sea water and specific
protection measure should be considered to prevent corrosion of embedded steel bars.
There are three major regions of severe weather condition to which reinforced concrete
structure may be exposed.
These severe weather conditions include air, splash zone, and immersed in water. The
most dangerous condition is the splash zone since the structure subjected to seawater
and air combination.
ACI 357 provides recommendation regarding cover thickness in severe weather

conditions based on the concrete strength, location of structure, and maximum water to
cement ratio, see Table 4.
Table-4: ACI 357 recommendations for cover thickness in

offshore structure
Cover thickness
Maximum w/c Minimum concrete strength at
Location
ratio 28 days Reinforced
Prestressed
steel
Air 0.4 35 50 75
Splash zone 0.4 35 65 90
Immersed in
0.45 35 50 75
water
Apart from ACI 357, British standard provides recommendation about the selection of
concrete cover thickness for private structures.
The determination of concrete cover thickness takes several parameters into

consideration for example degree of mixing for each concrete quality, life expectancy of
the structure, and chloride diffusion factor in concrete.
Preparation of Bar Bending Schedule
and Its Advantages
Bar bending schedule (or schedule of bars) is a list of reinforcement bars for a given
reinforced concrete work item, and is presented in a tabular form for easy visual
reference.
Table of bar bending schedule summarizes all the needed particulars of bars – diameter, shape
of bending, length of each bent and straight portions, angles of bending, total length of each bar,
and number of each type of bar. This information is a great help in preparing an estimate of
quantities.

and Its Advantages
Bar bending schedule (or schedule of bars) is a list of reinforcement bars for a given reinforced
concrete work item, and is presented in a tabular form for easy visual reference.
Table of bar bending schedule summarizes all the needed particulars of bars –
diameter, shape of bending, length of each bent and straight portions, angles of
bending, total length of each bar, and number of each type of bar. This information is a
great help in preparing an estimate of quantities.
Calculation of Reinforcement Shape, Cutting and Bending

Lengths
Figure 1 depicts the shape and proportions of hooks and bends in the reinforcement
bars – these are standard proportions that are adhered to:
(a) Length of one hook = (4d ) + [(4d+ d )] – where, (4d+ d ) refers to the curved portion
= 9d.
(b) The additional length (la) that is introduced in the simple, straight end-to-end length
of a reinforcement bar due to being bent up at say 30o to 60o, but it is generally 45o) =
l1 – l2 = la
Where,
Giving different values to respectively), we get different values of
la, as tabulated below:
Figure 2 presents the procedure to arrive at the length of hooks and the total length of a
given steel reinforcement.
Advantages of Bar Bending Schedule
Bar bending schedule provides details of reinforcement cutting and bending length.
Advantages of bar bending schedule is when used along with reinforcement detailed
drawing improves the quality of construction, cost and time saving for concrete
construction works.
Advantages of bar bending schedule in concrete construction are:

1. When Bar bending schedule is available, cutting and bending of reinforcement can be
done at factory and transported to site. This increases faster execution at site and
reduces construction time and cost due to less requirement of workers for bar bending.
Bar bending also avoids the wastage of steel reinforcement (5 to 10%) and thus saves
project cost.
2. Using bar bending schedule for when used for Fe500, it saves 10% more steel
reinforcement compared to fe415.
3. It improves the quality control at site as reinforcement is provided as per bar bending
schedule which is prepared using the provisions of respective detailing standard codes.
4. It provides the better estimation of reinforcement steel requirement for each and
every structural member which can be used to compute overall reinforcement
requirement for entire project.
5. It provides better stock management for reinforcement. Steel requirement for next
phase of construction can be estimated with accuracy and procurement can be done.
This prevents stocking of extra steel reinforcement at site for longer time, preventing
corrosion of reinforcement in case of coastal areas. It also prevents shortage of
reinforcement for ongoing work by accurate estimation and thus concrete construction
works can proceed smoothly.
6. Bar bending schedule is very much useful during auditing of reinforcement and
provides checks on theft and pilferage.
7. Bar bending schedule can be used for reinforcement cutting, bending and making
skeleton of structural member before it can be placed at the required position. Other
activities such as excavation, PCC etc can proceed parallel with this activity. So, overall
project activity management becomes easy and reduces time of construction. It
becomes helpful in preventing any damages due to construction time overrun.
8. It provides benchmarks for quantity and quality requirements for reinforcement and
concrete works.
9. Bar bending schedule provides the steel quantity requirement much accurately and
thus provides an option to optimize the design in case of cost overrun.
10. It becomes easy for site engineers to verify and approve the bar bending and cutting
length during inspection before placement of concrete with the use of bar bending
schedule and helps in better quality control.
11. It enables easy and fast preparation of bills of construction works for clients and
contractors.
12. The quantity of reinforcement to be used is calculated using engineering formulas
and standard codes, so there is no option for approximate estimation of steel
reinforcement.
13. With the use of bar bending schedule, mechanization of cutting and bending of
reinforcement can be done, again reducing the cost and time of project and dependency
on skilled labor requirement. It also improves the reliability on accuracy of bar cutting
and bending.
14. When mechanized bar cutting and bending is used, the cost of reinforced concrete
work per unit reduces and helps in cost optimization of construction project.
Measurement of Plinth Area and Carpet

Area of a Building
Plinth area and carpet area of a building is measured for estimation and calculation of
building cost. It is also a measure of usable space of building.
Plinth area is the covered built-up area measured at the floor level of any storey or at
the floor level of the basement. Plinth area is also called as built-up area and is the
entire area occupied by the building including internal and external walls. Plinth area is
generally 10-20% more than carpet area.
Carpet area the covered area of the usable spaces of rooms at any floor. It is measured
between walls to walls within the building and is the sum of the actual areas of the
rooms where you can carpet.
Measurement of Plinth Area and Carpet
Area of a Building
Plinth area and carpet area of a building is measured for estimation and calculation of building
cost. It is also a measure of usable space of building.
Plinth area is the covered built-up area measured at the floor level of any storey or at the floor
level of the basement. Plinth area is also called as built-up area and is the entire area occupied by
the building including internal and external walls. Plinth area is generally 10-20% more than
carpet area.
Fig.1: Plinth Area of a Room in Building

Carpet area the covered area of the usable spaces of rooms at any floor. It is measured between
walls to walls within the building and is the sum of the actual areas of the rooms where you can
carpet.
Fig.1: Carpet Area of a Room in Building
Measurement of Plinth Area and Carpet Area of a
Building
For measurement, the lengths and widths should be measured nearest to 0.01m and areas should
be rounded to 0.01 m2. In Case of feet system, length should be measured to nearest 1 inch.
During the measurement, following categories are measured separately:
 Basement
 Floor without cladding (stilled floor)
 Floors including top floor which may be partly covered
 Garage
 Mezzanine floor
Measurement of Plinth Area

Following areas are included during measurement of plinth area:
1. Area of the wall at the floor level, excluding plinth offsets. If there are any common walls between
two buildings, half of the area of such walls shall be considered in the plinth area. When building
consists of columns projecting beyond the cladding, the plinth area is measured upto the external
face of the cladding (in case of corrugated sheet, cladding outer edge of the corrugation is
considered).
2. Areas of the internal shaft for sanitary installations and garbage chute, electrical, telecom and
firefighting services provided these do not exceed 2 m2 in area.
3. Vertical duct for air conditioning and lift well including landing.
4. Staircase room or head room other than terrace level
5. Machine room
6. Porch
7. Open projections of veranda, balconies and parapets, if the area is protected by projections, full area
is included in plinth area, if the area is un-protected by projections, 50% of the area is included.
8. Recess by cantilevering beyond external walls, bay window is the best example. If the recess height
is up to 1.0 meter, 25% of such area shall be included. If the recess height is 1.0 to 2.0 meters, 50%
of such area shall be included. If the recess height is above 2.0 meters, 100% of such area shall be
included.
The following is not to be included in the calculation of plinth area:
1. Additional floor for seating in assembly buildings, theatres, auditoriums
2. Cantilevered porch
3. Balcony
4. Area of loft
5. Internal sanitary shaft and garbage chute, provided these are more than 2 m2 in area
6. Area of architectural band, cornice, etc.
7. Area of vertical sun breaker or box louver projecting out and other architectural features such as slab
projection for keeping flower pots
8. Open platform
9. Terrace at first floor
10. Spiral staircase including landing
11. Towers, turrets, domes projecting above the terrace level at terrace.
Wall Area in Plinth Area Calculation
Wall area is also included in plinth area calculation. Wall area is the area on plan
occupied by walls on any particular floor. It includes the thickness of any finishing or
dado tiles if the height of such wall is more than 1m from floor finish.
Following should be included in wall area of the building:

