materials

Article
Effects of Strand Lay Direction and Crossing Angle
on Tribological Behavior of Winding Hoist Rope
Xiang-dong Chang 1,2 , Yu-xing Peng 1,2, *, Zhen-cai Zhu 1,2 , Xian-sheng Gong 3 , Zhang-fa Yu 4,5 ,
Zhen-tao Mi 1,2 and Chun-ming Xu 1,2
1 School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou 221116, China; Changxd@cumt.edu.cn (X.-d.C.); zhuzhencai@cumt.edu.cn (Z.-c.Z.);
mizhentao@cumt.edu.cn (Z.-t.M.); ts16050066a3@cumt.edu.cn (C.-m.X.)
2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Mine Mechanical and Electrical Equipment, China University of Mining &
Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
3 College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China; cqxsgong@cqu.edu.cn
4 CITIC Heavy Industries Co. Ltd., Luoyang 471039, China; citichic006@126.com
5 Luoyang Mining Machinery Engineering Design Institute, Luoyang 471039, China
* Correspondence: pengyuxing@cumt.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-138-0520-9649

Academic Editor: Auezhan Amanov

Received: 30 March 2017; Accepted: 7 June 2017; Published: 9 June 2017

Abstract: Friction and wear behavior exists between hoisting ropes that are wound around the drums
of a multi-layer winding hoist. It decreases the service life of ropes and threatens mine safety. In this
research, a series of experiments were conducted using a self-made test rig to study the effects of the
strand lay direction and crossing angle on the winding rope’s tribological behavior. Results show
that the friction coefficient in the steady-state period shows a decreasing tendency with an increase of
the crossing angle in both cross directions, but the variation range is different under different cross
directions. Using thermal imaging, the high temperature regions always distribute along the strand
lay direction in the gap between adjacent strands, as the cross direction is the same with the strand
lay direction (right cross contact). Additionally, the temperature rise in the steady-state increases
with the increase of the crossing angle in both cross directions. The differences of the wear scar
morphology are obvious under different cross directions, especially for the large crossing angle tests.
In the case of right cross, the variation range of wear mass loss is larger than that in left cross. The
damage that forms on the wear surface is mainly ploughing, pits, plastic deformation, and fatigue
fracture. The major wear mechanisms are adhesive wear, and abrasive and fatigue wear.

Keywords: wire rope; strand lay direction; crossing angle; friction; wear

PACS/MSC/JEL Classification: 81.05.Bx; 81.70.Bt; 81.70.Pg

1. Introduction
With the increase of resource exploitation depths, multi-layer winding hoists have become the
most suitable lifting equipment for ultra-deep coal mines in China. Wire rope, as a critical component
in the multi-layer winding hoisting system, plays an important role in the process of mine safety
production due to its unique mechanical properties (high axial strength and flexibility in bending).
Therefore, the rope performance determines the hoisting capability and efficiency of the multi-layer
winding hoist. However, in the process of ultra-deep coal mine hoisting, the hoist conditions are
severe (hoist height is more than 1700 m, hoist speed is more than 15 m/s, and the hoist weight is
more than 40 ton), and the existence of vibration in the hoisting system will cause reciprocating sliding,
serious extrusion, and torsion of the wire rope. Thus, the friction and wear behavior between adjacent

Materials 2017, 10, 630; doi:10.3390/ma10060630 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2017, 10, 630 2 of 20

ropes always occur on the hoist drum, resulting in plastic deformation, crack, and fatigue fracture
of the wires in the service rope. Furthermore, that damage to the rope will happen periodically as
it winds on and off the drum continuously, which together determine its safety use and reduces the
service life. Additionally, according to the coal mine safety rules in China [1], the number of winding
layers of the wire rope on the drum must be one layer when lifting people in a vertical shaft and
two layers when lifting materials alone, which is in contradiction with the necessity of multi-layer
windings for an ultra-deep coal mine and seriously hinders the progress of its resource exploitation.
The main reason is that with the number of winding layers increasing (more than two layers), the rope
is easy to generate empty groove, rope skipping, interference, and other rope disorder phenomenon
on the drum. Additionally, the friction characteristics and wear mechanisms caused by that damage
behavior between the layers and adjacent ropes in the same layer have not been understood completely.
Furthermore, the surface of a rope is very complicated due to its space helix layered structure, which
makes the contact and wear become diversiform and complex. Therefore, it is of great significance to
investigate the tribological characteristics of the hoisting rope, which can provide the basic data for the
design of wire rope and multi-layer winding hoists in an ultra-deep coal mine.
In recent years, many studies have been carried out to investigate the performance of wire rope.
Considering the complexity of the hierarchical helical structure, Wand et al. [2] analyzed the geometric
construction of wire rope, and the mathematical model of ropes with different strand directions
and types (right/left lang lay, wire structure as single-helixes, double-helixes, and super-coiled
configurations) were created. To study the structure of ropes in actual working conditions, Ma et al. [3]
presented two methods for building a 3-dimensional geometry of a wire rope bent over a sheave, and
the two methods can be easily extended to other kinds of helical-strand wire rope. Costello [4] deeply
analyzed the structural characteristics and mechanical properties of wire rope, and the theory is still in
use. Additionally, as the experimental research on wire rope requires specific, large, and expensive
testing devices, many scholars established finite element models to simulate its mechanical properties,
which can predict the rope behavior, evaluate its structure condition, and detect damage as the rope
is subjected to the working load [5–7]. Moreover, the failure and damage of wire rope are varied
in different working conditions. Chaplin [8] discussed the degradation mechanisms of wire rope in
service for three different applications, and the failure mechanisms of a mine hoist rope operating on
a drum winder were analyzed. Mahmoud [9] investigated the fracture strength of a cracked bridge
cable wire, and the surface crack and stress-strain curve were studied to forecast the wire degradation.
Singh et al. [10] studied the causes of failure behavior of wire rope used in underground coal mines, and
a physical examination, wear and corrosion, lubrication, macro and micro-examination, and chemical
composition were selected for investigation. However, for multi-layer winding hoisting systems,
the extrusion and wear between ropes are the major failure forms. To understand the tribological
properties of the rope, Cruzado et al. [11,12] investigated the influence of crossing angle and contact
pressure on the fretting wear of thin steel wires through a series of friction tests, and the evolution
of the friction coefficient, wear scar surface, and wear volume were analyzed. Taking into account
the degradation that occurs between the wires and the strands when the rope bends over a sheave,
Urchegui et al. [13] designed the bending over sheave tests, obtained the wear evolution along the
number of cycles, and the effect of the sheave diameter on the wear rate of a stranded rope employed
in hoisting devices was analyzed. Furthermore, based on the experimental results, Argatov et al. [14]
developed the mathematical models of fretting wear with application to the wear evolution between
steel wires and applied Archard’s wear law, and the fatigue life estimations of ropes were analyzed.
Wang et al. [15] studied the role of displacement amplitude on fretting fatigue behavior of the hoisting
rope wires in low cycle fatigue, to simulate the wear damage under actual working conditions;
three corrosive media were taken into account to quantitatively analyze the fretting fatigue damages
of steel wires. Additionally, Xu et al. [16] carried out many fretting wear tests of steel wires in acid
medium, and the fretting running characteristics, friction coefficient, dissipated energy, and wear
morphology were analyzed. McColl et al. [17] examined the influence of low viscosity oils, with and
Materials 2017, 10, 630 3 of 20

without graphite additions, on the fretting behavior of the as-drawn wire. Oksanen et al. [18,19]
studied the wear mechanisms at the wire rope groove surface of nodular cast iron rollers from rope
drives, and the cracks caused during the wear processes were also analyzed. Chen et al. [20] established
a numerical model for the interwire wear evolution of the strand subjected to a cyclic bending load
based upon the thin rods theory, elastic contact theory, and Archard’s theory of wear, and the frictional
contact and sliding between the wires were also considered. Moreover, considering the materials
of rope wires, studies on the frictional characteristics between steel and steel are instructive for the
research of wire rope. Hirsch et al. [21] investigated the influence of temperature on the fatigue
damage in 301 stainless steel sheets due to fretting against 52100 steel and the changes in the material
resistance as the temperature was increased from 20 to 250 ◦ C were elucidated. Velkavrh et al. [22,23]
analyzed the effects of different technical gases on the friction and wear behavior of steel contacts
under severe operating conditions (non-lubricated sliding under high contact pressure, ambient and
high temperature). Pearson et al. [24] investigated the effect of temperature (between 24 ◦ C and
450 ◦ C) on the wear rate and friction coefficient of a high strength alloy steel in gross sliding fretting
in air. Mbarek et al. [25] developed an experimental study based on a twin-disc test configuration
and the friction coefficient, temperature evolution, and wear in the regions close to the pitch point
of the contact between the teeth of a polyamide-steel gear were investigated. However, most of
the studies on friction are based on an experimental test which will require a high consumption of
time and economic losses, thus, simulation research for the friction and wear behavior becomes very
necessary. With the aim to reduce this disadvantage, Cruzado et al. [26,27] developed an optimized
finite element wear simulation model for the simulation elliptical fretting wear scars in thin steel wires
with different crossing angles, and the results were validated in comparison with experimental data
obtained in laboratory fretting tests. Argatov et al. [28] employed an asymptotic modelling approach
for solving the reciprocating sliding wear contact problem with an increasing contact zone under a
prescribed constant normal load, and the obtained analytical results were compared with finite-element
simulation results. Nevertheless, from the studies mentioned above, previous efforts mainly focus on
the helical structure, the mechanical properties of wire rope, and the fretting wear behavior between
rope wires. Additionally, there are only a few studies about the sliding friction and wear characteristics
of ropes [29,30], and the effect of surface structure on the contact region, and the tribological properties
of ropes in multi-layer winding hoists for ultra-deep coal mines have not previously been reported.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the effects of strand lay direction and crossing angle between
ropes on the friction and wear behavior of wire rope used in multi-layer winding hoists. We consider
that the displacement amplitude between ropes is usually larger than 300 µm, which belongs to
reciprocating sliding [31,32]. Therefore, a series of sliding friction experiments on the wire rope
samples’ cross contact along with different directions and angles have been carried out using a custom
test rig. Furthermore, the parameters of the friction coefficient, friction temperature rise, wear mass
loss, and wear scar morphology were analyzed. This study is helpful for the better design and
rational use of the wire rope, which are very significant to improve its service life and performance.
Additionally, the research results will provide basic data for the design of the multi-layer winding
hoist in an ultra-deep coal mine.

