literature Cited Sege, G., LYoodfield, F. W., Chem. Eng. Progr. 50, No.

8, 396-402
Gier, R. G., “Application of the Pulse Column to the Purex
Process,” Symposium on the Reprocessing of Irradiated Fuels,
Brussels, Belgium, May 1957 (TID-7534, Book I).
Hamming, R. W.,“Numerical Methods for Scientists and Engi-
neers,’’ McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
Perry, John H., “Chemical Engineer’s Handbook,” 3rd ed., p. 383,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
(1954).
Weech, M. E., P’Pool, R. S., McQueen, D. K., “Interim Report
on the Development of an Air Pulstr for Pulse Column Ap-
plication,” IDO-14559 (Sept. 22, 1961) ( U S . Dept. of Com-
merce, Office of Technical Services, Springfield, Va.).
RECEIVED
for review October 31, 1966
ACCEPTED March 27, 1967

COCURRENT GAS-LIQUID CONTACTING

IN PACKED C O L U M N S
L. P H I L I P REISS1
Shell Development Go., Emeryville, Calif.

New experimental data obtained for a variety of packing materials in small-scale and semicommercial-
scale equipment for cocurrent gas-liquid contacting in packed columns are presented, including pressure
loss, liquid holdup, radial liquid distribution, ammonia absorption, and oxygen desorption mass-transfer
coefficients. Existing correlations for single-phase and two-phase pressure loss and liquid holdup ade-
quately describe the experimental data. New correlations for mass transfer capacity coefficient are
based on the concept of energy dissipation per unit volume. Cocurrent gas-liquid contacting is advan-
tageous over countercurrent contacting when only one equilibrium contacting stage is required: physical
absorption a t large liquid-to-gas ratios, physical desorption a t low liquid-to-gas ratios, and transfer with
a consuming chemical reaction in one phase.

HE vast majority of the commercial packed columns for
Tgas-liquid contacting is operated countercurrently. The
liquid phase falls downward because of gravity, while the gas
phase moves upward through the column because of a n im-
posed pressure gradient. The gas throughput in this type of
operation is limited. Above a critical gas velocity the gravity
forces on the downfloiving liquid are exceeded by the drag
forces imposed on the liquid by the upflowing gas. This
unstable condition is known as flooding and is the charac-
teristic of all countercurrent gas-liquid contacting operations.
One means of overcoming this throughput limitation of
countercurrent operation is to operate the packed column
cocurrently. Both the gas and liquid are introduced a t the
top of the column and flow cocurrently doivnward through the
column because of a combination of gravity and applied
pressure gradient. There is no flooding limit for this type of
operation and the throughput of gas and liquid, up to choked
flow, depends only on the available pressure to drive the fluids
through the column.
Cocurrent operation appears advantageous from the fluid
mechanics standpoint, in that flooding can be eliminated.
However, from a mass-transfer standpoint, cocurrent operation
has a definite limitation relative to countercurrent operation.
The over-all concentration driving force and the number of
equilibrium stages in countercurrent operation are greater than
in cocurrent operation. I n fact, cocurrent operation results
in only one equilibrium stage.
There are, however, a number of gas-liquid contacting
Present address, Research and Development Laboratory,
Shell Pipe Line Corp., Houston, Tex.
operations where only one equilibrium stage is required.
For example, as pointed out by Wen et al. (1963a), if the
transferring component is transferred from one fluid phase and
is consumed by chemical reaction in the other phase, only one
equilibrium stag? is required. For a conventional absorption
a t large liquid-to-gas ratios, the concentration of the trans-
ferring component in the liquid phase is low, because of the
excess of liquid. Because this shifts the equilibrium, only one
equilibrium stage may be required to reduce the concentration
of the transferring component in the gas phase to the desired
level. The same applies in reverse for stripping operations a t
low liquid-to-gas ratios. With an excess of gas, the gas-phase
concentration of the transferring component may be so low
that the equilibrium is shifted. Hence, a stripping operation
could conceivably also be carried out in one equilibrium stage.
Operation a t high liquid-to-gas or low liquid-to-gas ratios in
the cocurrent mode does not present the flooding problem that
these extreme liquid-to-gas ratios might present in counter-
current operation.
Therefore, cocurrent gas-liquid contacting is generally
applicable for operations involving only one equilibrium
stage. These include absorption with chemical reaction in
one phase-Le., gas-liquid chemical reactors, absorption a t
high liquid-to-gas ratios, and desorption or stripping a t low
liquid-to-gas ratios. Cocurrent operation is not limited by
flooding. Hence, greater throughputs of gas and liquid can
be achieved than in conventional countercurrent packed
columns of similar size, or smaller equipment may be able to
do the same job.
There is a large body of literature devoted to the design and
operation of countercurrent packed columns. By contrast,

486 l&EC PROCESS D E S I G N A N D DEVELOPMENT

only comparatively few references have appeared o n cocurrent
contacting. Table I summarizes the experimental data avail-
able i n the literature which are applicable to the design of
cocurrent gas-liquid packed column contactors. T h e gas
and liquid rates range from those characteristic of “trickle
phase” operation (V, x 0.5 foot per second, Vi x 0.01 foot
per second) to higher rates which are more representative of
absorption operation ( V g = 5 feet per second, V i= 0.1 foot per
second).
T h e more significant papers o n cocurrent contacting are by
Larkins (1959, 1961), McIlvroid (1956), and Wen (1963, a, b).
Larkins measured pressure drop and liquid holdup for co-
current flow through beds of dumped packing and correlated
these data using a n approach similar to that of Lockhart and
Martinelli (1 949). These represent the only design correla-
tions for two-phase pressure drop and holdup i n cocurrent flow
i n packed beds. Pressure drop data obtained by Weekman
and Myers (1964) were also correlated using the Larkins
approach, and additional pressure loss data are presented by
Dodds et al. (1960b). McIlvroid (1956) presents pressure drop
and liquid phase controlling mass-transfer data for cocurrent
contacting in beds of small dumped packing. Wen (1963)
measured pressure loss and mass-transfer rates using the ab5orp-
tion of water vapor from air into calcium chloride solutions.
Wen’s (1963) and McIIvroid’s (1956) papers represent the only
data on mass transfer i n cocurrent flow which can be used for
design purposes.
Additional design information, relative to cocurrent con-
tacting, is the radial distribution of liquid within the packing
and the pressure loss for single-phase flow through packing.
Very limited data on radial distribution of liquid have been
reported (Hoftyzer, 1964; Porter and Jones, 1963 ; Weekman
and Myers, 1964), and i n only two cases (Hoftyzer, 1964;
Weekman and Myers, 1964) the flow was actually cocurrent.
Extensive pressure loss data are available for single-phase flow
through random and stacked packing. A successful means of
correlating these data has been suggested by Ergun (1952).
There are many areas where design data are insufficient or
completely lacking (Table I), particularly i n cocurrent con-
tacting mass transfer, and no consistent design procedure has
been established for cocurrent gas-liquid contacting in packed
columns. This is somewhat surprising i n view of the potential
attractiveness of this mode of packed column operation. This
work presents new experimental data on single-phase and two-
phase pressure loss, liquid holdup, liquid radial distribution,
and gas-phase and liquid-phase resistance controlling mass
transfer for cocurrent gas-liquid contacting i n packed columns
and correlates these data empirically into design equations to
give a consistent design procedure. The accuracy of this
procedure is adequate for preliminary design leading to initial
cost estimates.
Experimental Equipment
Columns. Design data for cocurrent gas-liquid contacting
were obtained on two packed column scales. T h e small-
scale equipment consisted of two columns, 3 and 4 inches in
i.d., and the large-scale column was 16 inches in i.d. T h e
schematic flow diagram for columns on both scales is shown
in Figure 1. Figure 2 is a photograph of the 16-inch column.
Air and water are introduced into the top of the column
through a n inlet distributor, which was designed to give good
initial distribution of gas and liquid over the packing. T h e
gas and liquid flowed cocurrently downward and were sepa-
rated in a sump tank. The air was vented to the atmosphere.
The water could be operated as only a once-through flow, a