1. Area on plan occupied by doors and other openings
2. Intermediate pillars, supports and other such obstructions within the plinth area irrespective of their
locations
3. Pilasters along wall if exceeding 300 cm2 in area
4. Flues within the wall
5. Built-in cupboards, wardrobes, shelves appearing within a height of 2.2m from floor
6. Fire place projecting beyond the face of wall in living or bed room
The following is not included in wall area:
1. Pilaster along wall not exceeding 300 cm2 in are
2. Platforms projecting beyond the face of the wall
Measurement of the Carpet Area of the Building

Carpet area is the plinth area less the area of the following portions of the building:
1. Wall area
2. Veranda
3. Corridor and passage
4. Entrance hall and porch
5. Staircase and stair cover
6. Lift shaft and machine room for lift
7. Bathroom and lavatory
8. Kitchen and pantry
9. Store
10. Canteen
11. Air conditioning duct and plant room
12. Shaft for sanitary piping
13. Stilted floor and garage
For the calculation of approximate cost of the building using plinth area method, the
sum of the built-up area of all floors including based basement is considered as the
plinth area of the building.
Components Parts of a Bridge –

Concrete and Steel Bridges Parts and
Details
Various components and parts of a bridge such as superstructure, substructure,
bearings of concrete and steel bridges, their types, importance, functions are discussed.
Basic Components and Parts of Bridge Structures

The bridge structure consists of the following components:
1. Superstructure or decking component

2. Bearings
3. Substructure Components
Superstructure Components of Bridges

The superstructure of the bridge structure consists of deck slab, girder, truss etc. These
components vary based on the type of bridge (whether concrete or steel or composite).
Superstructure of the bridge bears the load passing over it. This helps in transmitting
the forces formed by the loads to the below substructures.
Decks
The decking is considered as the road or the rail surface of the bridge. The decks are
supported by the girders or the huge beams that is in turn supported by the piers. The
whole arrangement is supported with a deep foundation mainly piles and cap
arrangement.
Components Parts of a Bridge –
Concrete and Steel Bridges Parts and
Details
Various components and parts of a bridge such as superstructure, substructure, bearings of
concrete and steel bridges, their types, importance, functions are discussed.
Basic Components and Parts of Bridge Structures

The bridge structure consists of the following components:
1. Superstructure or decking component

2. Bearings
3. Substructure Components
Fig: Semi-Through Section of a Concrete Slab Road Bridge

Superstructure Components of Bridges
The superstructure of the bridge structure consists of deck slab, girder, truss etc. These
components vary based on the type of bridge (whether concrete or steel or composite).
Superstructure of the bridge bears the load passing over it. This helps in transmitting the forces
formed by the loads to the below substructures.
Decks
The decking is considered as the road or the rail surface of the bridge. The decks are supported
by the girders or the huge beams that is in turn supported by the piers. The whole arrangement is
supported with a deep foundation mainly piles and cap arrangement.
Bearings in Bridges
The loads received by the decks are properly and safely transmitted to the substructure with the
help of bearings. These are components of bridge that enables even distribution of load on the
substructure material. This transmission is very essential in situations where the substructure is
not designed to take the load action directly.
The bearings in bridges allows the longitudinal movement of the girders. This movement
is created due to the forces acting on the longitudinal direction. The forces due to the
moving loads and the variation in temperature are the main causes for longitudinal
forces.
The selection of bearing is dependent on certain parameters, which are: Loads acting,
the geometry, the extent of maintenance, the clearance available, the displacement,
rotation and deflection policy, availability, preference of the designer, the construction
tolerances, and the cost criteria.
For the bridge design, all the above-mentioned aspect is considered for the design and
the choice of bearings. The designer must consider the bearing arrangement in the
bridge construction as a separate system.
In most of construction practice, the bearing is selected or the decision for bearing is
done in the last moment. This results in increase of maintenance in the future, which
must be avoided.
Substructure Components of Bridges

The components involved in substructure of bridges are:
1. Piers
2. Abutments
3. Wing Walls and the Returns
4. Foundation
Piers
The piers are vertical structures used to support deck or the bearings provided for load
transmission to underground soil through foundation. These structures serve as
supports for the bridge spans at intermediate points.
The pier structure has mainly two functions:

1. Load transmission to the Foundation
2. Resistance to the horizontal forces
Most of the cases, piers are designed to resist the vertical loads alone. In areas which
lie in the seismic zone, it is recommended to design the pier for lateral loads also.
Most of the piers are constructed using concrete. Steel for the construction of pier is
used in very few cases till now. Use of composite columns i.e. steel columns filled with
concrete is used as new technology of pier construction.
The pier is a vertical member that resist the forces by means of shear mechanism.
These forces are mainly lateral forces. The pier that consist of multiple columns are
called as bent.
Types of Piers in Bridge Construction
There are different types of piers based on the structural connectivity, the shape of the
section and the framing configuration.
 Based on the structural connectivity, the pier can be classified as monolithic or cantilevered.
 Based on the shape of the section pier can be classified as solid or hollow, hexagonal, round or
octagonal or rectangular.
 Based on the framing configuration the pier can be classified as single or multiple column bent,
hammerhead or pier wall type.
Abutments
Abutments are vertical structures used to retain the earth behind the structure. The
dead and the live loads from the bridge superstructure is supported by the bridge
abutments.
The abutments are also subjected to lateral pressures mainly from the approach
embankment. The design loads on the abutment is mainly dependent on the:
 Type of abutment selected

 The sequence of construction
The figure below shows the primary functions carried out by an abutment.
As seen from the above figure, the abutments have the design requirements similar to
retaining walls as well as in pier construction. The abutments are primarily designed to
resists the overturning and sliding. More focus is on the stability of the whole system.
The special care has to be provided for the foundations of abutments. The abutment
foundation must overcome the problems of differential settlement and excessive
movements caused due to lateral forces or loads.
The below figure shows the components of abutments.

Wing Walls and Returns
Structures constructed as an extension of the abutments to retain the earth present in
the approach bank are called wing walls. This portion will otherwise have a natural
angle of repose. These are retaining walls constructed adjacent to the abutments. This
wall can be constructed either integrally or independent with the abutment wall.
The rear of the wall must consider three design loads while designing. This includes:
 The earth pressure from the backfill

 The surcharge from the live loads or the compacting plant
 The hydraulic loads from the saturated soil conditions
The stability of the wing wall is mainly based on its resistance against the active earth
pressures. The structural elements of the bridges are hereby designed and constructed
to resist the earth pressures at rest.
Parapets and Handrails/ Guard Rails or Curbs
These components of bridges are not of structural importance, but provided for the
safety concerns. These are provided above the decks. This will help in prevention of the
vehicle from falling off the bridge into the water body below or as a means for the
separation of traffic streams.
Foundation of Bridges
Foundation are structures constructed to transmit the load from the piers, abutments,
wing walls and the returns evenly on the strata.
The foundation provided for bridge structures are deep in sufficient manner to avoid
scouring due to the water movement or to reduce the chances of undermining.
Types of Bridges Based on Span,
Materials, Structures, Functions, Utility
etc.
There are various types of bridges classified based on span, materials, types of bridge
structures, functions, utility and position etc.
A bridge is structure which allows passage over an obstruction. The obstructions may
be river, valley, rail route or road way etc.
Types of Bridges
Bridges are classified into so many types based on different criteria’s. They are
explained below.
Types of Bridges based on Type of Super Structure

