PAPERS

The QRD Diffractal: A NewOne- or Two-Dimensional

Fractal Sound Diffusor*

PETER D'ANTONIO, AES Member, AND JOHN KONNERT

RPG Diffusor Systems, Inc., Upper Marlboro, MD 20772, USA

Number theoretic diffusors, as described by Schroeder, are characterized by a periodic

grouping of a series of wells of equal width, but different depths, separated by thin
dividers. Over the past 7 years the quadratic residue depth sequence has been used in
over 1000 applications, including recording studios, concert halls, worship spaces,
conference rooms, music education, and even home theater and music listening rooms.
The frequency bandwidth is determined principally by the depth of the deepest well,
which determines the low-frequency limit, and the well width, which determines the
upper frequency limit. Physical manufacturing constraints pose a space limitation of
approximately 1 in (25.4 mm) on the well width and a depth limitation of approximately
16 in (406.4 mm), after which the units become diaphragmatic and defeat the purpose
of increasing the depth further. In an effort to provide full-spectrum sound diffusion
in a single integrated diffusor, the self-similarity property of fractals was combined
with the uniform scattering property of the number theoretic reflection phase grating
to produce a patented new diffusing fractal called the Diffractal. The Diffractal is in
effect a diffusor within a diffusor, with each covering a different frequency range,
much like a multiway loudspeaker. The mid-high-frequency diffusors are placed on
the wells of a dedicated stiff and massive low-frequency diffusor. The passband of the
nested band-limited diffusors and the crossover points are completely calculable, and
the overall bandwidth is limited only by the available depth and the surface detail. The
theory of the one- and two-dimensional diffusor, fractal geometry, and the one- and
two-dimensional Diffractal is reviewed. Two installations at Real World Studios, Bath,
UK, and Crawford Post, Altanta, GA, USA, are presented.

I QRD DIFFUSOR a quadratic residue sequence is called a QRD Omniffusor

and consists of a two-dimensional array of square, rec-
The acoustical analog of the diffraction grating, which tangular, or circular wells of varying depths, separated
has played an important part in spectroscopy for over by thin dividers. Fig. 4 shows a "male" embodiment
100 years, was not used in architectural acoustics until of the Omniffusor without cell dividers, called a Terrace.
the discovery [1] and development [2]-[48] of the re- It can be seen that the Omniffusor possesses two
flection-phase grating diffusor (RPG l) within the past vertical mirror planes of symmetry and fourfold rota-
decade. The one-dimensional RPG (Figs. 1 and 2) con- tional symmetry. This symmetry ensures that the back-
sists of a linear periodic grouping of an array of wells scattering is identical in both the horizontal and the
of equal width but different depths, separated by thin vertical planes. The hemidisk coverage pattern of a
dividers. A diffusor based on a quadratic residue number one-dimensional QRD diffusor and the hemispherical
theory sequence is called a QRD diffusor. The RPG coverage pattern of a two-dimensional QRD Omniffusor
can also be designed in a two-dimensional realization are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. In Fig. 5 the
[1], [2] (Fig. 3). A two-dimensional diffusor based on incident plane wave is indicated with arrows arriving
at 45 ° with respect to the surface normal. The radiating
* Presented at the 89th Convention of the Audio Engineering arrows touching the hemidisk envelope indicate the
Society, Los Angeles, California, 1990 September 21-25; diffraction directions. In Fig. 6 the incident plane wave
revised 1991 October 31. is indicated with arrows arriving at 45 ° with respect to
i RPG, QRD, QRDX, Diffractal, Terrace, Omniffusor,
and LFD are registered trademarks of RPG Diffusor Systems, the surface normal. The arrows radiating from the
Inc. hemisphere envelope indicate a few of the many dif-