2. Experimental Details

2.1. Materials and Specimens

Figure 1 presents the structure details and the cross contact forms of wire rope tested in the
experiments. The rope specimens are 6 × 19 + FC (Fibre core) (six strands with nineteen individual
wires in each one, the core material is synthetic) point contact rope as shown in Figure 1c. Due to fibre
cores having the advantage that they can store a relatively large amount of lubricant, the strands are
supported softly, and this kind of rope should be well sounded and without any knots [33]. Thus,
it is widely used in the winding hoist. Additionally, the material is the galvanized steel wires with a
Materials 2017, 10, 630 4 of 20
Materials 2017, 10, 630 4 of 19

smooth surface
structural steel,that
andarethere
manufactured by the coal
is no lubrication drawing
between theprocess
contactfrom high
ropes. quality carbon
Furthermore, as structural
the lower
steel, and
sliding there
rope is no lubrication
remains upright, thebetween the contact
cross direction ropes.
between Furthermore,
two contact ropesas can
the be
lower sliding
divided rope
into left
remains
cross as upright,
shown inthe cross1a
Figure direction between
(the cross twoand
direction contact ropes
strand laycan be divided
direction into left cross
are opposite) as shown
and right cross
in
as Figure
shown1a in(the
Figurecross1bdirection
(the cross and strand lay
direction direction
is the are opposite)
same with the strandand
layright cross astaking
direction), showninto
in
Figure 1b (the cross direction is the same with the strand lay direction), taking into account
account the strand lay direction. The two contact forms will affect the tribological properties of ropes, the strand
lay direction.
which is what The two
this contact
paper formson.
focuses willMoreover,
affect the other
tribological
detail properties
parameters of of
ropes, which
the test is what this
specimens are
paper
listed focuses
in Tableon.1. Moreover, other detail parameters of the test specimens are listed in Table 1.

Figure 1.1. The

Figure The 66×× 19
19 +
+ FC
FC wire
wire rope
rope specimens
specimens and
and the
the contact
contact forms
forms between
between them.
them. (a)
(a) Left
Left cross
cross
contact; (b) right cross contact; (c) structure details of the wire rope.
contact; (b) right cross contact; (c) structure details of the wire rope.

Table1.1.Parameters
Table Parametersof
ofthe
thewire
wirerope
ropespecimens.
specimens.

Parameter Value
Parameter Value
Diameter of the rope 9.3 mm
Diameter
Radius ofof thesteel
the ropewires 9.3 mm
0.3 mm
Radius of the steel wires 0.3 mm
Strand lay length
Strand lay length 70 mm
70 mm
Strand
Strand laylay angle
angle 15.5◦15.5°
Strand
Strand laylay direction
direction RightRight
Nominal
Nominal tensile strength
tensile strength 15701570
MPa MPa
Breaking force 52,500 N
Breaking force 52,500 N

2.2.
2.2. Sliding
Sliding Friction
Friction Test
TestRig
Rigand
andTest
TestConditions
Conditions
The
The structure
structure ofof the
the self-made
self-made sliding
sliding friction
friction test
test rig
rig isis illustrated
illustrated inin Figure
Figure 2,2, which
which evolved
evolved
from
from the crank-slider mechanism. It can realize the sliding friction between the upper loading
the crank-slider mechanism. It can realize the sliding friction between the upper loading rope
rope
and
and the lower sliding rope under different displacement amplitudes, velocities, cross directions, and
the lower sliding rope under different displacement amplitudes, velocities, cross directions, and
crossing
crossingangles.
angles. AsAs shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2a, 2a, the
the test
test rig
rig mainly
mainly includes
includes the the driving
driving device,
device, sliding
sliding device,
device,
tensioning
tensioning device,
device, rotating
rotating device,
device, and and some
some transducers.
transducers. Furthermore,
Furthermore, each each test
test needs
needs twotwo rope
rope
specimens, the lower sliding rope is strained on the sliding support that
specimens, the lower sliding rope is strained on the sliding support that can achieve reciprocating can achieve reciprocating
motion
motionby bythe
the driving
driving ofof the
the adjustable-speed
adjustable-speedmotor, motor,and andthe
theupper
upperloading
loadingrope
ropeisisfixed
fixedininthe
the upper
upper
jig
jig which is match connected with the slide guide fixed on the rotating bracket, as shown is Figure 2b.
which is match connected with the slide guide fixed on the rotating bracket, as shown is Figure 2b.
Additionally,
Additionally,the theliner
linerguide
guiderail
railand
andthetheslider
sliderare
arelocated
locatedunder
underthe thelower
lowersliding
slidingrope.
rope. The
The rotating
rotating
tray
tray is
is fixed
fixed together
together with
with the
the slider
slider and
and can
can rotate
rotate freely
freely through
through the the bearing
bearing fixed
fixed onon the
the rotating
rotating
bracket.
bracket. Therefore, the position of the lower sliding rope is almost constant when the rotating table
Therefore, the position of the lower sliding rope is almost constant when the rotating table
rotates, and then the cross contact between the two ropes under different loads and crossing angles
Materials 2017, 10, 630 5 of 20

Materials 2017, 10, 630 5 of 19

rotates, and then the cross contact between the two ropes under different loads and crossing angles
is achieved.
achieved. Moreover, the tension of the rope rope specimens
specimens is is adjusted
adjusted through
through turnbuckles,
turnbuckles, tension
tension
transducers,
transducers, andandcompression
compression transducers. TheThe
transducers. friction force force
friction and friction temperature
and friction can be obtained
temperature can be
using the pull pressure sensor and the thermal infrared imager, respectively. A detailed
obtained using the pull pressure sensor and the thermal infrared imager, respectively. A detailed introduction
of the test rig of
introduction can betest
the found elsewhere
rig can [30].
be found elsewhere [30].

Figure 2. Sliding friction test rig. (a) Overall structure of the test rig; (b) structure of loading and
Figure 2. Sliding friction test rig. (a) Overall structure of the test rig; (b) structure of loading and
rotation devices; (c) details for the contact condition between the rope specimens.
rotation devices; (c) details for the contact condition between the rope specimens.

Considering the actual hoisting conditions in multi-layer winding hoists for ultra-deep coal
mines,Considering the actual hoisting
different experimental conditions
conditions werein multi-layer
designed. winding
In order hoists understand
to better for ultra-deep coal
the mines,
effects of
different experimental conditions were designed. In order to better understand the
strand lay direction and crossing angle on the tribological properties of wire rope, all the experiments effects of strand
lay
candirection
be dividedand crossing
into anglecategories,
two major on the tribological
left crossproperties of wireFurthermore,
and right cross. rope, all the experiments
the crossing can be
angles
divided into two major categories, left cross and right cross. Furthermore, the crossing
of each category are in the range of 7°–80°. Taking into account the characteristics of winding and angles of each
category ◦ . Taking into account the characteristics of winding and disorder
disorder are in the range
of ropes, of 7–80and
the velocity stroke will increase when the crossing angle become larger.
of ropes, the velocity and stroke
Therefore, when the crossing angle is lesswill increase
than when
30°, thethe crossing
velocity andangle
strokebecome larger. Therefore,
were selected as 6 mm/s
when the crossing angle is less than 30 ◦ , the velocity and stroke were selected as 6 mm/s and 10 mm,
and 10 mm, respectively. Otherwise, the velocity and stroke are 12 mm/s and 20 mm. Therefore, each
respectively.
category test Otherwise,
can be dividedthe velocity
into two andgroups,
stroke are 12 crossing
small mm/s and 20 mm.
angle (from Therefore, eachand
±7° to ±28°) category
large
test can be divided into two groups, small crossing angle (from ± 7 ◦ to ±28◦ ) and large crossing angle
crossing angle (from ±40° to ±80°). Additionally, the severe wear always occurs under a poor
(from ±40◦ to
lubricating ±80◦ ). Additionally,
condition, and dry friction the severe
for all wear always
the tests wasoccurs under
selected. To areduce
poor lubricating condition,
the test error caused
and dry friction for all the tests was selected. To reduce the test error caused by various
by various factors, each experiment is repeated three times and the final result is the average value. factors, each
experiment is repeated three times and the final result is the
The detailed parameters and conditions of each test are displayed in Table 2. average value. The detailed parameters
and conditions of each test are displayed in Table 2.
Materials 2017, 10, 630 6 of 19
Materials 2017, 10, 630 6 of 20
Table 2. Sliding friction test conditions for the cross contact ropes.