 Arch bridge
 Girder bridge
 Truss bridge
 Suspension bridge
Arch Bridge
Arch bridge is curve shaped bridge, in which horizontal thrust is developed and is
restrained by the abutments at each end of the bridge. There are many types of arch
bridges are there. In some cases, the arch may be under the deck slab also.
Girder Bridge
In case of Girder Bridge, the deck slab is supported by means of girders. The girder
may be of rolled steel girder or plate girder or box girder. Load coming from the deck
are taken by girder and transferred them to the piers and abutments.
Truss Bridge
Truss is member consisting connected elements to form triangular units. In case of truss
bridge the super structure is provided with trusses. Generally, trusses are made of steel.
There are several types of trusses are available.
Suspension Bridge
In case of Suspension bridge, deck slab is suspended with the help of cables and
suspenders. These will give good appearance. For long span bridges, this type of
suspension is suitable.
Types of Bridges based on Materials

 Timber bridge
 Masonry bridge
 Steel bridge
 R.C.C bridge
 Pre stressed concrete bridge
Timber Bridge
Bridges constructed using timber are called timber bridges. These are generally
constructed for short spans or as temporary bridges. They are not useful for heavy
loads.
Masonry Bridge
Masonry Bridge constructed by using bricks or stones. These are generally constructed
for short spans and in low depth canals.
Steel Bridge
Steel bridges are constructed using steel bars or trusses or steel cables. These are
more durable and bear heavy loads.
R.C.C Bridge
R.C.C bridges are constructed using reinforced cement concrete. These are more
stable and durable. They can bear heavy loads and are widely using nowadays.
Prestressed Concrete Bridge

If concrete material is placed under compression before applying the loads, then it is
called as prestressed concrete. To construct pre stressed concrete bridge, pre-stressed
concrete blocks are arranged as deck slab with the help of girders. These blocks are
suitable for shorter span to longer span bridges.
Types of Bridges based on Span
 Culvert bridge
 Minor bridge
 Major bridge
 Long span bridge
Culvert Bridge
When the bridge span length is below 6meters then it is called as Culvert Bridge.
Minor Bridge
If the bridge span length is in between 8 to 30 meters, then it is called minor bridge.
Major Bridge
For major bridge, the span is generally about 30 to 120 meters.
Long Span Bridge

When the span of bridge is more than 120 meters then it is termed as long span bridge.
Over Bridge
To pass over another route (railway or highway), a bridge is constructed to allow traffic.
This is called over bridge or fly over bridge.
Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing

 Over bridge
 Under bridge
Under Bridge
If over bridge is not possible, an underground type bridge is constructed to pass another
route. This is called under bridge.
Types of Bridges based on Function
 Foot bridge
 Highway bridge
 Rail way bridge
 Aqueduct bridge
 Road cum railway bridge
Foot Bridge
Foot Bridge is generally constructed for humans to cross the roads or rail route or any
canal by foot. Vehicles are not allowed in this bridge.
Highway Bridge
High way or road Way Bridge is used for road transportation. These are constructed
over rivers or another routes to allow road way traffic. Girder type bridges are used as
highway bridges over rivers or canals.
Railway Bridge
Rail bridges are constructed for rail transportation. Truss type bridges are preferred for
railways but how ever r.c.c bridges are also used.
Aqueduct Bridge
Aqueduct bridges are nothing but water carrying bridges which are constructed to0
transport water from source to system.
Road cum Railway Bridge
This type of bridge is useful for both road way and railway transport. It may be of one
floor or two floors. If one floor is there then, rail and road way are arranged side by side.
Otherwise roadway on top deck and railway in bottom deck is preferred.
Types of Bridges based on Inter Span Relation

 Simple bridge
 Continuous bridge
 Cantilever bridge
Simple Bridge
Simple bridge is like simply supported beam type which consist two supports at its ends.
For shorter spans, simple bridges are suitable.
Continuous Bridge
If the bridge span is very long, then we have to build more supports in between end
supports. This type of bridge is termed as continuous bridge.
Cantilever Bridge
Cantilever type of bridge have only supported at one end and another end is free to
space. Generally, two cantilever portions are joined to make way to the vehicles or
humans.
Types of Bridges based on Utility
 Temporary bridge
 Permanent bridge
Temporary Bridge
During construction of dams or bridges or during floods, temporary bridges are
constructed at low cost for temporary usage. These bridges are maintained at low cost.
After construction of original structure temporary bridges are dismantled. Generally
timber is used to construct temporary bridges.
Permanent Bridge
These bridges are constructed for long term use and maintained at high level. Steel or
R.C.C bridges are come under this category.
Types of Bridges based on Position of Floor
 Deck bridge
 Through bridge
 Semi-through bridge
Deck Bridge
In case of Deck Bridge, super structure or floor of bridge is positioned in between the
high flood level and formation level.
Through Bridge
In case of through bridge, Super structure of bridge is completely above the formation
level.
Semi-Through Bridge
If the super structure of bridge is partly above and partly below the formation level, then
it is called as semi-through bridge.
Types of Bridges based on High Flood Level (HFL)

 Low level bridge
 High level bridge
Low Level Bridge

The super structure of bridge is generally below high flood level. So, whenever floods
occurred these are submersed in water. So, these are also called as submersible
bridges. These are generally constructed for unimportant routes with low cost.
High Level Bridge
High level bridge is non submersible against floods. It is well above the high flood level
and constructed in important routes.
Types of Prefabricated Bridge

Elements and Systems for Bridge
Construction
The most used prefabricated concrete
elements for bridge construction are
prestressed I beam, prestressed box
beam, prestressed channel, and slab
span. In this article different types of
prefabricated bridge elements and
systems will be discussed.
Types of Prefabricated Bridge Elements and
Systems for Bridge Construction
 Precast and prestress slab spans
 Multi stemmed beams
 Prestressed double tee and channel
 Prestressed inverted channel
 Prestressed single tee
 Prestressed I beams
 Prestressed box beams
 Prestressed bulb tee
 Segmental construction
 Prestressed subdeck panels
 Precast and prestress deck slabs
 Precast parapet
 Substructure elements
 Precast culverts
Precast and Prestress Slab Spans for Bridge Construction
Precast slab members can be constructed in various widths, depth, and length to built
spans up to 15 m. shorter spans might be normally reinforced and cast in simple
precast plants whereas long spans are commonly voided and post tensioned or
prestressed.
It is easy to fabricate, transport, and erect precast slabs. Normally, span of precast slab
is 3-9 m and prestressed slab span ranges from 6 to 15 m. Figure-1 shows cross
section of precast voided and solid slab.
Multi Stemmed Beams for Bridge Construction
Multi stemmed beams as shown in Figure-2 is constructed in different length and width
and its span is usually between 8 and 15 m. shear between beams is transferred
through weld plates and grouted keyways.
Prestressed Double Tee and Channel for Bridge

Construction
Compared to building construction, prestressed double tee and channel employed in
bridge application are constructed with higher prestress, wider webs, and thicker
flanges. This prefabricated bridge element types is used for medium length spans;
ranges is between 6-18 m.
Similar to multi stemmed beams, weld plates and grouted keyways transfer shears
between beams. In situ concrete is poured as an overlay while channel and double tee
member are overlaid with asphalt.
Prestressed Inverted Channel for Bridge Construction