J.AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.40, No.3, 1992March 117

D'ANTONIO AND KONNERT PAPERS

fraction directions, by the Fourier transform of the reflection factor rh,

It is interesting that nature provides us with three- which is a function of the depth sequence or phases
dimensional gratings in the form of crystals, such as within a period,
diamond. When crystals are irradiated with X-rays,

parable
electrons,to the spacings between
or neutrons, the atoms,
which have they scatter
wavelengths eom- rh = exp (d)-2wi 2 h . (2)
or diffract this incident radiation into unique directions,
which are related to the dimensions of the periodically Eq. (1) indicates that as the repeat unit NW increases,
repeating unit cell and with intensities related to the more diffraction lobes are experienced and the diffusion
atomic distribution within the unit-cell building blocks, increases. In addition, as the number of periods in-
creases, the energy is concentrated into the diffraction
20RD DIFFLISORTHEORY directions (Fig. 8). The well depths for the one-di-
mensional RPG,
The diffraction directions for each wavelenth h of
incident sound scattered from a one-dimensional RPG h
[2] (Fig. 7) are likewise determined by the dimension dh = 2
hmodN 2N (3)
of the repeat unit NW,
and the two-dimensional RPG,
mX
sinad -- sincti (l)
NW X
dh,k = {h2 + k2}mo_ 2-N (4)
where N is the number of wells per period, W is the
width of the well, cti is the angle of incidence, ad is are based on mathematical number theory sequences,
the angle of diffraction, and n is the diffraction order, which have the unique property that the Fourier trans-
The intensity in any direction (Fig. 8) is determined form of the exponentiated sequence values has constant

I ·

Fig. 1. One-dimensional QRD diffusor. Fig. 3. Two-dimensional QRD Omniffusor.

N II

Fig. 2. One-dimensional QRD transparent diffusor. Fig. 4. Two-dimensional QRD Terrace without cell dividers.

118 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March

PAPERS SOUNDDIFFUSOR

magnitude in the diffraction directions. Here h repre- servation.

sents the well number in the one-dimensional RPG and The two-dimensional polar response or diffraction
h and k represent the well number in the two-dimensional orders (m, n) can be conveniently displayed in a re-
RPG. ciprocal lattice reflection phase grating (RLRPG)plot,
The RPG behaves like an ideal diffusor in that the as shown in Fig. 9. The diffraction orders are determined
surface irregularities provide excellent time distribution by the constructive interference condition
of the backscattered sound and uniform wide-angle

coverage over a broad designable frequency bandwidth, _v/m 2 + n 2 = NW sin otd -¢ sin oti (5)
independent of the angle of incidence. The diffusing
properties are in effect invariant to the incident fre-
quency, the angle of incidence, and the angle of ob- When the depth variations are defined by a quadratic
residue sequence, the non-evanescent scattering lobes
are represented as equal-energy contours within a circle
whose radius is equal to the nondimensional quantity
NW/h.. This is a convenient plot because the effects of

at 45 ° with respect to surface normal of a one-dimensional

QRD
Fig. 5.diffusor.
Hemidisk scattering pattern of plane wave incident -6_/_` :x__
-5C)°
x_ 0 ° o

_9O'ff v / y' I 190

fo I_ _1 IOdB
(a)

fo
Fig. 6. Hemisphericalscattering pattem of plane wave incident (b)
at 45 ° with respect to surface normal of a two-dimensional

Omniffusor.

°d D_ fo
Fig. 8. (a) Theoretical scattering intensity pattern for QRD.
Diffraction directions are represented as dashed lines; scat-
? N W-_, , _ _ , , tering from finite diffusor occurs over broad lobes. Maximum
B G intensity has been normalized to 50 dB. (b) Number of periods
has been increased from 2 to 25, concentrating energy into
Fig. 7. Construction showing incident (A and E) and diffracted diffraction directions. (c) Number of wells per period has
(D and H) wavelets from surface of periodic reflection phase been increased from 17 to 89, thereby increasing number of
grating with repeat distance NW. ai--angle of incidence; lobes by a factor of 5. Arrows indicate incident and specular
ad--angle of diffraction, reflectiondirections.