Table 1. Experimental Data Available in the Literature for Cocurrent Gas-liquid Downflow in Packed Beds
Experimental Data Reported
V , Range, Ft./Sec. V , Range, Ft./Sec. - AP
Packing 7 y p e -.- h Liquid k l7a kla Ref.
3in. Max. Min . Max. AZ dik.
Dumped Raschig rings, inches
‘14 1.8 18 0.092 0.25 X x McIlvroid 11956)
’/4 0.35 3.5 0.015 0.051 X X iVen et al. (1963a, b )
”8 0.50 26 0.020 0.87 X X Larkins (1959, 1961)
’I2 0 0 0.0033 0.0033 X Porter and Jones (1963)
‘/2 0.35 3.5 0.015 0.051 X X Tl‘en et al. (1963a, b )
1 0.35 3.5 0.015 0,051 X X TVen et al. (1963a, b )
1 0 2.6 0.0033 0.030 X Hoftyzer (1964)
1.8 12 0.019 0.13 X X a Dodds et al. (1960a, b )
Dumped Pall rings
1 0 0 0,0033 0.0033 X Porter and Jones (1963)
Berl saddles, inches
‘12 0 0 0.0033 0.0033 X Porter and Jones (1963)
‘/z 0.70 4.5 0.0074 0.051 X TVen et al. (1963b)
1 1.8 12 0.019 0.13 Y X Dodds et al. (1960a, b )
1 1.8 12 0.019 0.13 X X Dodds et al. (1960a, b )
Intalox saddles, inches
‘12 0.70 4.5 0,0074 0.051 X TVen et al. (1963b)
1 0.70 4.5 0.0074 0.051 X \Yen rt al. 11963b)
1 1.8 12 0.019 0.13 X X a Dodds et al. (1960a, b )
1‘/2 1.8 12 0.019 0.13 X X Dodds et al. (1960a, b )
Dumped spheres, mm.
3 0.089 1.3 0.0027 0.081 X X Larkins (1959, 1961)
1.8 18 0.031 0.42 X x McIlvroid (1956)
1.8 18 0.031 0.42 X x McIlvroid (1956)
0.17 4.1 0.0055 0.11 X Tl’eekman and Myers
(1964, 1965)
4.75 0.17 4.1 0.0055 0.11 X LVeekman and Myers
(1964, 1965)
6.48 0.17 4.1 0.0055 0.11 X Tt’eekman and Myers
11964, 1965)
3 1 8 inch 0.50 26 0.020 0.87 X X Larkins (1959, 1961)
Pellets
inch 0.50 26 0.020 0.87 X X Larkins 11959, 1961)
a Statistical analyses of variables afecting GO? absorption into ‘VaaOH solutions; no design data Data f o r heat transfer through column wall to gas-liquid
cocurrentj7ow available f r o m Weekman and Myprs (1965).

VOL. 6 NO. 4 OCTOBER 1967 487

completely recycling flow, or a combination of each, where a
fraction of the recycling water flow was continuously replaced
by fresh make-up water.
Provisions were made far mixing ammonia with the incoming
air Stream and for saturating the recycling water stream with
I n the small columns quick-dosing valves were arranged so
that holdup of liquid could be measured. The technique for
holdup measurement was similar to that ofLarkins (1959).
Packing. T h e packing used in this study was predominantly
thin-walled polyethylene R a x h i g rings ranging from '/z to

I;;
oxygen. Temperature control was provided by cooling coils
located in the sump, Pressure loss was measured across
various segments of the packed bed by pressure taps located a t
different points around the column circumference a t each
elevation. Gas-phase and liquid-phase samplers were located
3 inches. The packed beds were made by both stacking and
dumping the rings. One series of experiments utilized a bed of
dumped 1-inch Intalox saddles. The packing data are sum-
marized in Table 11.
The beds of stacked 1- and 3-incb rings were ~iiaocuy srack-

-
a t various axial and radial positions within the packed bed. ing the polyethylene rings on triangular centers. A layer of
packing was offset from the layer below, so that every third
layer was identically oriented. The rings were held together

.
r Packed Taps
in an array by fusing their points of contact with 'a warm
soldering iron. After the array was properly oriented and
assembled, it was cut to fit the inside diameter of the 4- or
16-inch column. As a result, there were fractional segments of
rings next to the column wall, and in effect, these packed
beds were merely a core from a larger bed. A core of 1-inch
rings from the 4-inch column is shown in Figure 3. Figure 4
shows the stacked array of '/$-inch rings in a section of the 3-
inch column. For this case only, whole rings were stacked in
mop
randomly offset layers. The resulting radial distribution of
voidage was not uniform.
Radial Liquid Distribution. The 16-inch column was
equipped to measure the radial liquid distribution. A liquid

i
vgnt
I
. -.
mown m Figure ~

3.
-.
collector was assembled with individual compartments as
?* . was ,mcatea
i n e couecmr . ~oirecriy
1. .
, ., O ~1~ O W
U Sump
the packing, so that each compartment received the liquid
falling from the packing immediately above it. T h e outlet
Cooling
Tank from each compartment was connected to a two-way, 13-port
water valve. T h e gas-liquid flaw through each compartment could
flow directly to the sump tank or be diverted for a short interval
to 13 individual collecting drums (see Figure 2). The liquid

Drain
I flow through each compartment could he measured by deter-
mining the volume of water in each drum after a short interval
of diverted flaw.
The gas and liquid inlet distributor is shown in Figure 6.
Air and water could be introduced bv a series of concentric
Figure
column
' ' Genera' "Ow diagram Of packed 'Ocurrent
air jets with water in the surraundihg annulus. This dis-
tributor configuration was known as the water-in-annulus
distributor. The discharge of the concentric nozzles was about
2 inches above the packed bed. A large-scale single-concen-
tric nozzle is shown in Figure 7. Measurements of liquid
distribution for this nozzle were made to evaluate its per-
formance, as its dimensions are similar to a single nozzle
which might he used as part of a waler-in-annulus distributor
a n a commercial scale.
A scaled-down version of the water-in-annulus distributor
was used in the 3- and 4-inch columns.