This element is either casted in ordinary channel formwork and then inverted prior to
installation or cast in inverted position. In the inverted position, longer spans can be
constructed because higher prestressing can be provided in the beam bottom and
spans are usually 9-24 m. Moreover, deck surface can be achieved by filling channels
with in situ concrete.
Inverted T beam is an alternative to prestressed inverted channel. They can be installed

adjacent to each other, after that a solid member is constructed by placing cast in place
concrete between the webs of the tee and over the tops of the stem. Figure-4 show a
prestressed inverted channel member.
Prestressed Single Tee Element
For building applications, producers employ formworks to construct prestress single tee,
and the same formworks can be used to cast short span prestressed single tee
elements for bridge construction but larger prestressing should be provided to bear
greater loading.
Long span prestressed single tee beams can be constructed for highway loadings. Due
to the fact that single tee beams are unstable by design and overturning may occur at
construction site provided that the beams are not supported until keyways are grouted
and diaphragms are casted.
Deck surface and the connection between tees are achieved by providing site placed
concrete. The prestressed single tee spans between 9 and 24 m. Figure-5 provides
details of prestressed single tee element.
Prestressed I-Beams for Bridge Construction
The standard ASSHTO recommends different prestressed I beam cross sections which
simplify the design and used for mass productions. The beams precast I beams are
economical for spans that ranges from 12 to 30 m, and can be constructed in different
depths and widths.
Moreover, long spans can be produced by connecting the beams end to end and then
post tensioning together. The prestressed I beam installations are quicker than site in
place concrete beams. Figure-6 shows I beams with different cross sections.
Prestressed Box Beams for Bridge Construction
This type of prefabricated element might precast in different widths, depths, and lengths
to construct spans of nearly 15 to 30 m. prestressed box beams are positioned adjacent
to each other then tensioned in transverse direction after that a layer of asphalt is
employed for cover the surface.
Moreover, diaphragms are used to connect prestressed box beams which are placed
close to each other and site cast concrete is applied for both diaphragm and the deck.
Furthermore, a procedure is established for the transverse design of concrete box

beams without composite topping. According to this methodology, post tensioning
should be used after the grouting of shear keys.
Finally, it is claimed that this design provides a more durable product. Figure-7 shows a
prestressed box beam.
Prestressed Bulb Tee
AASHTO girders are modified which is more economical for spans of larger than 24 m.
the beams possess large section modulus to weight ratio and beams with span of larger
than 54 m have been produced. a prestressed bulb tee is illustrated in Figure-8.
Segmental Construction of Bridges
The elements are post tensioned in longitudinal direction, prestressed in transverse
direction, match cast, full width, and can be applied for different span lengths which
ranges from 15 to 122 m.
Elements are installed on false work or assembled on a truss that is supported pier to
pier. However, balanced cantilever, incremental lunching, or progressive placing is used
for the erection of elements when the span is long. An economical procedure is
developed to replace the top slab of precast post tensioned segmental bridge; therefore
deck deterioration will not need the replacement of super structure. Figure 9 illustrated
the post tensioned segmental construction.
Prestressed Subdeck Panels for Bridges
The prestressed subdeck panels as shown in Figure-10 are constructed in various
widths and depths and commonly 1.2m to 2.4m. The length is based on the spacing of
beams that support the panels. The thickness of panels is 89mm and placed in grout of
13mm thickness. A reinforced deck is produced by placing cast in place concrete over
the panels.
Moreover, the panels can be placed with small cranes and number of labors, and
temporary forms or platforms to work from is not needed. Cracks are commonly
developed in the cast in place concrete above the joints. In contrary, if the panels are
installed on prestressed girders on short spans, the cracks will not be very noticeable.
Finally, the prestressed subdeck panels offer rapid construction and economical deck.
Precast and Prestress Deck Slabs for Bridge Construction

Generally, decks are the first bridge element that damaged or deteriorated and hence
need strengthening. If the deck bridge is need strengthening or replacement and the
traffic is high, it is recommended to do the work during the off peak period.
Several replacement methods are established employing prefabricated deck slabs and
most strategies make use of transverse segment connected to supporting beams
though hydraulic cement or rapid curing polymer.
Grouted keyways, cast in place concrete, and post tensioning transfer the shear
between neighboring slabs. The compost action is obtained by the application of studs
on steel beams that extend into the slab voids that filled with hydraulic cement or
polymer in later times. Figure-11 should details of prestressed deck slab.
Precast and Prestress Deck Slabs for Bridge Construction

Generally, decks are the first bridge element that damaged or deteriorated and hence
need strengthening. If the deck bridge is need strengthening or replacement and the
traffic is high, it is recommended to do the work during the off peak period.
Several replacement methods are established employing prefabricated deck slabs and
most strategies make use of transverse segment connected to supporting beams
though hydraulic cement or rapid curing polymer.
Grouted keyways, cast in place concrete, and post tensioning transfer the shear
between neighboring slabs. The compost action is obtained by the application of studs
on steel beams that extend into the slab voids that filled with hydraulic cement or
polymer in later times. Figure-11 should details of prestressed deck slab.
Moreover, it is reported that, deck slabs are more economical compared to cast in place
slabs. This is because not only the construction time is decline but also a structural
efficiency is achieved using prestressing and post tensioning.
There have been several attempts to improve connection of slab decks to steel beam
and prestressed beams. Particular loop bar reinforcement is made by which live load
can be distributed over transverse and longitudinal joints.
Added to that, a full depth precast prestressed concrete bridge deck is constructed that
involves stemmed slabs, transverse grouted joints, longitudinal post tensioning, and
welded threads and headless studs. Not only does the deck slab have smaller thickness
compare to ordinary deck slabs but also it can be built quicker.
Furthermore, prestressed deck slabs are commonly used in considerably significant
bridge deck replacement projects for example the Woodrow Wilson Bridge shown in
Figure-12. And full depth transverse deck slabs used and replaced the truss spans of
the deck on I-95 in Richmond.
Finally, longitudinal, partial depth, or full depth deck slabs which are precast on one or
more concrete or steel beams have been utilized successfully.
Precast Parapet for Bridges
it has standard shape and mass produced easily and there are various connections
which can be used to anchor the precast parapet. it has been used in several locations
but there is a problem with water and chloride solution leaking between the top of the
deck and the base of parapet and this issue might slow down the acceptance of precast
parapet. Figure-13 shows a precast parapet.
Substructure Elements for Bridges

Generally, the construction of substructure need more time compared to superstructure
and this time can be decreased by applying prefabricated element. The majority of
substructure elements are prefabricated for instance piles, piers, pier cap, abutments,
and wing walls.
Figure-14 illustrates the abutment and wing walls installed on temporary pads and
anchored with weld plates and cast in place concrete. The construction is simplified by
precast abutment and wing wall with the footing and place on site cast footing.
The most famous application of prefabricated pier is located in Linn Cove Viaduct as
shown in Figure-15. The whole bridge structure elements were prefabricated to reduce
the environmental impact. Until the location of the pier is reached, precast segmental
superstructure segments were placed and post tensioned.
The drilling of the holes in which prestressed pile are installed were carried out from
cantilevered superstructure, and then precast segments were placed and post
tensioned.
Precast Culverts for Bridge Construction
It is possible to employ precast culverts instead of bridges if the cross section does not
restrict the flow of water. Culverts are placed easily, does not have a deck to damage,
and rarely need extensive plans.
Precast culverts designs might include inverted U, pipe, box, and arch. Concrete pipes
are used for spans of 0.3 to 3m and concrete box can be employed for spans of 1.2 to
3.7m. Precast U shaped culverts and arch shapes applied for spans of 4.9m and 12m,
respectively.
Accelerated Bridge Construction -

Features, Advantages and Sequence of
Construction
Accelerated bridge construction (ABC) uses innovative planning, design, resources and
techniques to accelerate the bridge construction without compromising safety.
This method also focuses on bringing down traffic disruption to the maximum. This
approach is applied to new projects or to replace or rehabilitate existing bridges.
Over years, the bridge construction has been using the same theories without any
change in the design concepts. Accelerated bridge construction design would affect the
design, hence the geometry as well as the configuration of the bridge deck slabs and
girders.
Accelerated bridge construction is quite a new subject as it is more into art than to science.
It is the construction management system of accelerated bridge construction that makes a
conventional bridge construction and accelerated bridge construction differ from each
other. The research on this area and its aspects are still in progress.
Drawbacks of Conventional Bridge Construction