Test Parameters Table 2. Sliding friction test conditions for the cross contact ropes.
Left Cross Right Cross
Contact load (Fn) 150 N 150 N 150 N 150 N
Test Parameters Left Cross
−40°; −50°; −60°; Right Cross
Crossing angle (α) −7°; −14°; −21°; −28° 7°; 14°; 21°; 28° 40°; 50°; 60°; 70°; 80°
Contact load (Fn ) 150 N −70°; 150−80°
N 150 N 150 N
◦
−4020 ; −mm ◦
50 ; −60 ;◦
Stroke (x)
Crossing angle (α) ◦ 10 ◦mm ◦
−7 ; −14 ; −21 ; −28 ◦ ◦ 10◦ mm ◦
7 ; 14 ; 21 ; 28 ◦ 40 ; 50 ;20
◦ ◦ 60◦mm
; 70◦ ; 80◦
−70 ◦ ◦
Number of cycles (n) 1136 568; −80 1136 568
Stroke (x) 10 mm 20 mm 10 mm 20 mm
Velocity
Number (v) (n)
of cycles 6 mm/s
1136 12 mm/s
568 6 1136
mm/s 12568
mm/s
Tensile force
Velocity (v) (F) 2000 N
6 mm/s 2000
12 mm/sN 2000
6 mm/s N 2000
12 mm/s N
Sliding distance
Tensile force (F)(s) 22,720
2000mm
N 22,720
2000mmN 22,720
2000 Nmm 22,720
2000 Nmm
Sliding distance
Lubricant condition(s) 22,720 mm
Dry-friction 22,720 mm
Dry-friction 22,720 mm
Dry-friction 22,720 mm
Dry-friction
Lubricant condition Dry-friction Dry-friction Dry-friction Dry-friction
Temperature Room temperature Room temperature Room temperature Room temperature
Temperature Room temperature Room temperature Room temperature Room temperature
Humidity
Humidity (%)(%) 60
60±±55 6060±±5 5 60±± 55
60 6060
±±5 5
Atmosphere
Atmosphere Laboratory
Laboratory air
air Laboratory
Laboratoryair air Laboratory
Laboratory airair Laboratory
Laboratory airair

2.3. Test
2.3. Parameters and
Test Parameters and Methods
Methods
The friction
The friction coefficient,
coefficient, friction
friction temperature
temperature rise, rise, wear
wear mass
mass loss,
loss, wear scar, and
wear scar, and itsits surface
surface
morphology are taken as the evaluation parameters to study the tribological
morphology are taken as the evaluation parameters to study the tribological properties of winding properties of winding
hoist rope
hoist rope under
underdifferent
differentcross
crossdirections
directionsand andcrossing
crossing angles. The
angles. evolution
The evolution of the friction
of the forceforce
friction can
can be recorded using a computer acquisition system during each experiment, as shown in Figure is
be recorded using a computer acquisition system during each experiment, as shown in Figure 3. It 3.
clear
It that that
is clear eacheach
cycle includes
cycle includes an an
extending
extending stroke
strokeandandreturn
returnstroke
strokebecause
becausethe the sliding
sliding is is aa
reciprocating motion.
reciprocating motion. The
The data
data values
values inin extending
extending stroke
stroke are
are positive
positive and negative in
and negative in the
the return
return
stroke. As the surface of the rope consists of steel wires and strands, the friction
stroke. As the surface of the rope consists of steel wires and strands, the friction pair is irregularitypair is irregularity
which leads
which leads to
to the
the fluctuation
fluctuation of of the
the curve
curve inin each
each stroke.
stroke. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, with
with the
the increase
increase of of test
test time,
time,
the curve
the curve become
become more
more and
and more
more stable
stable and
and the
the value
value ofof the
the force
force become
become larger, thus, the
larger, thus, the change
change of of
the friction force curve is able to reflect the friction and contact state between the ropes.
the friction force curve is able to reflect the friction and contact state between the ropes. Furthermore, Furthermore,
the mean
the meanfriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficientfavfavinin this
this paper
paper is calculated
is calculated onlyonly
fromfrom the values
the values in each inextending
each extending
stroke
stroke following the
following the equation: equation:
k
∑
∑i=1 Ff i
f av == (1)
(1)
Fn k

where FFff is
where the friction
is the friction force
force collected
collected during
during each
each extending stroke,FFnn is
extending stroke, is the
the contact
contact load, and kk is
load, and is the
the
number of collected points in a single extending stroke. Therefore, the variation of the mean
number of collected points in a single extending stroke. Therefore, the variation of the mean friction friction
coefficient
coefficient with
with the
the cycles
cycles was
was obtained.
obtained.

150 friction force

100
Friction force (N)

50

-50

-100

-150

6 8 10 3756 3758 3760

Time (s)

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Friction
Friction force curve in
force curve in the
the case
case of
of the
the right cross, and
right cross, and the
the crossing
crossing angle
angle is
is 28
28°.
◦ . The
The extending
extending
stroke and return stroke are marked by the dashed
stroke and return stroke are marked by the dashed lines. lines.

The change of the friction temperature can affect the friction and wear response for materials, in
The change of the friction temperature can affect the friction and wear response for materials,
particular for the wear debris between the contacting surfaces. To understand the friction behavior
in particular for the wear debris between the contacting surfaces. To understand the friction behavior
completely, the variation characteristics of the friction temperature rise were studied using a thermal
Materials 2017, 10, 630 7 of 20

Materials 2017, 10, 630 7 of 19

completely, the variation characteristics of the friction temperature rise were studied using a thermal
infrared
infrared imager,
imager, which
which cancan complete
complete thethe real-time
real-time monitoring,
monitoring, recording,
recording, and
and display
display forfor the
the
temperature
temperature condition
condition inin the
the contact
contact region. Figure 44 presents
region. Figure presents the
the pictures
pictures captured
captured by by the
the thermal
thermal
infrared
infrared imager,
imager, which
which can
can intuitively
intuitively reflect
reflect the
the change
change of of friction
friction temperature
temperature rise
rise and
and the
the contact
contact
region through the distribution of color in the infrared thermogram. Furthermore,
region through the distribution of color in the infrared thermogram. Furthermore, the evolution the evolutionof
of
thethe temperature
temperature value
value of of
thethepoint
pointselected
selectedininthethepicture
picturecancan be
be derived
derived through
through thethe software
software
(ThermoX,
(ThermoX, MAGNITY
MAGNITY ELECTRONICS,
ELECTRONICS, Shanghai,Shanghai, China),
China), which
which isis the
the counterpart
counterpart of of the
the thermal
thermal
infrared
infrared imager.
imager.Therefore,
Therefore,thethe
distribution of theoftemperature
distribution the temperature values can also can
values be achieved.
also be Moreover,
achieved.
the temperature
Moreover, rise ∆T studied
the temperature rise ΔTinstudied
this paper is calculated
in this by the highest
paper is calculated temperature
by the highest (PH ) in(P
temperature the
H)
contact region subtracting the room temperature
in the contact region subtracting the room temperature (P L ). (PL).

Figure 4.
Figure 4. The
The infrared
infrared thermogram
thermogram (a)(a) and
and temperature
temperature distribution
distribution histogram
histogram (b)
(b) in the case
in the case of
of the
the
right cross and the crossing angle is 7°.
right cross and the crossing angle is 7◦ .

Finally, the wear scar morphology characteristics were investigated by an industrial microscope.
Finally, the wear scar morphology characteristics were investigated by an industrial microscope.
To evaluate the degree of wear quantitatively, all the debris of each test was collected and its mass
To evaluate the degree of wear quantitatively, all the debris of each test was collected and its mass
was also measured using an electronic analytical balance with the measurement error less than 0.1 mg.
was also measured using an electronic analytical balance with the measurement error less than 0.1 mg.
The damage forms on the wear region and the sliding wear mechanisms were analyzed.
The damage forms on the wear region and the sliding wear mechanisms were analyzed.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Evolution
3.1. Evolution of
of the Friction Coefficient
the Friction Coefficient under
under Different
Different Conditions
Conditions
The evolution
The evolutionof ofthe
thefriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficient between
between thethe wire
wire rope
rope underunder different
different crosscross directions
directions and
and small crossing angles is presented in Figure 5. In general, the variation
small crossing angles is presented in Figure 5. In general, the variation laws of the friction coefficient laws of the friction
coefficient
with cycles with cycles which
are similar, are similar,
can bewhich
divided caninto
be divided
three stagesinto(rapid
three stages
growth(rapid
stage,growth
slow growthstage,stage,
slow
growth
and stage, stable
relatively and relatively
stage), andstableit is astage),
common and it is atendency
change commonforchange tendency
the friction for theFigure
coefficient. friction
5a
coefficient. Figure 5a shows the change rules of the friction coefficient
shows the change rules of the friction coefficient under different crossing angles with the contact under different crossing angles
with the contact
condition that thecondition that the
cross direction cross direction
is consistent with the is consistent with the (right
strand lay direction strandcross).
lay direction
It is clear(right
that
cross). It is clear that as the number of cycles increases from 0 to 80, the friction
as the number of cycles increases from 0 to 80, the friction coefficient increases rapidly to about 0.7; then, coefficient increases
rapidly
its growth to about
speed 0.7;slowthen,
down. its When
growththe speed
cyclesslow down.from
increase When 150the
to cycles
600, theincrease
frictionfrom 150 topresents
coefficient 600, the
friction coefficient presents a slight decreasing trend and the fluctuation
a slight decreasing trend and the fluctuation of the curve is obvious. Finally, as the number of cycles of the curve is obvious.
Finally, asto
continues the numberthe
increase, of friction
cycles continues
coefficienttogradually
increase, stabilizes
the friction to coefficient graduallyAdditionally,
different constants. stabilizes to
different constants. Additionally, ◦ when ◦the crossing angles are 14° and
when the crossing angles are 14 and 21 , the corresponding curves are almost overlapping, indicating 21°, the corresponding curves
are almost
that overlapping,
the contact conditions indicating
are similar that(thethedetailed
contact conditions
explanationare is similar
provided (theindetailed explanation
Section 3.3). Figure 5b is
provided in Section 3.3). Figure 5b presents the variation characteristics of
presents the variation characteristics of the friction coefficient with the increasing sliding cycles underthe friction coefficient with
the condition
the increasingofsliding cycles
different underangles
crossing the condition of different
and left cross contact. crossing
As can angles
be seen, andtheleft
threecross contact.
stages and
As can be seen, the three stages and the difference between the curves
the difference between the curves are more obvious, in particular for the slow growth stage, and are more obvious, in particular
for the
the slowisgrowth
process stage, and
more smooth the process
although is more smooth
the fluctuation of thealthough
curves isthe stillfluctuation
obvious. Itofindicates
the curves is
that
still obvious. It indicates that the contact state is more stable and the
the contact state is more stable and the wear evolution is more gentle. Additionally, the four curveswear evolution is more gentle.
Additionally, the four curves completely separate and stabilize to different constants when the
sliding is more than 750 cycles; this is due to the difference of the friction pair and a dynamic balance
of wear between the ropes is finally achieved. Furthermore, the friction coefficient calculated from
Materials 2017, 10, 630 8 of 20