Mass Transfer. In establishing the technique for mass-

transfer measurements, two objectives were kept in mind.
First, the measurements of concentration should be made
within the packed bed to give a profile along the bed length
and not just inlet and outlet concentrations. This eliminates
"entry effects" resulting from mass transfer in the inlet and
outlet of the packed column. Second, measurements of
concentration should be continuous and instantaneous. This
ensures that conditions are a t steady state when measurements
are made.

T o accomplish the first objective, small gas-liquid separators

were made from individual rings in the packed bed. To
obtain a liquid-free gas sample, a ring was located with its
axis parallel to the column axis and the upper end capped off.
A hypodermic tube was introduced through the ring wall just
under the capped-off end; the other end of the tube extended
out through the column wall. For dumped beds these ring
samplers were installed in the empty column and the packing
was carefully dumped around them. Far stacked packing,
one of the rings in the array was used directly as a sampler.
The rate of gas flow through these samplers was carefully con-
trolled so that no liquid was entrained. Thus a continuous
liquid-free gas sample could be withdrawn from any point in
the bed. jvithout mass transieer taking place in the sample line.
l o obtain a liquid sample the whole packed bed was simply
Figure 2. 16-inch diameter cocwrent packed column inverted so that the ring samplers had their bottoms capped off.

488 l&EC PROCESS DESIGN A N D DEVELOPMENT

Figure 3. 4-inch core
of stacked 1-inch
Raschig rings

I'igure 4. 3-inch cob

Jmn with stacked %-
irich Roschig rings

@ @ I @ @

tigure 6. Gas-liquid inlet distributor

Figure 5. Collector for 16-inch column

Fractional Area
Radius, of Individual
Inches Comportment
Wall ring 8.00 0.0321
First ring 7.47 0.1089
Second ring 5.28 0.0802
Center ring 2.71 0.1150 Figure 7. Commercial scale water in annulus nozzle

VOL. 6 NO. 4 OCTOBER 1 9 6 7 489

Liquid collected in these samplers and was slowly drained off,
giving a gas-free liquid sample.
Ammonia absorption was chosen to represent a gas-phase
resistance controlling mass transfer system and oxygen desorp-
tion was used for liquid-phase controlling transfer. Therefore,
to satisfy the second objective, procedures for continuous
analysis of ammonia in air and oxygen in water were required.
Ammonia concentrations were first analyzed by a @ray
ionization probe which utilized the principle of cross-section
ionization (Deal et al., 1956; Lovelock, 1961; Otvos and
Stevenson, 1956). A cross-section ionization probe was con-
structed using tritium foil as a source of 0 radiation to ionize
the sample. The ammonia-air sample flowed through a gap
in this probe, across which a potential of 120 volts was imposed.
The small electrical current flowing through the gap of ionized
gas was measured with a Keithley Model 417 picoammeter.
This probe was calibrated with known ammonia-air samples,
so that the current flow was a direct continuous measurement
of the ammonia concentration. This technique was adequate
in the range 0.001 to 0.1 mole fraction of ammonia in air.
An improved technique for ammonia-air analysis was
developed which extended the range of concentration down to
0.000050 to 0.010 mole fraction (50 to 10,000 p.p.m.), enabling
large scale experiments to be operated safely with the gas
discharge directly to atmosphere. This technique utilized
the ultraviolet absorption characteristics of ammonia a t 204.3
mp (Gunther et al., 1956, 1958; Kolbezen, 1964). A Beck-
man Model D U R recording spectrophotometer was used with
flow through ultraviolet quartz sample cells of 10- and 100-
mm. optical length. Temperature control assured that the
sample and cell temperature remained constant a t 24.5’ =k
0.5’ C. Standard ammonia-air samples were used for calibra-
tion and the per cent light transmittance, which could be
continuously recorded, deviated only slightly from the Lambert-
Beer law over the whole range of concentration.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water was
continuously measured by means of a Beckman Model 260
physiological gas analyzer. The macroprobes supplied with
this instrument were inserted in special flow through probe
holders which were attached to the discharge lines of the liquid
samplers. Reference baths of saturated water solutions of Nz,
air, and O2held a t column temperature were used for calibra-
tion.
Experimental Results
Single-phase Pressure Loss. Single-phase pressure loss
was measured with both air and water flowing singly in the
small columns, while air alone was used in the 16-inch column.
T h e experimental data were expressed in the form of the
Ergun (1952) equation
where
Constants a and p were determined by least squares and the
values are tabulated in Table I1 along with the packed bed
properties.
The constants in the Ergun equation have different values
for each packing material. This is i n agreement with the
results of Larkins (1959) ; however, Ergun (1952) suggested
that a and p were constant for all packed beds of granular
material.
Two-Phase Pressure Loss. The method proposed by
Larkins (1959) for correlating two-phase pressure loss data
in packed columns was used to correlate the two-phase pressure
loss data obtained in this investigation. Larkins reduced the
momentum equation for steady two-phase vertical downflow to
(3)
The effective density, p m , for vertical two-phase flow in
packed beds may not be described as simply as expressed by
Equation 4, in that Equation 4 assumes that all downflowing
liquid contributes to the effective density or “head.” I n a
packed column much of this liquid is not free falling but runs
over the packing surface. Consequently, only a small fraction
of the total liquid holdup actually is contributing to the effec-
tive density or head. As a result, the effective density may be
smaller than given by Equation 4 and indeed the “head”
term gpnl/gC in Equation 3 may be small compared to the
other two terms.
The maximum numerical value of the effective density
calculated by Equation 4 for total holdup values measured in
packed beds is about 0.12 p.s.i. per foot. Hence, if ( h P / A Z ) , ,
is greater than ca. 0.6 p.s.i. per foot the effective density term
or head effect can be neglected without serious error. A care-
ful review of Larkins’ data (1959) shows that the measured
pressure loss was less than 0.6 p.s.i. per foot for only four out of
190 runs. Hence, there is no conclusive evidence as to the
correctness of applying Equation 4 to calculate the effective
density of gas-liquid cocurrent downflow in packed beds.
For the two-phase pressure loss data of this study, the effec-
tive density or head effect was neglected for all runs. For
large liquid flow rates where liquid was observed to be free-
falling, the effective density could possibly be given by Equa-
tion 4. But the measured pressure loss for these cases usually
exceeded 0.6 p.s.i. per foot. For lower liquid flow rates where
the pressure loss was less than 0.6 p.s.i. per foot the liquid was
observed to flow mainly over the packing surface, and Equation
4 is probably not valid. These conclusions have also been
reported by Weekman and Myers (1964).
The form of the Larkins (1959) pressure drop formula may be
expressed as