Bridge construction or rehabilitation surely end up as a burden till its completion. Huge
traffic problems, gasoline wastage and loss of labor hours are a great problem with the
public and the society. These are all bought by conventional bridge construction.
Maintenance of bridges to the required standards demands large funds. The bridges
undergoing simple defects and damages require to shut down the highway for long, for
its maintenance. Hence in the transportation system, the bridge behaves as bottle
necks.
The accelerated bridge construction management system brings innovative planning

that brings durable bridges that perform longer compared to those constructed by
conventional methods.
Need and Promotion of Accelerated Bridge

Construction
It can be observed that one-fourth of nation’s bridges demands rehabilitation or repair or
complete replacement. This is possible only through on-site construction, that results in
huge social impacts both for safety and mobility.
It has been observed in many cases that the direct and the indirect cost due to detours
(due to loss of bridge transportation) exceeds the cost of the bridge structure. For
example, heavy traffic in large urban areas brings huge economic impact on the
industrial and commercial activities of that region.
So, traffic disruption must be minimized for maintaining the economy and safety. This is
of higher priority in accelerated bridge construction. We can altogether summarize as:
 ABC helps in improving the constructability of the site, project duration, and safety of work zone for
the public traveling.
 ABC helps in reducing the impact of huge traffic, the onsite construction time and the delays due to
weather.
Accelerated Bridge Construction composes the

following features for its promotion
 Design – Build engineering teams are introduced and the best is selected
 Factories are used to carry out conventional works
 Prefabrication methods are improved
 Use of long vehicles and SPMTs; for transporting components
 Cranes and equipment of high capacity are used
 Co-ordination between the stake holders and the highway agencies for design approval, in a well
systematic way
 Construction management is handled by contractors and the consultants. Special contractors and
product suppliers are also employed.
 Skilled labor is made available and training are provided if necessary
 Cost-benefit analysis is carried out by planning
 Construction faces modified inspection throughout its course
Distinct Structural and Material Aspects in

Accelerated Bridge Construction
Certain features that are employed in accelerated bridge construction make them
unique. Some of the main elements are:
 Using light weight material for transporting and erecting. This will help in reducing the overall
dead loads.
 Employing Precast abutment walls are a means for quick construction and backfill. This system is
not required for conventional construction system.
 Precast Pier Columns is a quick construction remedy, that is not used in conventional construction.
 High-performance concrete and high strength steel girders, facilitate in having light girder
sections that are highly durable in nature. This help in reducing the life cycle costs of the material.
 Prefabricated Deck Panels is a quick construction technique that does not employ expensive
formwork. This method is not employed in conventional bridge construction.
 For small and medium spans, precast prestressed girders can be employed.
 The provision for six degrees of freedoms at the girder ends can be given by using elastomeric
bearing pads.
 Easy lowering of partial site assembled components of the bridge, make the construction move
faster. This method is not employed in conventional bridge construction.
 Unlike conventional construction methods, the robotic feature can be used for pouring concrete into
multiple joints, nuts, and bolts.
 Use of high early strength grout in joints will let the casted concrete ready for live loads
 High capacity cranes and SPMT lets transportation and erection in ABC, which is not employed in
conventional construction.
 Provision of bridge lighting and signage are quickly carried out by having the proper coordination
of speedy utilities.
 The prefabricated approach slabs let subgrade preparation, unlike conventional construction.
Classification of span lengths in Accelerated Bridge

Construction
As discussed, the ABC method takes less time for construction. This is through bringing
variation in the construction materials and the configurations. For ABC, these features
vary for different span lengths of the bridge.
The type of girder, whether concrete or steel; the erection method; all are based on the
span length in accelerated bridge construction method. Such classification is:
1. Small Spans: This ought to have a length less than 60 feet. Based on ABC, a timber reinforced
concrete, steel, and prestressed concrete girders can be suggested.
2. Medium spans: The span length greater than 60 feet and less than 120 feet can be regarded as
medium spans. Girders either steel or prestressed can be preferred.
3. Long Spans: These have span length ranging from 120 feet to 300 feet. Hybrid girders, steel trusses
and high-performance steel (HPS) are the best options, as per ABC.
4. Very Long Spans: These have a length from 300 to 600 feet. We make use of segmental
construction and cable-stayed bridges based on ABC method.
Categories of Bridge as per Accelerated Bridge

Construction
Table-1 shows categories of modern bridges as per ABC theory and span classification.
When employing ABC methods, some of them tend to demand special design both in
sub and superstructures.
Based on the geometry; whether straight, skew or curved decks; the analysis process
will vary, hence the final design.
Table-1: Categories of Modern Bridges as per Accelerated Bridge Construction and Span
Classification
Accelerated Bridge Construction with Multiple
Structural Designs
When looking to all criterion of ABC, it possesses large variations in the structural
designs. Even the conventional bridge construction take more time, they use to employ
prefabricated elements and components. Hence the ABC construction method can be
classified briefly as:
 Partial ABC: Here No formwork is required for the construction

 Fully ABC: Here the elements are prefabricated and are assembled partially in the factory
 Super ABC: Here the whole system components of the structures are fully assembled on site.
Accelerated Bridge Construction Sequence

The flowchart below shows the construction sequence of an accelerated bridge
construction.
Planning for Bridge Construction
including Sequence and Steps of
Planning
Planning for bridge construction is required as it has huge impact on life of people. Social,
scientific and technological dimensions for bridge construction must be considered.
The decision of providing a bridge across any barrier is to facilitate the community residing
on either side of the project. Some major bridges bring benefits to the whole country; for
example, the bridges constructed across the river Ganga or the Brahmaputra in India.
Another example is the Honshu-shikoku connection, that has bridges across many islands
in Japan. This unique structure construction also benefits more than one country, as in the
case of the Oresund link, that is constructed across the Baltic ocean.
Three
Dimensions of Planning for Bridge Construction
There are three dimensions that are involved in the planning of any mega project like a
bridge. This is considered as an initial step towards the planning of structures, that
would finally bring up with a project that would be advantageous to the community in all
aspects. The three dimensions are:
 Scientific Dimension
 Social Dimension
 Technological Dimension
Scientific Dimensions for Bridge Construction
There exist certain laws for nature, based on which every structure constructed must
perform. Scientists explain these natural forms and the existence of these laws with the
help of certain inter-relations between certain elements.
In one or the other form, the scientists or the engineers make use of pre-existing
technologies in nature, that the only difference is the method they used to undergo.
Various scientific developments that are made by the engineers based on these; like
bringing different alternative materials by chemical analysis, physics – to observe and
analyze the dynamic behavior of the structure; Mathematics – used to analyze and
determine the forces and the stresses. Hence efficient structures are evolved with the
help of the scientific dimension.
Social Dimension for Bridge Construction
Enhancement of quality of life of the people, are greatly facilitated by the bridge
construction. These structures improve the mobility of people as well as the material.
This dimension helps to realize the pros and cons of such construction and their related
precautions.
Such a huge construction brings changes to the society and the people, but also bring
adverse changes to the environment. It is not only required for the bridges to satisfy the
need of mobility and the future demands but also must satisfy the problems related to
noise, pollution, during and after construction.
As the structure is the for the welfare of the whole community, the people are also
committed and responsible for bringing their contribution to this welfare in the form of
taxes, levies or in the forms of tolls. This would help in looking the construction as a cost
benefited work and as a means of economic development.
The above considerations come under the social dimension. There are also chances for
the incorporation of political dimension with the social dimension. This arises in the
situation of choice of location or the facility, or in prioritizing the needs for the welfare of
the economy.
The social dimension has a direct close connection with the scientific and the
technological dimension.
Technological Dimensions for Bridge Construction