completely separate
Materials 2017, 10, 630 and stabilize to different constants when the sliding is more than 750 cycles; 8 of 19
this is due to the difference of the friction pair and a dynamic balance of wear between the ropes
is the
finally achieved.
values Furthermore,
in the relative the friction
steady-state (about coefficient
the last 300calculated fromdifferent
cycles) under the values in theangles
crossing relativeand
cross directions
steady-state (aboutistheshown in Figure
last 300 5c. It can
cycles) under be observed
different crossingthat the and
angles friction
crosscoefficient
directionsinis the
shownrelative
in
steady-state
Figure 5c. It canshowed a decreasing
be observed that the tendency with increasing
friction coefficient crossing
in the relative angles noshowed
steady-state matter what the cross
a decreasing
directionwith
tendency is. However,
increasing when theangles
crossing cross nodirection
matter between
what the the
crossropes is left,
direction is.the frictionwhen
However, coefficient
the
decreases
cross directionfrom about the
between 0.77–0.60
ropes iswhile thefriction
left, the crossing angle increases
coefficient decreasesfrom
from−7°about
to −28°; for the
0.77–0.60 other
while
thecondition, the average
crossing angle value
increases from −7◦ to −
decreases 28◦ ; approximately
from 0.73–0.66.the
for the other condition, Additionally,
average value as the crossing
decreases
angles
from are 14° and 21°,
approximately the values
0.73–0.66. are almostas
Additionally, equal, approximately
the crossing are 14◦ and 21◦ , the values are
angles 0.71.
almost equal, approximately 0.71.

1.0 1.0
7
0.9 14 0.9
14 7
7 21
0.8 14 0.8
28

Friction coefficient fav

Friction coefficient fav

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6
21 28
0.5 0.5 21 28
0.4 0.4 7
14
0.3 0.3 21
28
0.2 0.2
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200

Number of cycles n Number of cycles n

0.80
Left cross
Right cross
0.75
Friction coefficient fav

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.55

0.50
0 7 14 21 28 35

Crossing angle a ()

Figure5.5. The
Figure The evolution
evolutionofofthe friction
the coefficient
friction under
coefficient different
under sliding
different conditions
sliding (x: 10 mm;
conditions (x: v:106 mm/s).
mm;
v: (a) Right cross
6 mm/s). contact;
(a) Right (b) contact;
cross left cross(b)
contact and (c)
left cross the average
contact and (c)values of the friction
the average values coefficient in the
of the friction
steady-state
coefficient period.
in the steady-state period.

Figure 6 presents the variation of the friction coefficient under the condition of different cross
Figure 6 presents the variation of the friction coefficient under the condition of different cross
directions and large crossing angles. Because to the velocity and stroke are increased to 12 mm/s and
directions and large crossing angles. Because to the velocity and stroke are increased to 12 mm/s and
20 mm, the number of sliding cycles is half of that in Figure 5. Under the contact condition of right
20 mm, the number of sliding cycles is half of that in Figure 5. Under the contact condition of right
across, the effect of the large crossing angle on the friction coefficient can be observed in Figure 6a. It
across, the effect of the large crossing angle on the friction coefficient can be observed in Figure 6a. It is
is clear that the difference between each curve is obvious and there are almost no overlapping curves,
clear that the difference between each curve is obvious and there are almost no overlapping curves,
which indicates that the crossing angle plays an important role in this condition. The rate of the curve
which indicates that the crossing angle plays an important role in this condition. The rate of the curve
increases with the increasing crossing angles during the early stage (approximately 100 cycles), then,
increases with the increasing crossing angles during the early stage (approximately 100 cycles), then,
after a slow transition stage for about 125 cycles the curves finally stabilize to different constants. The
after a slow transition stage for about 125 cycles the curves finally stabilize to different constants.
other case is the effect of the large crossing angle under the condition of left cross, as can be seen in
The other case is the effect of the large crossing angle under the condition of left cross, as can be
Figure 6b. Compared with Figure 6a, the evolution of the friction coefficient is more similar and the
seen in Figure 6b. Compared with Figure 6a, the evolution of the friction coefficient is more similar
overlapping of different curves is more obvious. This indicates that the surface between the friction
and the overlapping of different curves is more obvious. This indicates that the surface between the
pair is similar and the effect of the crossing angles on the contact surface is small under left cross.
friction pair is similar and the effect of the crossing angles on the contact surface is small under left
Moreover, the number of cycles to each friction stage is probably identical, indicating that the process
of wear is mainly affected by the sliding distance. Furthermore, the friction coefficient in the relative
steady-stage (after about 450 cycles) under the condition of different crossing angles and cross
directions is shown in Figure 6c. For the two cross directions, the friction coefficient in the stable stage
Materials 2017, 10, 630 9 of 20

cross. Moreover, the number of cycles to each friction stage is probably identical, indicating that the
process
Materialsof wear
2017, is mainly affected by the sliding distance. Furthermore, the friction coefficient in9the
10, 630 of 19
relative steady-stage (after about 450 cycles) under the condition of different crossing angles and cross
directions is shown intrend
shows a decreasing Figurewith
6c. For
the the two cross
increasing directions,
crossing theItfriction
angles. coefficient
decreases in the0.82–0.64
from about stable stage
and
shows a decreasing trend with the increasing crossing angles. It decreases from about 0.82–0.64
0.79–0.71 under the contact condition of right cross and left cross, respectively. Therefore, the crossing and
0.79–0.71
angles haveunder the contact
a more obviouscondition
effect onofthe
right cross coefficient
friction and left cross,
underrespectively. Therefore,
the condition of rightthe crossing
cross.
angles have a more obvious effect on the friction coefficient under the condition of right cross.

1.0 1.0

0.9 50 40 0.9

50
40
0.8 0.8

Friciton coeffocoent fav

Friction coefficient fav

0.7 0.7 60

0.6 0.6
80 70 80
60 70
0.5 0.5
40 40
0.4 50 0.4 50
60 60
0.3 0.3 70
70
80 80
0.2 0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650

Number of cycles n Number of cycles n

0.90
Right cross
0.85 Left cross

0.80
Friction coefficient fav

0.75

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.55

0.50
30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Crossing angle a ()

Figure 6. The evolution of friction coefficient under different sliding conditions (x: 20 mm; v: 12 mm/s).
Figure 6. The evolution of friction coefficient under different sliding conditions (x: 20 mm; v: 12 mm/s).
(a) Right cross contact; (b) left cross contact and (c) the average values of the friction coefficient in the
(a) Right cross contact; (b) left cross contact and (c) the average values of the friction coefficient in the
steady-state period.
steady-state period.

The evolution process of the friction coefficient can reflect the change of friction surfaces.
The evolution
Because the rope process
wires areof galvanized
the friction coefficient
and there is can
noreflect the change
lubrication of friction
between surfaces.
the contact Because
surfaces, the
the
friction pair is smooth and the damage is fast at the beginning of each test, which lead to rapidfriction
rope wires are galvanized and there is no lubrication between the contact surfaces, the growth
pair is smooth
in the and the
early stage. damage
When is fast atangle
the crossing the beginning
is small (±7°of each test, the
to ±28°), which lead surface
contact to rapidisgrowth
similarinunder
the
early stage. When the crossing angle is small ( ± 7 ◦ to ±28◦ ), the contact surface is similar under the
the condition of right cross, because the cross direction and the strand lay direction are the same, and
condition
the sliding ofwill
right cross,
occur in because the crossthe
the gap between direction and thewhich
rope strands, strand canlay
bedirection
found inare the the same,
Section and
3.3. For
the sliding
Figure will
6, as theoccur inisthe
stroke 20gap
mmbetween
and the the rope
strand laystrands,
length which
is 70 mm,can the
be found in the Section
reciprocating sliding 3.3.
will
For Figure
occur 6, as the
between thestroke is 20 which
two gaps, mm and leadthetostrand
a larger layfriction
length is 70 mm,
force. the reciprocating
Additionally, with the sliding willof
increase
occur between angle,
the crossing the twothe
gaps, which lead
difference to a larger
between the friction
contact force. Additionally,
surfaces is great andwithcan
the be
increase of thein
observed
crossing
Section 3.3. Compared with the other case (left cross contact), the effect of the surface structure on3.3.
angle, the difference between the contact surfaces is great and can be observed in Section the
Compared with theisother
friction coefficient case (leftand
not obvious, crossthecontact), the effect
contact state of the surface
is relatively structure on the friction
more stable.
coefficient is not obvious, and the contact state is relatively more stable.
3.2. Evolution of Temperature Rise under Different Conditions
Figure 7 shows the infrared thermograms captured before the end of the friction tests under the
sliding conditions of small crossing angles and different cross directions. It is clear that the color in
the contact region is brighter, indicating that the temperature rise caused by the friction between
ropes is very obvious; the brighter the color, the higher the temperature. A general trend can be seen
in that the temperature rise in the sliding region increases with the crossing angles. Furthermore,
those images can intuitively reflect the variation and characteristics of the contact areas. The infrared
thermograms for the conditions of different crossing angles and right cross can be observed in
Materials 2017, 10, 630 10 of 20