Table II. Dimensions of Packing and Properties of Packed Beds

‘/*-inch ‘/*-inch 1-inch 1-inch 3-inch I-inch
Packing dumped stacked dumped stacked stacked Intalox
Ring height, inches ’12 ‘12 1 1 3
Ring o.d., inches ‘ I 2 ‘/2 1 1 3
Ring wall thickness, inch 3/84 3/84 1/16 1/~6 3i16
Column i.d., inches 3 3 16 4 and 16 16
16
E 0.783 0.726 0.883 0:787 0.787 0.682
a,, sq. ft./cu. ft. 117 153 47.8 86.7 28.9 78.0
D,,ft. 0.0105 0.0105 0.0147 0,0147 0.0442 0.0245
01 110 83.8 920 129 122 135
P 2.04 0.234 5.51 0.117 0.108 2.00

490 l & E C PROCESS D E S I G N A N D DEVELOPMENT

where
x = (6L/6,)"2

Experimental data for all packing types except 3-inch rings

are shown i n Figure 8 in comparison with Equation 5. T h e
+ 5 0 ~ 0lines are ale7 shown and the majority of the data lie
within these limits.
The experimental data on stacked 3-inch rings showed large
deviations when corrrelated i n this fashion. T h e contribution
of the effective density is more important for 3-inch stacked
rings than for any other packing types investigated, because
measured values of two-phase pressure loss are small and the
packing surface area is lower than for other types used. Hence,
for any liquid flow rate, the fraction of free-falling liquid will be
larger and the effective density contribution probably cannot
be neglected. As holdup could not be measured in the 16-
inch column, the effective density could not be evaluated.
T h e actual experimental pressure loss data for stacked 3-inch
rings are shown in Figure 9.
Liquid Holdup. Liquid holdup measurements were
made in the small 3- and 4-inch columns by sudden closing
of ball valves on the liquid and gas inlets and the column
outlet. End effect corrections were estimated by bolting the
inlet and outlet flanges together with the packed bed sections
removed. T h e liquid held up in the entry and exit sections IO-'
1
d
v
I I I I I l l 1
10
I I I I I I I I
was subtracted from total holdup when the column was in Vg,f t / s e c
place.
Holdup data from stacked and dumped '/'-inch rings and Figure 9. Two-phase pressure drop for stacked 3-inch
stacked 1-inch rings are shown in Figure 10. T h e Larkins Raschig rings
(1959) holdup correlation
log h = -0.774 + 0.525 (log x) - 0.109 (log x ) ~ (6)
Establishing a good initial liquid distribution resolves only
part of the liquid distribution problem. As the flow proceeds
is also shown. Most (data points are within &5070 limits through the bed, liquid migrates toward the wall. If this is
shown. T h e largest deviations are with stacked 1-inch rings severe, liquid redistributors may be required. As a result,
a t high liquid rates. (Caution should be exercised if Equa- liquid distribution after flow through various bed lengths of
tion 6 is used for stacked packing much greater than l-inch stacked 1-inch rings was also measured.
rings. No data are available on larger rings, because of the To evaluate the performance of initial distributors and
impossibility of making holdup measurements with the 16-inch measure distribution after flow through the bed, a quantitative
column. definition of distribution is required. The definition is, of
Radial Liquid Distrilbution. A rather pragmatic investiga- course, determined by the design of the collecting device.
tion of a number of different inlet distributor configurations T h e collecting device i n this case consisted of 13 compartments
was carried out in the 16-inch column. T h e water-in-annulus made from concentric rings partitioned off into quarters as
configuration (Figure 6) proved to give adequate results and shown in Figure 5. The area of each of the nine compart-
was used for the majority of the pressure drop and mass- ments in the central part was designed to be 10% of the total
transfer experiments. area, with the four-wall compartment totaling the remaining

0 Stacked %" Rings

0 Dumped %" Rings
0
S t a c k e d 1" Rings
D u m p e d 1" Rings
A
-0 D u m p e d I" "Intalox"
-

4-

Figure 8. Two-phase pressure

Larkins correlation

A*------

-50% 0
0
r '. 'k.
1 ,
4
I I I I I I I I I 1 I I T-,. I I I

VOL. 6 NO. 4 OCTOBER 1 9 6 7 491

 1.
150%

0 Stacked Ib" Rings

0 Dumped 'b" Rings
0 Stacked 1" Rings

lo-'[ J I I 1 I I I I / I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l l l
10-1 I 10 1
x
Figure 10. Liquid holdup correlation

10%. T o simplify construction from standard parts the actual
areas of the compartments are as indicated i n Figure 5. A
fractional standard deviation of the liquid superficial velocity
is defined as follows :
(7)
T h e fraction of the superficial liquid velocity in the nth com-
partment is
where Qn is the liquid collected from the nth compartment with
area A n and Q I as the total liquid collected in all 13 compart-
ments with total area A , .
Another more graphic means of displaying liquid distribution
is using smoothed distribution profiles. The average velocity
for each of the three annular rings and for the center compart-
ment was calculated by
(9)
where Q r is the total liquid collected from all four quadrants
of one annular ring of area A , (or the liquid collected from the
single center compartment). These average velocities were
plotted against the center radius of the respective ring and a
smooth curve was drawn through the points.
The fractional standard deviation could be plotted as a
function of the two-phase parameter x (see Equation 5) and
the data for different gas and liquid rates were reduced to a
single curve. Figure 11 shows this type of plot for the initial
distribution and for the liquid distribution after flow through
three different lengths of packed bed. A fractional standard
deviation of 0.2 was arbitrarily chosen as "good" liquid dis-
tribution. Figure 12 shows the smoothed profiles for a value
of x = 0.44. For this case, a good initial distribution de-
teriorates somewhat, because of water migration to the wall as
the flow proceeds down through the packed bed.
For values of x greater than 1 the initial distribution was
poor, because of high liquid flow near the column center and
almost no liquid near the wall. The distribution improved
with flow down through the bed because of migration of liquid
to the wall. H a d the bed been longer than 7 5 inches, the dis-
tribution would tend to worsen because of increased liquid flow
near the wall.
The performance of a single commercial-scale nozzle (Figure
6) can be seen from the smoothed profile in Figure 13. For
these tests the nozzle sprayed into empty column sections 26
and 49 inches long. Figure 13 shows that a t these flow rates
this type of nozzle could be spaced on about 10-inch centers if

:::;
0.6 1
L
B e d Length,
Figure 1 1 . Liquid inches
d i s t r i b u t i o n for 0.4
-
s t a c k e d 1-inch f 0 0
26
Raschig rings c
0 49
W a t e r in annulus dir- 75
tributor, standard de- .- .
0.2
-
viation

/
0.1 I I 1 I I I I I I I 1 I I I 1 1 1

492 I & E C PROCESS D E S I G N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

the distance of nozzle to packing is about 2 feet and a reason-
ably flat profile would result from the overlapping of successive
nozzle spray patterns. Further increasing the gas velocity
causes wider spreading of the liquid to the point where there is
very little liquid below the gas jet center line.
Mass Transfer. Mass-transfer data for packed beds are
usually presented either in the form of a capacity coefficient,
the product of the mass-transfer coefficient, and the interfacial
area per unit volume of packing, or koa or kla,or as the height
of a transfer unit, H T U , or HTUI, where

x 9 0.44

These quantities were calculated from the experimental

ammonia absorption data based on Equation 12.