J.AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.40, No.3, 1992March 119

D'ANTONIO AND KONNERT PAPERS

changing the frequency can be seen easily. Thus if h 2 3 2'O OR NOT 2'O, THAT IS THE QUESTION
is decreased to h ], the number of accessible diffraction
lobes contained within the circle of radius NW/X] in- Let us review the properties of the one-dimensional
creases, thereby also increasing the diffusion. A one- and two-dimensional QRD to help determine which
dimensional RPG with horizontal wells will scatter in surface will best suit a particular application. The one-
directions represented by a vertical line in the RLRPG dimensional QRD backscatters sound into a hemidisk,
(with n = 0, + 1, + 2, etc. and rn = 0) and diffraction which can conveniently be directed by orienting the
from a one-dimensional RPG with vertical wells will diffusor or the source (Fig. 11). The far-field steady-
occur along a horizontal line (with m = O, ___1, +2, state energy is proportional to I/N, where N is the
etc. and n = 0). In an actual application in a room, number of wells in a repeat unit. The two-dimensional
the diffraction directions from a divergent source and QRD Omniffusor backscatters sound into a hemisphere,
additional room-boundary secondary sources can be and the steady-state energy is proportional to 1/N 2.
made to approximate this two-dimensional diffraction The steady-state energy at an observation point within
pattern by using a cluster of one-dimensional RPGs the coverage area of a two-dimensional QRD would
with both vertical and horizontal well orientations. A be half (in decibels) of that observed in the coverage
coordinate on the RLRPG plot is a direction. These
scattering directions can be seen in the three-dimen-
sional "banana" plot of Fig. 10, where the nine dif-
fraction orders occurring within a circle of radius NW/
h2 are plotted from a diagonal view perspective (arrow
lower left in Fig. 9). A conventional polar pattern for
a one-dimensional RPG with vertical wells at h2 is
obtained from a planar slice through lobes 0, 2, and 6
in Fig. 9 and would contain orders with m = 0 and
+ 1. The breadth of the scattering lobes is proportional
to the number of periods contained in the RPG. Thus
in the limit of an infinite plane, the scattering lobes
would be delta functions. In practice, the use of a finite
numl_er of periods, near-field conditions, and the critical
bandwidth sensitivity of the auditory system combine
to minimize lobing effects. _/"'_'_

Fig. 10. "Banana" plot derived from Fig. 9 for QRD with
period width NW and hi, showing scattering lobes of dif-
fraction orders 0 through 8 when viewed along +45 ° diagonal
2
O ofFig.9indicated
byarrow.

0 n

I__

t/ _5 I
t_ _ _

-2
j_

-2 -; ; 2
rD

Fig. 9. Two-dimensional reciprocal lattice reflection phase

grating, illustrating equal energy of diffraction orders mand
n for RPG based on quadratic-residue number theory sequence.
Non-evanescent diffraction orders are shown for wavelengths
h] and h 2 for an RPG with period width NW, where N is
number of wells and W is width of a well. Peak in lower Fig. 11. Schematic diffusor and its hemidisk, which represents
right-hand comer represents diffraction order (2, -2). Arrow backscattered energy distribution. This diffuse energy, which
in the lower left-hand corner indicates view direction used covers half-space, can be specularly directed by orienting
forFig.10. eitherdiffusor orsource.

120 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March

PAPERS SOUND
DIFFUSOR

area of a one-dimensional QRD. The omnidirectional
coverage pattern of the two-dimensional Omniffusor
is less controllable than the hemidisk of the one-ali-
mensional diffusor,
We have found that in critical listening and perform-
ance environments controllable diffuse energy of useful
level can be conveniently obtained with oriented one-
dimensional QRDs. Two-dimensional QRDs are useful
in these spaces for low-frequency control by taking
advantage of the omnidirectional coverage and the
1/N 2 attenuation. As pointed out in Sec. 4.1, two-di-
mensional diffusors require a maximum depth of half
a wavelength, because the maximum sequence value
approaches the prime. Mid-high-frequency broad-
bandwidth two-dimensional Omniffusors are also useful
in any application where attenuated diffuse sound or
diffusive control of high sound pressure levels is desired.
Uses include rehearsal spaces, music education band
and choir rooms, and recording studios,
Schroeder [1] has suggested many additional number
theory sequences which can be used to design RPGs.
For example, the primitive root sequence suppresses
the zero order and the Zech logarithm suppresses the
zero and first diffraction orders at the design frequency
and integer multiples thereof. While these surfaces are
very useful for monochromatic reflection control or
antenna arrays, experimental measurements using
broad-bandwidth sound sources indicate that these sur-
faces do not offer any advantages over the QRD se-
quences, for which the Fourier transform of the ex-
ponentiated well depths is exactly constant. In our
acoustic applications, where critical bandwidth can be
approximated by a one-third octave band, the beneficial
selective order suppression is obscured by frequencies
in the band not equal to the design frequency and its
multiples.
The RPG represents an essential acoustical building
block which was formerly unavailable. Consequently
it is having a profound influence on architectural
acoustics and has found widespread application in over
width, the first approach was obviously to design a
diffusor with many deep narrow wells, as in our first
design, the QRD-4311 with 43 1.1-in (28-mm) wells,
with a maximum depth of approximately 16 in (406.4
mm). It was discovered that there is an inherent decrease
in bass efficiency in the QRD sequences themselves as
N increases. The depth of a particular well is given by
Eqs. (3) and (4). It can be seen that the maximum-
depth well is directly proportional to Sh/N x (X/2),
where Sh is the maximum one-dimensional sequence
value (h 2 mod N), Sh,k is the maximum two-dimensional
sequence value [(h 2 + k2) mod N], and N is the prime
on which the sequence is based.
As one tries to increase the diffusion by increasing
N, the maximum prime number in the series, Sh, ap-
proaches N, and the ratio Sh/N, the ordinate in Fig.
12, approaches 1. As Sh/N approaches 1, the maximum
depth approaches X/2. It is desirable to derive sequences
for which Sn/N is as small as possible, thus reducing
the maximum depth proportionately. We have derived
a modified QRD sequence, called QRDX, for extended
bass, for which the half-wavelength multiplier has a
lower and more uniform monotonic rise than a QRD.
It was also comforting to find a very favorable drop
forN = 13 for the QRDX sequence. Thus we can double
the diffusion over N = 7 and obtain approximately the
same bass efficiency.
It should also be pointed out that Sn,k = N for two-
dimensional sequences. This requires a maximum depth
of ?,/2 in two-dimensional diffusors. Hence depending
on the prime, two-dimensional diffusors may require
SMAX/N
1
0.8