There have been many technological developments over decades in the field of new
structures, methods of construction and materials, as an alternative for rare ones and in
bringing new machinery that works over human workers.
This technology has helped in bringing and refining alternatives in the bridge
construction. Now instead of bricks, steel, cement etc., construction are carried out by
glass fibers, carbon fibers etc.
Going through such innovations in technologies, the first FRP material constructed
bridge was in China in the year 1982. It composed of five box girders with a clear span
of 20.4m.
The development of carbon fiber reinforced polymer i.e. CFRP cables, that gain a
strength of 3300Mpa and modulus of elasticity of 165GPa, was also made. The
Winterthur Bridge in Switzerland, make use of such cables. Two cables out of twenty-
two are made of this material.
The steel is available with higher capabilities, like high strength varying from 60MPa to
100MPa, that have remarkable ductility and corrosion resistance. These had led to the
new construction choices in arches, cable supported structures, slender structures and
longer spans.
The accurate behavior of structures is clearly analyzed with the help of new techniques
of scale models, computers for huge analysis and aerodynamic studies.
With the development of new heavy vehicles with huge capacities, the engineers are
forced to construct the bridges with higher capacity. This will influence the strength and
the dimensions of the bridge and affect the maintenance related to the same.
All these bring up a higher impact on the environment, in the form of air pollution, higher
depletion of natural resources. These massive structures make use of huge amount of
concrete, which in turn make use of aggregates from nature.
When it comes to the concern of a structural engineer, the scientific dimension comes to
be the primary criteria. But he must balance with the other two dimensions i.e. the social
and the technological dimension.
This concludes that he must evolve a structure that is acceptable socially at the same
time economic, durable and efficient. This depends on how he chooses the
technological dimension, which must be conducted at the conceptual stage of the
project.
Planning Sequence for Bridge Construction

The planning sequence for the construction of a new highway or a railway project is a
major part of the project planning. Based on the complexity of the barrier across which
the bridge must be constructed, the detailing of the project planning increases, because
more investigation must be carried out. In general, the major steps that are involved in
the planning for the construction of a new project is mentioned below:
1. Identifying the need for the bridge

2. Assessment of traffic possible and required in the area proposed to construct the bridge
3. Study the location
4. Study of all possible alternatives
5. Refining and short listing all possible alternatives
6. Identifying conceptual plans for the alternatives. This involves finding the materials, the
arrangement of the span and the form.
7. Preliminary design and the cost estimation
8. Evaluating the alternatives, its risk and the final choice of decision
9. Resource source identification by detailed surveying
10. Implementation with the help of bidding documents. This is followed by carrying out by fixing the
agency, the construction details, and their commissioning.
Different Stages of Planning in Bridge Construction

The major steps that are involved in the planning for bridge construction are:
1. Study on Need for Bridge
2. Traffic Assessment
3. Location study
4. Reconnaissance Study
a) Study of alternatives
b) Feasible alternative study
5. Preliminary Engineering
a) Developing plans
b) Preliminary design and costing
c) Evaluation of alternatives, risk analysis, and final choice
6. Detailed Project Report
7. Implementation
A brief idea on each stage is explained in the following section.
1. Study on need for Bridge

The decision of having a new bridge in an area is taken as a part of development of the
society. This facilitates the feasibility of linking the cities and towns, which gain more
importance in the overall growth of a nation. Their need is studied based on the socio-
economic viabilities.
2. Traffic Assessment for Bridge Construction

An assessment of the traffic type and its quantum is necessary to decide the following
factors:
 Number of lanes on the road or the railway tracks

 The geometric design parameters
 Benefits acquired by the society
The data collection for this must be done carefully so that a proper idea on how the
traffic pattern, the growth strategies such as agricultural, industrial as well commercial
developments are influenced. The bridge construction has a huge investment at the
initial stages. Once completed, a small variation or renovation is not recommended.
So, it is advised to bring a design that considers the future capacity requirements and
traffic factors. The traffic assessment study should be considered the following factors
into consideration. This mainly is carried out with the help of a traffic planner or an
Economist.
 The traffic composition, in terms of light and the heavy vehicles

 The maximum and the minimum speed requirements
 The annual growth rate and their variations
 The design life of the bridge
3. Location Study for Bridge Construction
While having a location study and fixing the location of the bridge, it is very essential to
consider the need and the location of cross drainage works if any. The cross-drainage
work is said to have 15 to 20 % of the overall project cost if it must be implemented.
Hence before choosing the alignment for bridge construction, it is necessary to
determine all the possible CD works and its effect. The following factors are considered
reliable in fixing the location of the bridge.
 Location chosen over a stream with no bends or meanders. It will be straight in reach.
 A stream with no branches or tributaries
 The location being confined with properly defined banks
 If the bridge or the culvert is with the road approach, on either side having maximum extent
 If the crossing is normal to the alignment of the road and angle of skew is necessary, limit it.
Other than the above-specified conditions, the major river crossings of the bridge
construction should satisfy the following conditions:
a) River regime
The river upstream must be straight. If there is bend in the downstream, it must be
avoided. The river in the reach must be free from whirls, excess current due to eddies.
The channel in reach must is narrow and well defined. The river regime should have
inerodable banks that are firm. If there are no inerodable banks, over gorging, guide
banks in dry locations also must be provided.
b) Approaches
During floods, the approaches must be secure from flood attacks or any major spills.
High expensive approach construction must be avoided. It is recommended to pass
through built-up areas, or high hills or through major basin or religious structures.
The approaches have a reasonable proximity to the main road. It should not let
construction of costly connecting link.
The ideal approach will avoid the construction under water that is highly costly and
uneconomical. They should help in a way to bring lesser maintenance to the whole
system, hence increasing the life period of the bridges.
4. Reconnaissance Survey for Bridge Construction

This is a pre-feasibility study, which studies the entire reach of the river, that must be
crossed; to find out best and suitable position for bridge location. The factors each site
satisfies are taken as lists and each is analyzed individually, from which the best
consideration is chosen.
The final number of feasible sites must be refined down to three or four, this can be
done only by going in detail of each site and refining the most suitable ones.
During this stage, maps are used to locate theses feasible sites. The direct assessment
of the site is made to understand the location features (local criteria), studying the
existing and growth of traffic with the help of surveys, knowing information from the
people residing, simple routes and short cuts in the area, river flow and its spread are
also studied.
A feasibility study on the economy of cost, the duration of construction, the sources of
resources are also assessed. Now the whole information is gathered and a comparison
is made. Based on the discussion and refinement, the best feasible site for
implementation is chosen.
5. Preliminary Engineering for Bridge Construction

This stage of planning can be called as a techno-economic feasibility study. Here, the
technical details related to the bridge construction is studied in a detailed manner, to
bring all possible alternatives to proceed the construction.
Mainly it is found that the total cost of the project is plus or minus 15% of the cost that is
estimated at this stage of planning. To process the technical study, minimum level of
field study and measurements, the location study, and related parameters must be
done.
This study carried out at the bridge construction site should bring the following tabulated
content details:
1. The total length of the bridge
2. The length of approaches
3. If detours are present, their respective savings
4. The anticipated volume of traffic
5. The distance to the nearby city or town from the site
6. Expected bridge project period
7. The nature of stream flowing into the site
8. The nature and behavior of soil strata for foundation
9. The construction problems existing with bridges or approaches
10. Maintenance for the bridges or approaches if any
11. The internal rate of return or the cost benefit ratio
12. The impact on the environment
For each element that is noted, must be assigned with a certain amount of scoring and
weightage, that would finally help in choosing the best site.
7. Detailed Project Report of Bridge Construction