BedLength 2
inches VP
- 0 0.142 where
-.-
-- 264975 0.616
0.573
-----a 0.430
and

These relationships are valid because the following conditions

are met by the ammonia absorption experiments.
1. Very dilute concentrations of ammonia, y < 0.05.
2. Gas phase is an ideal gas.
3. Ideal mixtures.
4. Linear equilibrium relationship (Henry's law).
5. Liquid film resistance was less than 5%; hence koa is con-
- 1 I I I I sidered to be the gas-phase resistance-controlling capacity
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 coefficient.
all
Radtue, inches E.
Figure 1 2. Liquid distribution for stacked 1 -inch Raschig If the ammonia concentration measurements made along
rings the length of the column are plotted as (y - y *) us. Z on semilog
W a t e r in annulus distributor, smoothed profiles paper, a straight line with slope of (1 +
A)kua/2.303 Vushould
result (Figure 14). The measured gas phase mole fraction,
y , the calculated (Equation 13) equilibrium mole fraction,
y*, and the difference, y - y*, are shown. y approaches y *
-
ftlsec a t the column exit, indicating the one equilibrium stage
Air Nozzle Velocity 480 limiting condition of cocurrent operation. Conditions 1 and 4
Water Nozzle Velocity 6.1
are shown to be valid over most of the column length. Figure
- -26" Void 14 also shows an entry effect. The inlet concentration falls
- ---4?" Void
*
on a smooth curve, but the first sampler reads low. For most
of the runs, the transfer rate in the inlet section and the upper
portion of the packed bed differed significantly from that in the
lower portion of the packed bed. This phenomenon could be
due partially to a sampling problem and partially to a true
entry effect. This again emphasizes the value of taking sam-
ples from within the packed bed away from the inlet rather
than just inlet and outlet samples.
Similar techniques were used for the oxygen desorption
mass transfer. T h e transfer rate equations are
(x - x*) - 1 kza
z
log ( x - x*), 2.303 V i
where

x* = z*
1
(Xl - + ptg y 1
x)

However, because of the low solubility of oxygen, the amount

-1 I I I 1 of oxygen desorbed from the liquid phase did not affect the gas
8 7 6 4 3 2 1
Wall Radius, inches phase concentration. Hence, Equation 16 becomes
Figure 1 3. Liquid distribution, smoothed profiles P2
x* =
Commercial scale water in annulus nozzle H y1

VOL. 6 NO. 4 OCTOBER 1967 493

 h

loo0 r I
800 1
A
Dumped ’1;‘ Rings
V, 1.67 ftlsec
v, 0.141 f t / s e c
Slope 0 . 0 5 3 3 in-’
HTUp 8.15 in
kea 0.207 s e B ‘
600

“\ Slope 0.0533

2oo/

1v‘
0 4 8 I2 16 20 24
Z, Inches 2. inches

Figure 14. Concentration profiles for ammonia absorp- Figure 15. Concentration profiles for oxygen desorp-
tion tion

The Beckman oxygen analyzer reads in terms of partial pres-

sure over the liquid, which from Henry’s law is

p = Hx
Equation 15 in terms of partial pressure is
(1 8)
’
v
i A , [K
gc P I 4- ($)zj = El, (21)

(P - P*) 1 kla
2 simply the gas and liquid holdup, respectively, for a packed
l o g( -P 7- P ) = - Vi
2.303 -
~-
Graphs of p - p* us. 2 were prepared from experimental data
and the slope on semilog paper gives -kza/2.303 V 2 . Figure
15 shows the oxygen profiles for one of the experimental runs.
Many of the comments made about the ammonia profiles apply
here also. ‘The entry effect can be seen as the larger slope
through the first two sample points.
A concept, which has been used with some degree of success,
to correlate mass-transfer data is to relate the capacity co-
efficient to the energy dissipation per unit volume of the
system. This approach has been used to correlate gas-liquid
transfer data for stirred tank contactors (Calderbank and
Moo-Young, 1961; Cooper et al., 1944).
A similar approach was suggested for correlating the experi-
mental transfer data from this study (Sternling, 1963). For a
single-phase vertical flow system, when kinetic energy effects,
heat input, and shaft work are neglected, the mechanical
energy balance reduces to
T h e analogous equation for a two-phase vertical flow system
derived by Standart (1 964) is
The fractional areas for gas, A o / A t , and liquid, A l / A , , are not
bed. As discussed previously, the liquid flows partially over
the packing and partially in free fall. Hence, the terms in
Equation 21 cannot be evaluated without a better understand-
ing of the flow mechanism in the packed bed.
The effective density or “head” effect was shown earlier to
have negligible effect on measured pressure loss for the majority
of the experimental runs. With this in mind, a modified
definition of energy dissipation for each phase was made:
E , = Vo($) gas phase
lo
liquid phase
EI = Vi($) 20
Experimentally measured gas-phase controlling mass-trans-
fer capacity coefficients were correlated with E, and the liquid
coefficients with El. T h e two-phase pressure loss, ( A P / A Z )I,,
was measured concurrently with the mass-transfer coefficients
and used in evaluating the energy dissipation term.
T h e mass-transfer capacity coefficients for all ammonia-
absorption runs a t 70’ F. are shown as a function of the gas-
phase energy dissipation in Figure 16. A dimensional equa-
tion of the following form represents these data within zk.2501,.

494 I&EC PROCESS DESIGN AND DEVELOPMEN1

 p&" Equation 24
0 Stacked
0 Dumped
0 Stacked 1"
0
%" Rings
vi' Rings
Rings
A D u m p e d 1" Rings
S t a c k e d 3" Rings
0 D u m p e d 1" " I n t a l o x "

1 1 I I I11111 I I I I I Ill1 1 i I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 I I I l l
10-1 1 10 10'
Eg ft-lbr Force/sec f t 3