3.2. Evolution of Temperature Rise under Different Conditions

Figure 7 shows the infrared thermograms captured before the end of the friction tests under the
sliding conditions of small crossing angles and different cross directions. It is clear that the color in the
contact region is brighter, indicating that the temperature rise caused by the friction between ropes is
very obvious; the brighter the color, the higher the temperature. A general trend can be seen in that the
temperature rise in the sliding region increases with the crossing angles. Furthermore, those images
can intuitively reflect the variation and characteristics of the contact areas. The infrared thermograms
Materials 2017, 10, 630 10 of 19
for the conditions of different crossing angles and right cross can be observed in Figure 7a–d. When
the crossing angle increases from 7◦ to 28◦ , the contact areas become increasingly concentrated and
Figure 7a–d. When the crossing angle increases from 7° to 28°, the contact areas become increasingly
the high temperature
concentrated and theregions gradually distribute
high temperature along thedistribute
regions gradually strand layalong
direction. However,
the strand compared
lay direction.
with the other contact condition, as can be seen in Figure 7e–h, it is obvious that the high
However, compared with the other contact condition, as can be seen in Figure 7e–h, it is obvious that temperature
regions
the highare continuously
temperature concentrated
regions with theconcentrated
are continuously crossing angle,
withandthe distribute in theand
crossing angle, middle of the
distribute
contact area. It indicates that the effect of cross direction between the rope samples
in the middle of the contact area. It indicates that the effect of cross direction between the rope on the high
temperature regions’ distribution and contact surface is very obvious.
samples on the high temperature regions’ distribution and contact surface is very obvious.

Figure7.7.Infrared
Figure Infraredthermograms
thermograms for for different
different sliding
sliding conditions
conditions (x:
(x: 10
10 mm;
mm; v:
v: 66 mm/s).
mm/s). (a–d):
(a–d):Right
Right
cross contact; (e–h): left cross contact.
cross contact; (e–h): left cross contact.

Figure 8 presents the evolution of friction temperature rise between the wire ropes under the
Figure 8 presents the evolution of friction temperature rise between the wire ropes under the
sliding conditions of different cross directions and small crossing angles. Similar to the change law
sliding conditions of different cross directions and small crossing angles. Similar to the change
of the friction coefficient, the temperature rise does not increase during the whole friction test, but
law of the friction coefficient, the temperature rise does not increase during the whole friction test,
increases rapidly for a short time at first, and then gradually tends to be stable. Additionally, the
but increases
distinction rapidlyeach
between for temperature
a short time rise at first,
curveand then gradually
is clearer. As the crosstends to be stable.
direction is right,Additionally,
the effect of
the
the crossing angle on the temperature rise can be obtained from Figure 8a. At the beginningthe
distinction between each temperature rise curve is clearer. As the cross direction is right, effect
of each
oftest
the(before
crossing angle on the temperature rise can be obtained from Figure 8a.
approximately 150 cycles), the temperature rise increases rapidly and reaches a maximum At the beginning of each
test (before approximately 150 cycles), the temperature rise increases rapidly
value. In the next 150 sliding cycles, the overlapping phenomenon of each curve is serious, indicating and reaches a maximum
value.
that the In the
severenextwear
150 sliding
stage willcycles,
end.the overlapping
Finally, phenomenon
the curves reach a stableof eachstagecurve
afteris about
serious, indicating
800 sliding
that the severe wear stage will end. Finally, the curves reach a stable stage
cycles, which illustrates that the friction temperature rise has realized a relative balance state between after about 800 sliding
cycles, which illustrates that the friction temperature rise has realized a relative
the generation and dissipation of the heat. Figure 8b presents the evolution of the temperature rise balance state between
the generation
under and dissipation
the condition of left crossofforthesmall
heat.crossing
Figure 8b presents
angles. the evolution
It is clear of the temperature
that the temperature rise curvesrise
under the condition of left cross for small crossing angles. It is clear that the
reach the relatively stable stage earlier, approximately 500 sliding cycles. It indicates that the sliding temperature rise curves
reach
surface theand
relatively stableofstage
the process wearearlier,
are moreapproximately 500 sliding
stable. Moreover, Figure cycles. It indicates
8c presents that the sliding
the variation of the
surface
averageand the process
temperature riseof calculated
wear are morefrom stable. Moreover,
the values Figurestage
in the stable 8c presents
(about the the last
variation of the
350 cycles)
average temperature rise calculated from the values in the stable stage (about
under the condition of different cross directions and crossing angles. When the cross direction is the last 350 cycles) under
the
the
samecondition of different
as the strand cross directions
lay direction, and crossing
the temperature riseangles. When the cross
in the steady-state direction
period is higheris the same
than thatas
the
forstrand lay direction,
left cross. With the the temperature
crossing rise in the
angle increases steady-state
from 7° to 28°,period is higher than
the temperature risethat for leftfrom
increases cross.
With the crossing angle increases from 7 ◦ to 28◦ , the temperature rise increases from approximately
approximately 4.9 °C to approximately 7.5 °C and from approximately 4.2 °C to approximately 6.3 °C
under the condition of right cross and left cross, respectively.
Materials 2017, 10, 630 11 of 20

4.9 ◦ C to
Materials approximately
2017, 10, 630 7.5 ◦ C and from approximately 4.2 ◦ C to approximately 6.3 ◦ C under the
11 of 19
condition of right cross and left cross, respectively.

10 10

9 9

8 28 8
28

Temperature rise T (℃)

Tmeperature rise T (℃)

7 7
21
6 6
14
5 5
14 21
7
4 4

3 3 7
7 7
2 2
14 14
1 21 1 21
28 28
0 0
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200

Number of cycles n Number of cycles n

(a) (b)
10
Right cross
9
Left cross
8
Temperature rise T (℃)

0
0 7 14 21 28 35

Crossing angle a ()

(c)

Figure 8.
Figure 8. The
The evolution
evolution of
ofthe
thetemperature
temperaturerise
riseunder
underdifferent
differentsliding
slidingconditions
conditions(x:
(x:10
10mm;
mm;v:v:66mm/s).
mm/s).
(a) Right
(a) Right cross
cross contact;
contact; (b)
(b) left
left cross
cross contact;
contact; (c)
(c) the
the average
average values
values of
of the
the temperature
temperature rise
rise in
in the
the
steady-state period.
steady-state period.

Figure 9 presents the infrared thermograms captured before the end of the friction tests under
Figure 9 presents the infrared thermograms captured before the end of the friction tests under
the sliding condition of large crossing angles and different cross directions. Compared with Figure 7,
the sliding condition of large crossing angles and different cross directions. Compared with Figure 7,
the variation characteristics of the temperature rise distribution in the sliding regions for right cross
the variation characteristics of the temperature rise distribution in the sliding regions for right cross are
are different, as can be seen in Figure 9a–e. When the crossing angle is 40° and 50°, the high
different, as can be seen in Figure 9a–e. When the crossing angle is 40◦ and 50◦ , the high temperature
temperature areas distribute among the gaps between strands along with the strand lay direction.
areas distribute among the gaps between strands along with the strand lay direction. However, as it
However, as it increases from 60° to 80°, the high temperature areas become more concentrated and
increases from 60◦ to 80◦ , the high temperature areas become more concentrated and distribute on
distribute on the upper surface of the strands, indicating that the effect of the strand lay direction on
the upper surface of the strands, indicating that the effect of the strand lay direction on the contact
the contact region becomes smaller when the crossing angle is larger. However, for the other case,
region becomes smaller when the crossing angle is larger. However, for the other case, the change of
the change of the high temperature area is not very obvious, as shown in Figure 9f–j. Additionally,
the high temperature area is not very obvious, as shown in Figure 9f–j. Additionally, when the crossing
when the crossing angle increases from −40° to −80°, the color in the contact region becomes brighter.
angle increases from −40◦ to −80◦ , the color in the contact region becomes brighter. Compared with
Compared with the two cross conditions under large crossing angles, the effect of the strand lay
the two cross conditions under large crossing angles, the effect of the strand lay direction on the high
direction on the high temperature area distribution is more obvious for the right cross contact, but
temperature area distribution is more obvious for the right cross contact, but for the left cross contact,
for the left cross contact, the crossing angle plays an important role in the temperature rise.
the crossing angle plays an important role in the temperature rise.
Materials 2017, 10, 630 12 of 20
Materials 2017, 10, 630 12 of 19

Figure 9. Infrared thermograms for different sliding conditions (x: 20 mm; v: 12 mm/s). (a–e): Right
Figure 9. Infrared thermograms for different sliding conditions (x: 20 mm; v: 12 mm/s). (a–e): Right
cross contact; (f–j): left cross contact.
cross contact; (f–j): left cross contact.