Planning
This stage is the final stage of planning in the bridge construction, before the
commencement of the construction work. Full investigation from the roots is taken and
documented. The investigations conducted are:
 Ground survey
 Soil exploration- foundation details
 Hydrological data
 Model studies and analysis
METHODS OF BRIDGE
CONSTRUCTION
METHODS OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION:
Before a bridge can be built an appropriate method of construction must be chosen. The
decision is made by the design team. The principle factors considered by the design
team when chosing a suitable method of construction are given below:
1. The scale of the bridge

2. The obstacles to be crossed
3. The regularity of the span lengths
4. The horizontal and vertical profiles of the bridge decks
5. The nature of the soil strata
6. The local weather
7. The local cost of materials
8. The local labour market
9. The accessibility of the site
10. The time allowed for construction.
CAST-IN-SITU METHOD OF BRIDGE

CONSTRUCTION
Cast-in-situ method of construction of bridges is a flexible method in which the demands
of more unusual geometrical shapes can be easily coped with. This method is
commonly used for short span bridges for the cost effective construction of solid, voided
or ribbed reinforced concrete slab bridges. Each bridge type is build by designing the
decks to allow each span to be cast in one continuous pour. Construction is simplicitic in
form consisting of a birdcage scaffold with plywood formwork.
Where cast-in-situ construction is used for longer span bridges, the falsework system
required becomes more sophisticated. Semi or fully mechanical falsework will require a
specialized contractor. Semi-mechanical falsework will generally consists of steel
beams or trusses which are then spanned between temporary towers. Fully mechanical
falsework system is where a self launching gantry with steel lined shutters is used.
The type of false work system used will also have a bearing on the rate of span
construction. For semi mechanical system each span will take between 2 to 6 weeks to
construct. While for fully mechanical systems a span may be placed within 1 to 2 weeks.
BALANCED CANTILEVER METHOD OF

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
Balanced Cantilever method of Bridge Construction: Balanced cantilever method of
bridge construction is chosen where a bridge has few spans which range from 50 to
250m. Construction begins at each bridge pier. Special formwork is positioned and cast-
in-situ pier segment is begun. The complete pier segment is then used as an erection
platform and launching base for all subsequent travelling formwork and concrete
segment construction. Cast-in-situ segments range between 3mm to 5m in length with
formwork moving in tandem with each segment. Segment construction is continued until
a joining midpoint is reached where a balanced pair is closed.
Stability of the end cantilever is maintained by using temporary pier supports as the end
span is begun. The length of the end spans is equal to between 0.55 and 0.65 times the
length of the typical span in the bridge
Although this is a flexible method with its repetitive construction cycle improving efficiency it
is still relatively slow. This restriction was improved in 1962 with the introduction of precast
segments.
PRECAST METHOD OF BRIDGE

CONSTRUCTION
Precast Method of Bridge Construction:
(i) Precast Beams:

Precast beam decks are generally used for short span bridges ranging between 5m to
50m – these may be railway or motorway bridges. Standard inverted tee beams or M-
beams are chosen and positioned by crane.
Where precast beams are considered for a motorway bridge construction, the bridge
cross-section for a typical carriageway will generally consist of four beams. Erection
time of such bridge should have a rate of construction of four beams per day. A cast-in-
situ slab top deck is normally used with an expected rate of construction of one span a
week.
(ii) Precast Decks: Precast deck construction is often used for the construction of long
viaducts. It is a time saving method which is beneficial for long bridges where
construction time for the final completion stage is tight.
A long viaduct can have a complete precast deck speedily placed with this method. The
decks are positioned using either a large crane or purpose made gantry. A rate of
construction of two spans per day is considered normal where a gantry system is in use,
if this pace is maintained a one kilometer deck can be placed in three weeks.
However, if this method of construction is chosen it is imperative that the engineer has
clearly organized the deck construction schedule. The speed of this method depends on
the timely delivery of prefabricated decks, the engineer and deck contractor must set
out a rate of construction which allows the supplier to produce a sufficient decks to time
while the deck contractor must be ready to place and store decks on receipt of delivery.
(iii) Precast segmental decks:

Precast segmental deck construction is used for long bridges where the deck depth is
difficult for cast in situ construction. Box girder deck segments are generally used where
the segment can be 2m or less deep, between 2.5m and 4m long carrying a deck upto
15m wide are generally used. Where in-situ post-tensioning is favoured the segments
can be prestressed either internally or externally. Internal tendons must be protected
from moisture attack.
The repetitive nature of this method allows for a variety of modern placement
techniques to be used, though balanced or free cantilever about a pier is a preferred
choice. With this method a crane or self launching gantry system can place upto six
segments per day.
The rate of construction for internally prestressed segments is considered to be a span

per week. If externally prestressed tendons are used it should be feasible to complete
three spans per week
sPAN BY SPAN CASTING METHOD OF
BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
Span by Span Casting method of Bridge
Construction:
Span by span is a relatively new
construction technique historically
associated with cantilever construction
but the advancement in external
prestressing has enabled its own
potential use to grow. Today it is
considered to be the most economic and
rapid method of construction available
for long bridges and viaducts with
individual spans upto 60m.
Decks are begun at one abutment and constructed continuously by

placing segments to the other end of the bridge. Segments can be
positioned by either a temporary staying mast system through more
commonly using an assembly truss.
Before segments are placed the truss with sliding pads is braced over
two piers. Depending on the bridge location the segments are then
transported by lorry or barge to the span under construction. Each
segment is then placed on the sliding pads and slid into its position.
Once all segments are in position the pier segment is then placed.
The final stage is then begun by running longitudinal prestressing

tendons through segments ducts and prestressing entire span. Deck
joints are then cast and closed and ducts grouted. When the span is
complete the assembly truss is lowered and moved to the next span
where construction cycle begins until the bridge is complete.
INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING
METHOD OF BRIDGE
CONSTRUCTION
Incremental Launching Method of Bridge Construction:
For bridge decks greater than 250m in length, the method of

incremental launching can be considered. With this method of
construction the bridge deck is built in sections by pushing the
structure outwards from an abutments towards the pier. It is most
suited to the rapid construction of bridges with a constant radius of
curvature such as constant depth of box girder segments.
The construction sequence begins behind one abutment where a

highly mechanized prefabrication deck mould is set up removing the
need for temporary supports with this method. A rigid framework is
then attached enabling the production of cast-in-situ segments. In-situ
deck segments range in length from 5m to 30m. when each segment
is complete it is placed on sliding bearings and pushed through into
the span.
A steel nose is also positioned at the front of the first span formwork.
This allows for the necessary deck cantilever length as the span
approaches the first pier.
Bridge decks of 1km can be built by this method with a rate of

construction of 30m per week.
CABLE STAYED METHOD OF
BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
Cable Stayed Method of Bridge Construction:
The technique of cable-stayed construction has been used and
continually developed over the last 50years. It is the most
common construction choice today when a bridge is required to
span more than 300. Cable-stayed bridges can be either concrete
or steel though a combination of both materials is often chosen.
For concrete cable stayed bridges free cantilever construction is
considered economical. With this method the deck segments can
be either precast or cast-in-situ by travelling shutter
arrangement.
In ca cable stayed bridge, depending on its design, the cables carry
the bridge deck from one or both sides of the supporting tower. The
stay cables carry the deck and transfer all bridge loads to the
foundations. This is done by transmitting the cable stay forces,
through its extremeties, at it anchorage points. Stay cables are firmly
attached to the anchorages which are designed to resist the buckling
forces of the loads.
Detailing of all anchorages should allow for their safe construction and
accessibility for inspection and maintenance on completion. In
concrete stay-cabled anchorages are placed under the deck.
ARCH METHOD OF BRIDGE