Figure 1 6. Ammonia absorption mass transfer-energy dissipation correlation

koa = 2.0 + 0.91 (Eg)2/3
k,a = set.-'
E , = ft.-lb. force/sec. cu. ft.
T h e gas-phase controlling transfer data measured by Wen
(1963a) for absorption of water vapor i n calcium chloride solu-
tions could possibly be comparable to the experimental results
presented here for ammonia absorption. T h e Schmidt number
for ammonia in air is about the same as for water vapor i n air.
Hence, k , for Wen's (1 963a, b) data should be similar to k , mea-
sured for ammonia. If the interfacial area for mass transfer is
similar in both experiments for similar flow rates and packing
type, the capacity coefficients should be similar for each experi-
ment. Wen's (1963a, b) data have been carefully compared with
the present results. The only case where cotlditions of Wen's
(1963a, b) experiments were similar to those of this work were a t
his highest liquid rate, which was nearly equal to the lowest
liquid rate of the present experiments. T h e values of k,a
reported by Wen for dumped l / z - and 1-inch Raschig rings are
considerably lower than the values reported here for similar
conditions.
Wen (1963a, b) noted increased channeling of liquid as liquid
flow rate increased up to the maximum studied. Hence, he
concluded that k,a would decrease with increasing liquid rate
by virtue of less effective transfer area due to the liquid channel-
(24) ing. I n this work, improved liquid distribution was observed
as liquid rates were increased. Consequently, k,a should
increase with increasing liquid rate, as was observed in these
experiments.
T h e mechanism of liquid distribution is different in these
two experiments. This could be the result of completely
different ranges of liquid rates studied in the two experiments.
However, the wetting characteristics of the packing become
important a t low liquid rates. T h e wetting of ceramic packing
by calcium chloride could be the dominant factor determining
interfacial area in Wen's (1963a, b) experiments, whereas in the
higher rates of this experiment wetting effects are less im-
portant.
I t is concluded that the results of these two experiments are
not directly comparable. Caution should be exercised in
extrapolating the results of this work to liquid rates lower than
studied.
T h e experimental capacity coefficients for oxygen desorption
a t 77' F . are shown in Figure 17. The empirical dimensional
equation representing these data within +25% is
kla = 0.12 (El)1/2 (25)
kla = sec.3
E L = ft.-lb. force/sec. cu. ft.