The evolution of friction temperature rise between wire rope under the condition of different
crossThe evolution
directions andoflarge
friction temperature
crossing angles isrise between
presented wire rope
in Figure under
10. The the condition
variation trend ofof thedifferent
curves
cross directions
is very similar to and large6,crossing
Figure when the angles
crossisdirection
presented is in
theFigure 10. The
same with thevariation
strand laytrend of theascurves
direction shownis
very similar
in Figure to Figure
10a, 6, whenbetween
the difference the crosseach direction is the same
temperature risewith
curvethe is strand lay direction
more obvious, as shownfor
in particular in
Figure 10a,stage.
the early the difference between
This illustrates thateach temperature
contact properties rise
arecurve is more
different obvious,
at first underindifferent
particular for the
crossing
early stage.
angles. This illustrates
Additionally, whenthat thecontact
crossing properties
angle is are 70° different
and 80°, at first
this twounder different crossing
temperature rise curves angles.
are
Additionally, ◦ ◦
very similar,whenand asthethecrossing
temperatureangle rise
is 70achieves
and 80 relative
, this two temperature
stable, there arerisethreecurves
curvesareoverlap
very similar,
with
and
eachasother
the temperature
which crossing riseangle
achieves
is 60°,relative
70° andstable, there are three
80°, respectively. It is curves
correspond overlap with
to the each
result other
shown
which crossing ◦ , 70◦ and 80◦ , respectively. It is correspond to the result shown in Figure 9c–e.
in Figure 9c–e.angle
Figureis 60
10b presents the variation of temperature rise under the condition of left cross
Figure
contact 10b
andpresents the variation
large crossing angles.ofDifferent
temperature fromrise under
Figure the
10a, thecondition
curves with of left cross contact
different crossing and large
angles
crossing angles.
are disorder Different
at the beginning fromofFigure 10a,which
the tests, the curves with different
are difficult crossing
to distinguish eachangles
curve.areButdisorder
after the at
temperature
the beginningrise becomes
of the tests, stable,
which theare curves
difficult with different crossing
to distinguish anglesBut
each curve. are easy
after to
thedistinguish.
temperature It
indicates
rise becomes thatstable,
the wear
the processes
curves with in the early stage
different (about
crossing 150 sliding
angles are easy cycles) are similarItand
to distinguish. gradually
indicates that
stabilize
the to different
wear processes inbalance
the early stages
stageunder
(aboutthe 150 effect
slidingof different
cycles) arecrossing
similarangles. The average
and gradually values
stabilize to
of temperature rise during the relative steady-state (approximately the last
different balance stages under the effect of different crossing angles. The average values of temperature 150 cycles) with different
crossing
rise duringangles and cross
the relative directions
steady-state are shown inthe
(approximately Figure 10c.cycles)
last 150 It is clear
withthat with the
different increase
crossing of
angles
crossing
and cross angles,
directionstheare
temperature
shown in Figure rise in 10c.
the contact
It is clearregion increases
that with from approximately
the increase 7.9 °Cthe
of crossing angles, to
approximately 10.1 °C and approximately 10.9 °C to approximately
temperature rise in the contact region increases from approximately 7.9 C to approximately 10.1 C ◦
12.8 °C under the condition ◦
of
right
and cross and left10.9
approximately ◦ Crespectively.
cross, to approximately 12.8 ◦ C under
Additionally, as thethe
cross direction
condition of is opposite
right to the
cross and leftstrand
cross,
lay direction,
respectively. the temperature
Additionally, as therise is higher
cross direction thanis that for right
opposite cross
to the strandunder
lay the same crossing
direction, angle.
the temperature
rise is higher than that for right cross under the same crossing angle.
Materials 2017,
Materials 2017, 10,
10, 630
630 13 of
13 of 20
19

15 15
14 14 70 80
13 13
12 12
80 70
11 11
Temperature riset (℃)

Temperature riset (℃)

10 10 60 50 40
9 60 9
8 50 8
7 7
40
6 6
5 5
40 40
4 4
50 50
3 3
60 60
2 2
70 70
1 1
80 80
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600

Number of cycles n Number of cycles n

16
Right cross
14 Left cross

12
Temperature rise t (℃)

10

0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Crossing angle a 

Figure 10.
Figure 10.The evolution
The of the
evolution of temperature rise under
the temperature rise different sliding conditions
under different (x: 20 mm; (x:
sliding conditions v: 1220
mm/s).
mm;
(a) Right cross contact; (b) left cross contact and (c) the average values of the temperature rise
v: 12 mm/s). (a) Right cross contact; (b) left cross contact and (c) the average values of the temperature in the
steady-state
rise period. period.
in the steady-state

In this study, the temperature rise is caused by the friction heat between wire ropes, which will
In this study, the temperature rise is caused by the friction heat between wire ropes, which will
influence the characteristics of the sliding contact surface, especially for the wear debris between the
influence the characteristics of the sliding contact surface, especially for the wear debris between
friction surfaces. However, the temperature rise in the contact region is not so obvious in the actual
the friction surfaces. However, the temperature rise in the contact region is not so obvious in the
working condition, but, the transient temperature that arises is large and the temperature of asperities
actual working condition, but, the transient temperature that arises is large and the temperature of
may be much higher than that of the surface, which then forms local high-temperature zones [34].
asperities may be much higher than that of the surface, which then forms local high-temperature
Additionally, the infrared thermograms can intuitively reflect the variation of contact types between
zones [34]. Additionally, the infrared thermograms can intuitively reflect the variation of contact types
rope samples and through the distribution of the color, which in turn presents the effect of cross
between rope samples and through the distribution of the color, which in turn presents the effect of
direction under different crossing angles on the friction heat and sliding contact. Furthermore, the
cross direction under different crossing angles on the friction heat and sliding contact. Furthermore,
evolution of the temperature rise is the changing process of surface wear. In the early stage, the
the evolution of the temperature rise is the changing process of surface wear. In the early stage,
damage of the friction surface is very fast and the contact region is extending, which will generate a
the damage of the friction surface is very fast and the contact region is extending, which will generate
lot of friction heat. However, as the wear becomes stable, the heat generation and dissipation realize
a lot of friction heat. However, as the wear becomes stable, the heat generation and dissipation realize
a dynamic balance state gradually. Additionally, it shows a contrary tendency with the variation of
a dynamic balance state gradually. Additionally, it shows a contrary tendency with the variation of the
the friction coefficient, which indicates that the temperature rise in the relatively stable state increases
friction coefficient, which indicates that the temperature rise in the relatively stable state increases with
with the decrease of the contact area. With the increase of the crossing angle, the contact pressure
the decrease of the contact area. With the increase of the crossing angle, the contact pressure becomes
becomes larger, which is more beneficial to increase the friction temperature rise. This result
larger, which is more beneficial to increase the friction temperature rise. This result corresponds to the
corresponds to the previous research [31]. However, due to the difference of the cross directions, the
previous research [31]. However, due to the difference of the cross directions, the average temperature
average temperature rise in the relative steady-state is different despite the variation tendency with
rise in the relative steady-state is different despite the variation tendency with increasing crossing
increasing crossing angle being similar.
angle being similar.
3.3. Wear Mechanism
The effect of the strand lay direction and crossing angle on the sliding contact characteristics
were investigated by a visualization method, and the wear scars are provided in Figures 11 and 12.
Additionally, the wear mass loss for each test is presented in Figure 13 to quantitatively analyze the
Materials 2017, 10, 630 14 of 20

3.3. Wear Mechanism

The effect of the strand lay direction and crossing angle on the sliding contact characteristics
were investigated by a visualization method, and the wear scars are provided in Figures 11 and 12.
Materials 2017, 10, 630 14 of 19
Additionally, the wear mass loss for each test is presented in Figure 13 to quantitatively analyze the
degree
degree of ofwear.
wear.Furthermore,
Furthermore,the theworn
worn surface
surfacemicrographs
micrographs of the upper
of the loading
upper ropes,
loading as can
ropes, asbe
canseen
be
in Figures 14 and 15, are studied to understand the wear mechanisms and
seen in Figures 14 and 15, are studied to understand the wear mechanisms and provide explanationsprovide explanations for the
variation laws of laws
for the variation the friction coefficient
of the friction and temperature
coefficient rise.
and temperature rise.
Figure
Figure 11 presents the wear scar pictures of the upper loading
11 presents the wear scar pictures of the upper loading ropes
ropes under
under different
different cross
cross
directions
directions and small crossing angles. In the case of right cross, the wear scar region becomes more
and small crossing angles. In the case of right cross, the wear scar region becomes more
concentrated ◦
concentrated with with the
the crossing
crossing angle. When the
angle. When the crossing
crossing angle
angle is
is 77°,, the
the wear
wear scar
scar occurs
occurs on
on many
many
strands and its width is small. However, when the crossing angle is more than 14 ◦ , the wear scar only
strands and its width is small. However, when the crossing angle is more than 14°, the wear scar only
occurs
occurs onon two
two strands
strands and
and distributes
distributes inin the
the gap
gap between
between the the side
side surfaces
surfaces ofof the
the strands.
strands. Compared
Compared
with
with the other case, as shown in Figure 11e–h, the differences are obvious. It is clear that the
the other case, as shown in Figure 11e–h, the differences are obvious. It is clear that the wear
wear
scars always appear on many strands with the increase of the crossing
scars always appear on many strands with the increase of the crossing angles. At the crossingangles. At the crossing angle of
angle
◦
7of,7°,
thethe
distribution ofofthe wear scar
distribution the wear scarisissimilar
similartotothat
thatininFigure
Figure11a,
11a,but,
but,with
with the
the increase
increase of angles,
of angles,
the wear scars become more and more obvious and only appear on the
the wear scars become more and more obvious and only appear on the upper surface of the strands.upper surface of the strands.
This
This corresponds
corresponds to to the
the distribution
distribution of
of high
high temperature
temperatureareas areasasasshown
shownin inFigure
Figure7.7.

Figure 11. Wear scar pictures of the upper loading rope for a small crossing angle under different
Figure 11. Wear scar pictures of the upper loading rope for a small crossing angle under different
sliding conditions (x: 10 mm; v: 6 mm/s). (a–d): Right cross contact; (e–h): left cross contact. The wear
sliding conditions (x: 10 mm; v: 6 mm/s). (a–d): Right cross contact; (e–h): left cross contact. The wear
scar regions are marked by the dashed lines.
scar regions are marked by the dashed lines.