CONSTRUCTION
Arch Method of Bridge Construction: The arch is the most natural
bridge shape in nature. Originally constructed of stone, today such
bridges are built of reinforced or precast concrete. They are often the
most economical choice where a bridge is required to cross over
inaccessible landscapes.
The development of modern arch construction methods has made the

use of arch construction more economical by removing the need of
expensive centring formwork. Though abutments still must be well
founded on rock or soild ground.
(i) Cast-in-situ free cantilever method
This method involves the partially built arch tied back to rock anchors
in the valley side slopes.
(ii) Slip formed sections
This method involves half arch sections being held vertically over each
abutment and then rotating each arch section into position.
What is a Culvert? Types of
Culverts, its Materials and
Location
What is a Culvert?
Culvert is a tunnel structure constructed under roadways or railways to
provide cross drainage or to take electrical or other cables from one side to
other. The culvert system is totally enclosed by soil or ground.
Tee-beams are generally used for arch bridge decks for their
functionality and self weight.
Materials for Culvert Construction

Culverts are like pipes but very large in size. They are made of many
materials like
 Concrete
 Steel
 Plastic
 Aluminum
 high density polyethylene
In most cases concrete culverts are preferred. Concrete culverts may
be reinforced or non-reinforced. In some cases culverts are
constructed in site called cast in situ culverts. Precast culverts are also
available. By the combination above materials we can also get
composite culvert types.
Location of Culverts
The location of culverts should be based on economy and usage.
Generally it is recommended that the provision of culverts under
roadway or railway are economical. There is no need to construct
separate embankment or anything for providing culverts.
The provided culverts should be perpendicular to the roadway. It

should be of greater dimensions to allow maximum water level and
should be located in such a way that flow should be easily done. It is
possible by providing required gradient.
Types of Culverts
Following are the types of culverts generally used in construction:
 Pipe culvert ( single or multiple)

 Pipe Arch ( single or multiple)
 Box culvert ( single or multiple)
 Arch culvert
 Bridge culvert
Pipe Culvert (Single or Multiple)
Pipe culverts are widely used culverts and rounded in shape. The
culverts may be of single in number or multiple. If single pipe culvert is
used then larger diameter culvert is installed.
If the width of channel is greater than we will go for multiple pipe

culverts. They are suitable for larger flows very well. The diameter of
pipe culverts ranges from 1 meter to 6m. These are made of concrete
or steel etc..
Pipe Arch Culvert (Single or Multiple)
Pipe arch culverts means nothing but they looks like half circle shaped
culverts. Pipe arch culverts are suitable for larger water flows but the
flow should be stable. Because of arch shape fishes or sewage in the
drainage easily carried to the outlet without stocking at the inlet or
bottom of channel.
This type of culverts can also be provided in multiple numbers based

on the requirement. They also enhance beautiful appearance.
Box Culvert (Single or Multiple)

Box culverts are in rectangular shape and generally constructed by
concrete. Reinforcement is also provided in the construction of box
culvert. These are used to dispose rain water. So, these are not useful
in the dry period.
They can also be used as passages to cross the rail or roadway

during dry periods for animals etc. Because of sharp corners these are
not suitable for larger velocity. Box culverts can also be provided in
multiple numbers.
Arch Culvert
Arch culvert is similar to pipe arch culvert but in this case an artificial
floor is provided below the arch. For narrow passages it is widely
used. The artificial floor is made of concrete and arch also made of
concrete. Steel arch culverts are also available but very expensive.
Bridge Culvert
Bridge culverts are provided on canals or rivers and also used as road
bridges for vehicles. For this culverts a foundation is laid under the
ground surface. A series of culverts are laid and pavement surface is
laid on top this series of culverts. Generally these are rectangular
shaped culverts these can replace the box culverts if artificial floor is
not necessary.
Common Causes of Failure of Bridge
Structures
Different modes of failures of bridge structures under different stages of load either
man-made or natural cause, is necessary to develop strong and highly sustainable
structures.
Cause of Failure of Bridge Structures

Bridges are vast and heavy structures whose design is complicated and sophisticated
similar to the way it is constructed. It can consume large time period and a huge
investment. Any failure to this will affect the economy in terms of life safety and wealth.
The main factors that will affect the bridge failure are:
1. The span length of the bridge
2. The heavy load pattern acting on the structure with both the impact and the cyclic loads.
3. Chances of load increasing for lifetime.
4. The structure is subjected to extreme weather conditions without any form of cladding.
They are subjected to aggressive climate changes, wind and moisture conditions.
5. Foundations subjected to different changes based on different soil conditions. This is also
subjected to various hydraulic effects.
6. Heavy vehicle movements create damage to different structural elements of the bridge.
The bridge use and function are mainly dependent on the loading of the bridge and the
object over which the bridge must span.
From past histories and studies, major failures in the bridge is recorded due to the
following issues:
1. Foundation scouring causing overall collapse of the structure
2. Steel members of the structure subjected to brittle, stress and fatigue corrosion cracking.
3. Collision of vehicles with the girders and the piers, collision of the vehicles with the truss
members or guides, shifting of the train loads, derailment of the train.
4. Salting of the surface of the deck, resulting in the corrosion of the structure reinforcement.
This results in the distress of the deck surface.
5. Floor system subjected to corrosion damaging the roadway or the deck.
6. Flood at the bottom of the bridge will result in horizontal loads on the bottom.

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Cement Consumption Coefficients for

Various Construction Works

1 P.C.C. (1:5:10) 2.6 Bags/cu.mt.

2 P.C.C. (1:4:8) 3.4 Bags/cu.mt.

3 P.C.C. (1:3:6) 4.4 Bags/cu.mt.

4 R.C.C. M-15 (1:2:4) 6.3 Bags/cu.mt.

14 Plastering in CM (1:6) – 12mm thick 0.072

Fixing of rainwater Pipes

Joining & Fixing of CI rainwater Pipes

Fixing of steel louvers/windows in M-15 grade concrete of block 150 x 0.008

0.70 Bags/ 100

47 Fixing of white glazed EWC. 0.05 Bags/No’s

48 Fixing of large flat back urinal. 0.03 Bags/No’s

49 Fixing of hand wash basin/sink 0.03 Bags/No’s

50 Fixing of floor trap of 100/100 mm 0.05 Bags/No’s

Jointing and fixing of soil waste Pipe.

80mm diameter. 0.132 Bags/RM

150mm diameter. 0.264 Bags/RM

Fixing of GI water pipes concealed work.

25 mm diameter 0.90 Bags/100M

32 mm diameter 0.96 Bags/100M

Construction of brick masonry valve chambers of size 300 x 300 x 600

Construction of brick masonry inspection chamber of size 750 x 750 x

Determination of Concrete cover thickness according to the specifications of the

It is desired to set minimum thickness of concrete cover as 65mm to account for

Table-1: Minimum Cover Thickness for Cast-in-Place

Concrete cast against and permanently in contact with ground 75

Concrete in contact with ground or water

No. 19 through No. 57 bars 50

No. 16 bar and smaller 40

Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground

Slabs, walls, joists

No. 43 and No. 57 bars 40

Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, spirals 40

Shells, folded plate members

No. 19 bar and larger 20

No. 16 bar and smaller 13

Concrete Cover Specifications as per European

Table-2: Minimum concrete cover according to the

Dry 0.65 260 15 C30/37

No frost 0.60 280 20 C30/37

Frost 0.55 280 25 C35/45

No frost 0.55 300 40 C35/45

Frost 0.50 300 40 C35/45

Slightly 0.55 280 25 –

Moderately 0.50 300 30 –

Highly 0.45 300 40 –

Concrete Cover Specifications as per British

Water/ cement ratio

Environmental conditions 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45

Minimum cement content, Kg/m3

Concrete cover thickness

ACI 357 provides recommendation regarding cover thickness in severe weather

Table-4: ACI 357 recommendations for cover thickness in

Splash zone 0.4 35 65 90

The determination of concrete cover thickness takes several parameters into

Preparation of Bar Bending Schedule

Calculation of Reinforcement Shape, Cutting and Bending

Advantages of bar bending schedule in concrete construction are:

Measurement of Plinth Area and Carpet

Fig.1: Plinth Area of a Room in Building

Measurement of Plinth Area

Following should be included in wall area of the building:

Measurement of the Carpet Area of the Building