0 Stacked %" Rings

0 Dumped %" Rings
0 Stacked 1" Rings
0 S t a c k e d 3" Rings

3
E a , ft-lbs F o r c e l s e c f t 3

Figure 17. Oxygen desorption mass transfer-energy dissipation correlation

VOL. 6 NO. 4 OCTOBER 1 9 6 7 495

 Data for cocurrent oxygen desorption were obtained by
McIlvroid (1956) for packed beds of dumped l/r-inch Raschig
rings, and dumped 4- and 6-mm. spheres. These data have
been recalculated into the form of the energy dissipation corre-
lation suggested here. The data are compared with Equation
25 in Figure 18 and the agreement is good. This appears to
extend the range of packing sizes to which Equation 25 is
applicable.
Estimates of Effect of Physical Properties of Fluids
The scope of this investigation was limited to the study of the
air-water system with packings made of polyethylene (except
for the Intalox saddles, which were ceramic). T h e mass-
transfer measurements were made with the ammonia absorp-
tion and oxygen desorption systems. T o use the results of
this investigation for design of systems involving other fluids,
the effects of fluid physical properties must be known. How-
ever, it was beyond the scope of the present investigation to
study the effects of physical properties of the fluids systemat-
ically. Some qualitative remarks on physical property
effects can be made.
The fluid properties which will probably most significantly
influence the pressure drop, dynamic liquid holdup, and
radial liquid distribution are gas and liquid density, gas and
liquid viscosities, the surface tension of the liquid, and the
contact angle between the liquid and the solid packing-Le.,
the wettability of the packing. All these properties and in
addition the gas-phase and liquid-phase diffusivities of the
transferring component will influence the mass-transfer capac-
ity coefficient.
Physical property effects have been reasonably well ac-
counted for in the single-phase pressure-loss equation of
Ergun (1952) (Equation 1) and the two-phase pressure-loss
equation of Larkins (1959) (Equation 5). Effects of surface
tension on two-phase pressure loss have been considered by
both Larkins and Weekman and Myers (1964). The effects
of liquid physical properties on liquid holdup in packed beds
with no gas flow have been considered by Jesser and Elgin
(1943), Shulman et al. (1955), and Standish (1964), while
Larkins (1959, 1961) measured some physical property effects
Figure 1 8. Liquid phase mass transfer-energy dissipation correlation
Data of Mcllvroid (1956)
496 l & E C PROCESS D E S I G N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
on liquid holdup for cocurrent flow. I n none of these investi-
gations have the important properties of surface tension and
packing wettability been adequately taken into consideration.
Practically no physical property effects have been accounted
for in the limited experimental work on radial liquid dis-
tribution.
A means of considering the effect of fluid properties on the
mass-transfer capacity coefficients, koa and k la,involves separat-
ing the coefficients into the factors k and a and estimating the
effect of fluid properties o n each factor. The value of k , will
depend on the Schmidt and Reynolds numbers of the gas
phase, while k i will be influenced by the Srhmidt and Reynolds
numbers in the liquid phase. The interfacial area will be
influenced mainly by the liquid density, viscosity, interfacial
tension, and wettability of the packing. The mass-transfer
data from this investigation as \\ell as those from previous
investigations (McIlvroid, 1956; \Veri et al., 1963a) are in-
adequate to define these physical property effects.
I t can be concluded that further experimental work is re-
quired to define adequately the effects of fluid physical proper-
ties on liquid holdup, radial liquid distribution, and mass-
transfer capacity coefficients for cocurrent gas-liquid flow in
packed columns.
Summary of Design Procedure for
Cocurrenl Contacting in Packed Columns
Based on the preceding results, a design for a cocurrent
packed column can be made if the Ergun constants are known
for the packing material. If the packing material is not the
same as, but similar to that used here, a few simple single-phase
pressure loss experiments can be performed to determine these
constants. When these constants are known, single-phase
pressure loss for each phase as if it were flowing alone can be
evaluated from Equations 1 and 2
where
T h e two-phase parameter x is then evaluated:
x = (61/6,)"2
and the two-phase pressure loss calculated from
0.41 6
__-
x )+
~ 0.666
and holdup from
log h = -0.774 + 0.525 log x - 0.109 (log x)*
T h e individual phase energy dissipation terms can be evaluated
from the two-phase pressure loss by
T h e gas-phase controlling mass-transfer coefficient for am-
monia absorption a t 703 F. can be calculated from the dimen-
sional equation
koa = 2.0 + 0.91 (E,)2i3
where
koa = set.-'
E, = ft.-lb. forcelsec. cu. ft.
The liquid-phase oxygen-absorption capacity coefficient a t
77' F. can be evaluated from the dimensional equation
k l a = 0.12 ( E l ) 1 / 2
where
kla = sec.-]
El = R.-lb. force/sec. cu. ft.
Each of the above empirical equations has been determined
by fitting experimental data. I n some cases the scatter of
data around these individual equations is as great as =k50%.
T o show that the accuracy of the over-all design procedure is
not significantly different from the accuracy of the individual
equations comprising it, experimentally measured gas-phase
capacity coefficients are compared in Figure 19 with those
calculated via the above procedure, starting from the known
conditions of each ammonia absorption experiment. T h e
agreement is Ivithin +507, for most cases, indicating that the
fit of the experimental mass-transfer data to the over-all design
procedure is no worse than the fit of the data to any individual
equation comprising the design procedure. This design
procedure should produce results which are accurate to within
=t50%,, adequate for most preliminary designs for initial cost
estimates.
For more accurate design, additional pilot scale experiments
may be required, especially if fluid properties are significantly
different from the air-water-ammonia-oxygen systems utilized
in this study. However, the similarity principle of equal
energy dissipation per unit volume, shown to be valid here,
can be used as a basis for mass-transfer scale-up i n cocurrent
contacting in packed columns.
Cocurrent and Countercurrent Gas-liquid
Contacting in Packed Columns
An example of design calculation is presented here for
operating conditions which are suited to cocurrent contacting.
(5)
(6)
12
k,a C a l c u l a t e d , rec-'
Figure 19. Comparison of measured and calculated
(24) ammonia ahsorption mass transfer
T h e example chosen is ammonia absorption a t large liquid-to-
gas ratio (L'IV' = 161). As a result, the liquid-phase con-
centration of ammonia will be very dilute and nearly constant
down the length of the column, satisfying the requirement of
(25) only one equilibrium stage. The number of transfer units for
this specific example will be nearly the same for both counter-
current and cocurrent flow. T h e packing chosen is dumped
'/*-inch Raschig rings, as ammonia absorption data are avail-
able for this packing from the literature for countercurrent
flow (Cornel1 et al., 1960) and from this report for cocurrent
flow.
The countercurrent design is based on operation a t 70% of
flooding. The actual gas and liquid rates are calculated
from the liquid-to-gas ratio using the \\fell known flooding
correlation of Sher\vood et al. (see Leva, 1953). Pressure drop
is determined by extrapolating design charts for '/*-inch rings
(Leva, 1953) and HTC', is calculated from a generalized
correlation presented by Cornell et ai. (1960).
T\vo cases of cocurrent operation illustrate that there is no
flooding with this mode of operation. As the column diameter
is reduced, the actual velocities in the column increase if the
total feed rates are kept constant. T h e result is that the
column diameter is limited only by the available pressure
drop. T h e pressure drop and H T U , are determined from the
data presented in this paper.
The number of transfer units is the same for both modes of
operation; thus the column heights will be directly propor-
tional to the H T U , and the total column pressure drop \vi11 be
directly proportional to the product (HTL,) X (AP/AZ) lo.
T h e two modes of operation are compared by using the coun-
tercurrent operation as a base case. The relative costs are
calculated assuming that the capital cost of the column is
directly proportional to the product of column diameter and
column height. This assumes that the column cost is deter-
mined by the volume of the metal comprising the column shell,
that the wall thickness is constant, and that the column heads
and packing have a negligible cost. The results of this calcula-
tion are sho\vn in Table 111.
VOL. 6 NO. 4 OCTOBER 1967 497
 E = energy dissipation per unit volume, ft.-lb. force/
Table 111. Comparison of Cocurrent Operation with Counter- sec. cu. ft.
current Operation for NHs Adsorption g = gravitational acceleration 32.2, ft./sec.?
gc = conversion constant 32.2, Ib. mass ft./lb. force sec2
(Dumped '/,-inch Raschig rings) H = Henry's law constant, atm.
HTU = height of transfer unit, ft.
Counter-
current h = free draining holdup, fraction of void volume
(cc), 70% -
Cocurrent ( c o ) k = mass-transfer coefficient based on individual film
of Flood Case I Case 2 driving force, ft./sec.
k,a = gas-phase film capacity coefficient, sec. -I
L ' / V ' , moles HpO/mole liquid-phase film capacity coefficient, set.-'
air
L ' , moles HsO/hr. sq.
161 161 161 27 =
= liquid molar velocity, solute free, moles H,O/hr. sq.
ft .
f t. 916 ,680 5550
V', moles air/hr. sq. ft. 5.69 22.8 34.5 P = pressure. atm.
VI, ft./sec. 0.0736 0,294 0.450 p = partial pressure, mm. Hg
V,, ft./sec. 0.611 2.44 3.70 p* = partial pressure in equilibrium with liquid a t inter-
(AP/AZ)l,, p.s.i./ft. 0.072 0.52 1.7 face, mm. H g
HTU,, ft. 0.25 0.12 0.058
= measured pressure gradient, p.s.i./ft.
1. 0 -
1. o
0.50
0.48
0.41
0.23 E;z
1 .o 3.5 5.4 Q = volume of liquid collected, cu. ft.
1. o 0.24 0,094 Re = Reynolds number, Equation 2
V = superficial velocity, ft./sec.
V' = gas molar velocity solute free, moles airihr. sq. ft.
x = liquid-phase mole fraction, moles solute/mole H20 f
mole solute
x* = liquid-phase mole fraction in equilibrium with gas-
I t may be concluded that the capital cost of a cocurrent phase bulk concentration, moles solute/mole H20
column for these conditions is lower than the cost of a counter- + mole solute
current column, but the operating cost will be higher by virtue y = gas-phase mole fraction, moles solute/mole air f
of the increased pressure drop across the column. mole solute
y* = gas-phase mole fraction in equilibrium ivith liquid-
phase bulk concentration, moles solute/mole air
mole solute
+
Conclusions
Z = column length. ft.
cy = Ergun constant Equation 1
Single-phase frictional Dressure loss in packed beds can be Ergun constant Equation 1
p =
predicted from the Ergun (1952) equation (Equation l ) , but 6 = frictional pressure gradient, p.s.i./ft.
the empirical constants are not indzpendent of packing type. t = packing void fraction
The two-phase pressure drop and liquid holdup correlations p = fluid viscosity. 1b.jft. hr.
p = fluid density. Ib.,/cu. ft.
of Larkins (1959, 1961) cover a wide range of packing types u = standard deiriation, Equation 7
with an accuracy of & 50%. x = two-phase parameter, x = (81/8,)'/'
Radial liquid distribution is a function of packed bed height,
SUBSCRIPTS
and gas and liquid rates expressed i n the two-phase parameter
co = cocurrent
X. cc = countercurrent
M iss-transfer capacity coefficients for gas-phase and liquid- g = gas phase
phase resistance-controlling transfer can be correlated with 1 = liquid phase
individual phase energy dissipation per unit volume, and the 1g = gas-liquid phases combined or two-phase flow
rn = mean or effective (Lvith density)
correlation is valid for a wide range of packing type.
n = any compartment in collector
Further experimental work is required to evaluate the effect Y = any annular ring in collector
of flui 1 properties on liquid holdup, radial liquid distribution, t = total in cross-sectional area, pressure, etc.
and both gas-phase and liquid-phase resistance controlling 1 = column inlet
mass-transfer capacity coefficients.
Cocurrent columns can be designed within an accuracy of Acknowledgment
i 5 0 y o , starting with only the knowledge of the Ergun con- The valuable assistance of G. H. Ackerman, J. J. Sutfin,
stant$for the single-phase pressure loss equation. J. M. Elliott: and \V. B. Schwenning is gratefully acknowl-
The cocurrent mode of operation may be favored over the edged. The author appreciates the permission to publish
more conventional countercurrent operation when only one this paper granted by the Shell Development Co.
equilibrium stage is required-physical absorption a t large
liquid-to-gas ratios, physical desorption a t small liquid-to-gas literature Cited
ratios, and chemical reaction consuming the transferring com- Calderbank, P. H., Moo-Young, M. B., Chem. Eng. Sci. 16, 39
ponent in one of the phases; when pressure drop can be (December 1961).
tolerated without excessive operating cost; or when capital Cooper, C. hi., Fernstorm, G. A , , Miller, S. A., Znd. Eng. Chem.
36, 517 (1944).
costs of equipment are high-high pressure equipment or Cornell, D., Knapp, \V. G., Fair, J. R., Chem. Eng. Progr. 56, 6 8
corrosive materials involved. i J u-l v, 19601.
~ ~

Deal, C. H., b t v o s , J . I$'., Smith, V. N., Zucco, P. S., Anal. Chem.