The wear scar pictures of the upper loading rope under the condition of different cross directions
The wear
and large scar pictures
crossing angles areof the upper
shown in loading
Figure 12. ropeIn under theofcondition
the case of different
right cross, crossofdirections
the change the wear
and large crossing angles are shown in Figure 12. In the case of right cross, the change
scar profiles are larger than that in the case of left cross with an increase of the crossing angle. When of the wear scar
profiles are larger than that in the case of left cross with an increase of the crossing
the crossing angle is 40° and 50°, the wear scar still distributes on the side of the adjacent strands, angle. When the
crossing angle is 40 ◦ and 50◦ , the wear scar still distributes on the side of the adjacent strands, which is
which is the reason why the high temperature distributes along the strand lay direction shown in
the reason
Figure 9a,b.why the high
However, temperature
when the angledistributes
is more than along
60°,the
thestrand
wear arealay direction
changes fromshowntheingap
Figure 9a,b.
between
However, when the angle is more than 60 ◦ , the wear area changes from the gap between the adjacent
the adjacent strands to the upper surface of the strands. Additionally, its shape becomes more regular
strands
and small.to the upper surface
However, for theof theof
case strands.
left cross,Additionally,
the shape itsof shape
the wear becomes
area ismore
veryregular
clear andandsurface
small.
However, for the case of left cross, the shape of the wear area is very clear and
characteristics are similar under different crossing angles. Comparing with Figure 11a–e, the contact surface characteristics
are
formsimilar under and
is singular different
stable,crossing
and the angles.
effect Comparing withangle
of the crossing Figure is 11a–e, the contact
more obvious. form
This is singular
is the reason
why the variation of the friction coefficient and temperature rise in the steady-state is small for this
contact condition.
Materials 2017, 10, 630 15 of 20

and stable, and the effect of the crossing angle is more obvious. This is the reason why the variation of
the friction coefficient and temperature rise in the steady-state is small for this contact condition.
Materials 2017, 10, 630 15 of 19
Materials 2017, 10, 630 15 of 19

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Wear scar pictures
Wear scar pictures of
of the
the upper
upper loading
loading rope
rope for
for aa large
large crossing
crossing angle
angle under
under different
different
Figure 12. Wear scar pictures of12the upper loading rope for a large(f–j):
crossing anglecontact.
under The
different
sliding conditions (x: 20 mm; v: 12 mm/s). (a–e): Right cross contact; (f–j): left cross contact. The wear
sliding conditions (x: 20 mm; v: mm/s). (a–e): Right cross contact; left cross wear
sliding conditions
scar regions
regions (x: 20 mm;
are marked
marked by thev: dashed
the 12 mm/s). (a–e): Right cross contact; (f–j): left cross contact. The wear
lines.
scar are by dashed lines.
scar regions are marked by the dashed lines.
Figure 13 presents the evolution of the wear mass loss for each test. It can be concluded that in
Figure 13
Figure 13 presents the the evolution
evolution of of the wear
wear mass
mass loss
loss for
for each
each test.
test. It can
can bebe concluded
concluded that that in
in
the case of the presents
small crossing angle withthethe stroke and velocity at 10 mmItand 6 mm/s, respectively,
the case
the case of the the small
small crossing
crossing angle
angle with the
the stroke and
and velocity
velocity at
at 10 mm
mm and 66 mm/s, respectively,
the wearofloss increases from about with
11.3–85.3stroke
mg and 29.5–62.5 mg10 under and mm/s, respectively,
the condition of the right
the
the wear
wear loss increases
loss increases from about
fromcontact, 11.3–85.3
about 11.3–85.3 mg and
mgseen 29.5–62.5
andin29.5–62.5 mg under
mg under the condition
the condition of theofright cross
the angle
right
cross contact and left cross as can be Figure 13a. However, as the crossing
contact
cross and left
contact and cross contact, as can be seen in Figure 13a. However, as the crossing
as the angle increases
increases ◦ tofrom 40°left
◦ , the to cross contact,
80°, the wear as candecreases
loss be seen in Figure
from 13a. However,
approximately 117.2–49.3 crossing
mg under angle
the
from 40
increases 80
from 40° wear
to loss
80°, thedecreases
wear from
loss approximately
decreases from 117.2–49.3
approximately mg under the
117.2–49.3 condition
mg underof right
the
condition of right cross and decreases from about 93.8–61.7 mg in the other condition. It indicates
cross and decreases
condition fromand about 93.8–61.7from
mg in the other condition. inItthe
indicates that in the condition of
that in the of right cross
condition decreases
of right cross between theabout 93.8–61.7
wire ropes, the mg
variation ofother condition.
the wear mass lossIt indicates
is larger
rightincross
that thefor between the
condition wire cross
of with
right ropes,between
the variation of the wear
the wire themass loss isoflarger thanmassthat loss
for left cross
than that left cross the crossing angle, evenropes,
though variation
the changing the wear
trend is similar. is larger
Therefore,
with
than the crossing
that for angle, even though the changing trend is similar. Therefore, the strand lay direction
the strand layleft cross with
direction playstheancrossing
importantangle,
roleeven though
in the the changing
wear mass loss. trend is similar. Therefore,
plays
the an important
strand lay directionrole plays
in the anwear mass loss.
important role in the wear mass loss.
120 140
120 Right cross 140 Right cross
105 Left cross Left cross
Right cross 120 Right cross
105 Left cross Left cross
90 120
90 100
m (mg)

m (mg)

75
100
m (mg)

m (mg)

75
60 80
lossloss

lossloss

60 80
45
Wear

Wear

60
45
Wear

Wear

30 60
30 40
15
40
15
0 20
0 7 14 21 28 20 40 50 60 70 80
7 14
Crossing angle a21
() 28 40 50 Crossing60
anglea () 70 80

Crossing angle a () Crossing angle a ()

Figure 13. Wear mass loss for the different sliding conditions. (a) The wear mass loss for different
Figure
Figure 13. Wear
13. Wearin
cross directions mass
mass lossfor
theloss
case forthe
of a the different
different
small sliding
sliding
crossing conditions.
conditions.
angle (a)6 mm/s)
(a)v:The
(x: 10 mm; The wear
wear andmass
mass loss
lossthe
(b) for for mass
different
different
wear cross
loss
cross directions
directions in
in cross
for different the
the case case of
of a small
directions a small crossing
crossing
in the case ofangle angle
a large (x: 10
10 mm; v:
(x: crossing mm; v:
6 mm/s)
angle 6 mm/s)
(x: 20 and and
mm;(b) (b) the
wear mass lossloss
themm/s).
v: 12 wear mass for
for different
different cross
cross directions
directions in the
in the casecase
of aof a large
large crossing
crossing angle
angle (x:mm;
(x: 20 20 mm;
v: 12v:mm/s).
12 mm/s).
Figure 14 shows the worn surface micrographs of the upper loading rope achieved using an
Figure 14 shows the
industrial microscope worn
under surface
different micrographs
cross directions of
andthe upper angles.
crossing loadingItrope achieved
is obvious that using an
there are
industrial microscope under different cross directions and crossing angles. It is obvious that
many similar morphological features of the wear surface for all the tests, such as the pits, furrows, there are
many
plasticsimilar morphological
deformation, features
and spalling of the
fatigue thatwear surface
can be foundfor all the
easily tests,
on the such as
images the pits, enlarged
of partially furrows,
plastic
details.deformation,
From Figureand spalling
14a–d, it canfatigue
be seenthat
thatcan be found
when easily on
the crossing the images
angle is 7° and of14°,
partially
there enlarged
is a mild
details.
wear on the upper surface of the strands and the gaps between the rope wires are very is
From Figure 14a–d, it can be seen that when the crossing angle is 7° and 14°, there a mild
obvious.
wear on the upper
Additionally, surface
the wear of the strands
characteristics and thepits
are mainly gapsandbetween
plastic the rope wiresbecause
deformation, are verytheobvious.
contact
Additionally, the wear characteristics are mainly pits and plastic deformation, because the contact
Materials 2017, 10, 630 16 of 20