28, 1958 (1956).
Nomenclature Dodds, \V, S., Stutzman, I,. F., Solami, B. J . , Carter, R. J.,
A = cross-sectional area, sq. ft. A.Z.Ch.R. .I. 6, 197 (1960a).
A* = absorption factor, Equation 14 Dodds, \V. S., Stutzman, I,. F., Solami, B. J., Carter, R. J., A . I .
a = mass transfer interfacial area per unit volume, ft.-'
Ch.E. J . 6, 390 (1960b).
Ergun, S . , Chem. Eng. Progr. 48, 89 (1952).
a, = packing surface area per unit volume, ft.-l Gunther, F. A , , Barkley, J. H., Kolbezen, M. J., Blinn, R. C.,
d = column diameter, ft. Staggs, E,. A , , Anal. Chem. 28, 1985 (1956).
ZIP = equivalent spherical particle diameter, D, = 6(1 - Gunther, F . A., Rlinn, R. C., Kolbezen, M. J., \Vilson, C. \V.,
€),/a,,
ft. Conklin, R.. A , , Anal. Chem. 30, 1089 (1958).

498 l & E C PROCESS D E S I G N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

Hoftyzer, P. J., Trans. ZnJt. Chem. Engrs. 42, T109 (1964).
Jesser, B. W., Elgin, J. C., Trans. A.Z.Ch.E. 39, 277 (1943).
Kolbezen, M. J., Eckert, J. W.,Wilson, C. W., Anal. Chem. 36,
593 (1964).
Larkins, R. P., “Two-F’hase Cocurrent Flow in Packed Beds,”
Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 1959.
Larkins, R. P., White, R. R., Jeffrey, D. W., A.Z.CI1.E. J . 7, 231
(1961).
Leva, M., “Tower Packings and Packed Tower Design,” 2nd ed.,
pp. 28-37, U. S. Stoneware Co., 1953.
Lockhart, R. W., Martinelli, R. C., Chem. Eng. Progr. 45, 39
(January 1949).
Lovelock, J. E., Anal. Chcm. 33, 162 (1961).
Mcllvroid, H. G., “Mass Transfer in Cocurrent Gas-Liquid Flow
through a Packed Column,” Ph.D. thesis, Carnegie Institute
of Technology, 1956.
Otvos, J. W., Stevenson, D. P., J . A m . Chem. SOC.78, 546 (1956).
Porter, K. E., Jones, M. C., Trans. Znst. Chem. Engrs. 41, 240
(1963).
Shulman, H. L., Ullrica, C. F., Wells, N., Proulx, A. Z . , A.Z.Ch.E.
J . 1, 259 (1955).
Standart, G., Chem. Eng. Sci. 19, 227 (1964).
Standish, N., Nature 202, 587 (May 9, 1964).
Sternling, C. V., private communication, 1963.
Wen, C. Y., O’Brien, W. S., Fan, L. T., J . Chem. Eng. Data 8,
42 (1963a).
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47 (1963b).
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RECEIVED
for review December 5, 1966
ACCEPTED May 1, 1967
Material supplementary to this article has been deposited as
Document 9495 with the AD1 Auxiliary Publications Project,
Photoduplication Service, Library of Congress, Washington,
D.C. A copy may be secured by citing the document number
and by remitting $2.50 for photoprints or $1.75 for 35-mm.
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of Congress.

C A L C U L A T I O N OF EFFECT OF V A P O R
MIXING O N T R A Y EFFICIENCY
D A V I D A. DIENER
ESSOResearch and Engineering Co., Florham Park, N.J .

The relationship between the point efficiency and the Murphree tray efficiency has been developed for
the case of partial mixing of the liquid and no mixing of the vapor. This is an extension of previous
studies which have assumed the vapor entering each tray to be completely uniform in composition. The
lateral concentration gradient in the vapor rising from the liquid is assumed to be similar to the longitudinal
concentration gradient in the liquid flowing across the tray. This assumption probably approximates the
actual physical situation best at high per cents of flood. The principal application of the results of this
work is to systems where point efficiencies are greater than about 0.80.

HE relationship between the point efficiency and the General Relationships

TMurphree tray efficiency has in general been described in
Application of the eddy diffusion model to describe the
terms of the degree of backmixing of the liquid as it flows
partial mixing of aerated liquid on a distillation tray yields,
across a tray. This has been done using a number of different
in terms of a material balance on a small vertical slice of liquid,
models to characterize the liquid mixing. These models
include mixed pools :in series (Gautreaux and O’Connell,
1955), eddy diffusion (Gerster et al., 1958), recycle stream
(Oliver and Watson, 1956), splashing of the liquid (Johnson
and Marangozis, 1958)., and measurement of residence times with w varying from 1 to 0 as the liquid flows across the tray.
of liquid elements (Foss et al., 1958). In the use of each of these Use of the equilibrium relationship, yn* = m x , + b’, and the
models to develop the relationship between point and tray -
definition of the point efficiency, Eo, = ( y , - Y n - l ) / ( Y n *
efficiencies, however, the assumption has always been made ynv1), to substitute in Equation 1 then gives the relationship
that the vapor entering successive trays is well mixed. Only between the point efficiency and the vapor compositions as
in ‘the extreme case of no backmixing of the liquid has the
relationship between the point efficiency and the tray efficiency
been developed without assuming the vapor to be completely
mixed. This case, for plug flow of the liquid and unmixed
vapor, has been presented (Lewis, 1936) for two different flow
situations.
In this work, partial mixing of the liquid with no mixing of T o obtain the relationship between the point efficiency
the vapor is considered for the same two flow situations con- and the Murphree tray efficiency, however, it is also necessary
sidered by Lewis in his development. T h e model used to to relate the tray efficiency to the vapor compositions. This
describe the partial liquid mixing is that of eddy diffusion. In can be done by considering the definition of the Murphree
carrying out the development, it is assumed that a lateral tray efficiency, EIMV= (g, - gn- l)/(yo* - gn- l ) . Using this
concentration gradient exists in the vapor similar to the longi- definition, the desired relationship may be expressed as
tudinal concentration gradient which exists in the liquid flow-
ing across the tray. T h e vapor is assumed to rise directly
(without lateral mixing) from the point where it leaves the
EMV =
1’1
(Yn - Yn- ddw
(3)
aerated liquid on one tray to the corresponding point on the
tray above.

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