Figure 14 shows the worn surface micrographs of the upper loading rope achieved using an
industrial microscope under different cross directions and crossing angles. It is obvious that there are
many similar morphological features of the wear surface for all the tests, such as the pits, furrows,
plastic deformation, and spalling fatigue that can be found easily on the images of partially enlarged
details. From Figure 14a–d, it can be seen that when the crossing angle is 7◦ and 14◦ , there is a mild
wear on2017,
Materials the10, upper
630 surface of the strands and the gaps between the rope wires are very obvious. 16 of 19
Additionally, the wear characteristics are mainly pits and plastic deformation, because the contact
regions are larger and the contact pressure is relatively smaller. However, when the crossing angle
increases ◦ and 28◦ , the wear becomes more acute and the surface is more complete. As shown in
increases to to 21
21° and 28°, the wear becomes more acute and the surface is more complete. As shown
Figure 14d, both
in Figure 14d, both sides of the
sides strand
of the surface
strand are damaged
surface are damaged and the
andwear scar surface
the wear scar surfaceis notisinnot
thein same
the
plane due todue
same plane the sliding extrusion
to the sliding of the strands
extrusion in the lower
of the strands in thesliding
lower rope.
slidingFurthermore, the furrows
rope. Furthermore, the
are moreare
furrows intensive and complete
more intensive as shownasinshown
and complete Figurein14d. This14d.
Figure is because the contact
This is because thepressure is larger
contact pressure
which leads
is larger whichto aleads
closertocontact.
a closerConsidering the effect of
contact. Considering thewear debris,
effect of wearit isdebris,
easier to stay
it is on the
easier contact
to stay on
surface as the
the contact wear as
surface scar
thedistributes
wear scar in the gap between
distributes in the gapthebetween
adjacentthestrands,
adjacentwhich leadswhich
strands, to the leads
gaps
between
to the gapsadjacent
between rope wires being
adjacent smaller.
rope wires Figure
being 14e–hFigure
smaller. present the images
14e–h presentof thethe wear scar
images surface
of the wear
under the condition
scar surface under the of condition
left cross and different
of left crossing
cross and angles.
different It is clear
crossing angles.thatItthe surface
is clear thatmorphology
the surface
is more complex thancomplex
that forthan
the right cross is −14 ◦ , there are many
morphology is more that for thecontact. As contact.
right cross the crossing
As theangle
crossing angle is −14°, there
grooves
are many caused
groovesby the external
caused by wires in the wear
the external wiresregion,
in theadditionally,
wear region, the additionally,
plastic deformation and
the plastic
ploughing
deformation areand
serious which make
ploughing the surface
are serious very
which rough.
make theHowever, whenrough.
surface very the crossing
However, anglewhen
increases
the
to −28◦ , angle
crossing the honing pattern
increases becomes
to −28°, more clear
the honing andbecomes
pattern complete. Thisclear
more is theandreason
complete.why the Thisfriction
is the
coefficient
reason why shows a decreasing
the friction trend,shows
coefficient as shown in Figure 5.
a decreasing Therefore,
trend, as shownthe major wear5.mechanisms
in Figure Therefore, the are
adhesive
major wear wear and abrasive
mechanisms are wear in this
adhesive wearcontact condition.
and abrasive wear in this contact condition.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Industrial
Industrial microscope
microscope images
images of
of the
the wear
wear surface
surface of
of the upper loading
the upper loading rope for different
rope for different
conditions (x: 10 mm; v: 6 mm/s). (a–d): Right cross contact; (e–h): left cross contact.
conditions (x: 10 mm; v: 6 mm/s). (a–d): Right cross contact; (e–h): left cross contact.

Figure 15 shows the worn surface micrographs of the upper loading rope under the condition of
the large crossing angle and different cross directions. Comparing with Figure 14, the degree of wear
is more severe and the variation of the wear morphology is more obvious. When the cross direction
is the same as the strand lay direction, as can be seen in Figure 15a–e, the wear scars can be divided
into three types. As the crossing angle is 40° and 50°, the effect of the strand lay direction on the
Materials 2017, 10, 630 17 of 20

Figure 15 shows the worn surface micrographs of the upper loading rope under the condition of
the large crossing angle and different cross directions. Comparing with Figure 14, the degree of wear is
more severe and the variation of the wear morphology is more obvious. When the cross direction is the
same as the strand lay direction, as can be seen in Figure 15a–e, the wear scars can be divided into three
types. As the crossing angle is 40◦ and 50◦ , the effect of the strand lay direction on the characteristics
of the sliding contact is observable. It is clear that the severe wear always occurs on the side surfaces
and there is a pointy embossment on the middle of the rope strand which is caused by the adjacent
strands in the lower sliding rope. As the crossing angle increases to 60◦ and 70◦ , the damage on the
Materials 2017, 10, 630 17 of 19
wear surface is very serious and the furrows are disordered. Additionally, the wear scar regions move
to the
scar uppermove
regions surface to gradually and there
the upper surface is a relatively
gradually and theresmooth surface on
is a relatively the larger
smooth embossment
surface on the largerin
the middle ofin
embossment the wear
the scar,ofasthe
middle shown
wearinscar,
Figure 15c,d. Finally,
as shown in Figure as15c,d.
the crossing
Finally,angle
as theincreases 80◦ ,
crossingtoangle
the wear region
increases to 80°, moves
the wearto the upper
region surface
moves to theof upper
the strand completely.
surface Many
of the strand grooves also
completely. Manyoccur in the
grooves
region with a small amount of crack and spalling fatigue. Therefore, with the
also occur in the region with a small amount of crack and spalling fatigue. Therefore, with the increaseincrease of the crossing
angle, the wearangle,
of the crossing regionthe
becomes smallerbecomes
wear region and the smaller
contact and
surface
the becomes more smooth,
contact surface becomes which
moreprovides
smooth,
awhich
goodprovides
explanation for the evolution of the friction coefficient, as can be seen
a good explanation for the evolution of the friction coefficient, as can be seen in Figure 6. However,
in Figure
when the cross
6. However, whendirection changes
the cross into changes
direction left as shown in as
into left Figure
shown 15f–j, all the 15f–j,
in Figure wear allscars
theare distributed
wear scars are
on
distributed on the upper surfaces of the strands and are almost not affected by the strandItlay
the upper surfaces of the strands and are almost not affected by the strand lay direction. is
obvious that the grooves are clear in the wear region for each test, indicating
direction. It is obvious that the grooves are clear in the wear region for each test, indicating that thethat the sliding tract is
relatively more
sliding tract is stable. Duemore
relatively to thestable.
increaseDue ofto
thethe
crossing
increaseangle, thecrossing
of the contact region
angle, becomes
the contactsmall and
region
the
becomes small and the wear depth becomes larger, and the phenomenon of fatigue fracture of the
wear depth becomes larger, and the phenomenon of fatigue fracture of the wires occurs on the
wear surface as shown in Figure 15j. Additionally, the greater contact pressure
wires occurs on the wear surface as shown in Figure 15j. Additionally, the greater contact pressure is is easier to cause closer
contact
easier toand serious
cause closerwear, which
contact andis serious
helpful wear,
for thewhich
generation of friction
is helpful for theheat. This is of
generation consistent with
friction heat.
the variation rules shown in Figure 10. Therefore, the wear mechanisms
This is consistent with the variation rules shown in Figure 10. Therefore, the wear mechanisms areare adhesive wear, abrasive
wear, andwear,
adhesive fatigue wear inwear,
abrasive this sliding contact
and fatigue condition.
wear in this sliding contact condition.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Industrial
Industrial microscope
microscope images
images of of the
the wear
wear surface
surface of
of the
the upper
upper loading
loading rope
rope for
for different
different
conditions (x:
conditions (x: 20
20 mm;
mm; v:
v: 12
12 mm/s).
mm/s). (a–e):
(a–e):right
rightcross
crosscontact;
contact;(f–j):
(f–j):left
leftcross
crosscontact.
contact.

4. Conclusions
The present research on the tribological properties between winding hoisting ropes under
different cross directions and crossing angles revealed the following findings:
 The friction coefficient in the steady-state period shows a decreasing tendency with an increase
of the crossing angle in both cross directions. In the case of a small crossing angle (from 7° to
28°), the friction coefficient changes in a wider range under the contact condition of left cross,
Materials 2017, 10, 630 18 of 20

4. Conclusions
The present research on the tribological properties between winding hoisting ropes under different
cross directions and crossing angles revealed the following findings:

• The friction coefficient in the steady-state period shows a decreasing tendency with an increase
of the crossing angle in both cross directions. In the case of a small crossing angle (from 7◦
to 28◦ ), the friction coefficient changes in a wider range under the contact condition of left
cross, from approximately 0.77 to approximately 0.60. However, when the crossing angle is large
(from 40◦ to 80◦ ), the change of the friction coefficient is more obvious under the condition of
right cross, from approximately 0.82 to approximately 0.64.
• The temperature rise in the steady-state period shows an increasing tendency with the crossing
angles in both cross directions. In the case of right cross contact, the high temperature regions
always distribute along the strand lay direction between the adjacent strands in most situations.
Nevertheless, when the cross direction is left, the high temperature regions distribute on the
upper surface of the rope strands. Additionally, when the crossing angle is small, the temperature
rise is larger under the contact condition of right cross, increasing from approximately 4.9 ◦ C
to approximately 7.5 ◦ C. However, in the case of a large crossing angle, the temperature rise
is larger under the contact condition of left cross, increasing from approximately 7.5 ◦ C to
approximately 12.8 ◦ C.
• The variation of wear scar with an increase in the crossing angle is different for different cross
directions. In the case of right cross, the wear scar area gradually concentrates to the gap between
the adjacent strands with the crossing angle increasing from 7◦ to 28◦ . Additionally, as the crossing
angle increases from 40◦ to 80◦ , the wear scar area moves from the side surfaces in the gap to the
upper surfaces of the strands. However, as the cross direction is left, the wear scar is always on
the upper surfaces and becomes more concentrated with the increase of the crossing angle.
• The wear mass loss shows an increasing tendency in the small crossing angle tests and shows a
decreasing tendency in the large crossing angle tests for both cross directions. The variation range
of the wear mass loss is larger in the case of right cross contact.
• The differences of the wear morphology in the case of different cross directions are very obvious,
in particular for the large crossing angle tests. The damage formed on the wear surface are mainly
ploughing, pits, plastic deformation, and fatigue fracture. The major wear mechanisms between
the winding hoist ropes in this study are adhesive wear, abrasive, and fatigue wear.

Acknowledgments: This study is supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(No. 2017XKQY042). The authors also wish to thank Top-notch Academic Programs Project of Jiangsu Higher
Education Institutions (TAPP), and the Project Funded by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu
Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).
Author Contributions: Xiang-dong Chang and Yu-xing Peng conceived and designed the experiments;
Xiang-dong Chang, Zhen-tao Mi and Chun-ming Xu performed the experiments; Xiang-dong Chang and Yu-xing
Peng analyzed the data; Zhen-cai Zhu and Xian-sheng Gong provided useful comments for this study; Zhang-fa Yu
contributed materials; Xiang-dong Chang and Yu-xing Peng wrote the paper. All authors read and approved
the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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