41000installations
EXTENDING around
QRD theworld.
LOW-FREQUENCY 0.6
0.4
PERFORMANCE
T

Recently more stringent design specifications along

low frequencies in recording and performing facilities

has demanded additional low-frequency acoustic treat-
with
ment theto additional
extend therequirement to control
Iow-frequency synthesized of
performance 0.2I
0 .............................................................................................................................
_ _ _ , _ _ _ , , i ,
rooms. Absorption control can be accomplished by tra- 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43
ditional diaphragmatic or resonance absorbers, but ex- N
tending the performance of the QRD at low frequencies
willrequirea freshoutlook. QP.D I QP.
DX

4.1 The QRDX--A New Diffusor with Extended Fig. 12. Half-wavelength multiplier versus prime: Dmax =
(SmaJN)(X/2) where Dmax = maximum diffusor depth; Smax
Bass Response = maximum sequence value; N = prime number modulus of
Since the low-frequency performance is directly sequence. New QRDX sequence exhibits lower half-wave-
length multiplier than QRD for primes other than 7 and 23,
proportional to the depth of the diffusor and the high- thus allowing shallower diffusors with equivalent bass effi-
frequency response is inversely proportional to the well ciency.

J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March 121

D'ANTONIO
ANDKONNERT - PAPERS

additional depth for comparable
frequency performance.
4.2 The LFD--A Dedicated Low-Frequency
Diffusor
Another attempt to provide low-frequency perform-
ance was to utilize two physically separate diffusors.
A high-mid-frequency diffusor (HFD) was placed in
front of a dedicated low-frequency diffusor (LFD). Long
wavelengths would diffract around the HFD and inter-
cept the LFD, which was placed physically behind it.
This concept is used at Welk Music, Nashville, TN.
Fig. 13 shows the completed installation, with acous-
tically transparent fabric surrounding the HFD and
providing sonic access to the LFD located behind it.
In an attempt to combine the HFD and LFD into a
single elegant and aesthetic full-spectrum structure,
we turned our attention to a new topic, which is finding
application in almost all fields of science--the fractal,
5 FRACTALS
There are numerous natural phenomena exhibiting a
macroscopic property or shape which is repeated micro-
scopically at progressively smaller and smaller scales,
At each level of magnification we find a scaled replica
of the original. These scaled replicas are self-similar,
that is, they differ only in scale and one can say that
they possess the property of self-similarity or invariance
to _0_i;_. These _,_,,l_.v surfaces, which .... ,_, r,f
o _._ f._lt Jt 11 _, _ _,J 111 [J 1 ,f.,.,A
one-dimensional low- essence of his ideas are contained in his book The
Fractal Geometry of Nature [49]. Feder has also con-
tributed a very useful book on this subject, called
Fractals [50]. Thus in understanding fractals we are
forced to contemplate the concept of self-similarity,
or invariance to changes in scale or size.
5.1 Symmetry--The Invariance to Change
The concept of invariance is very common in nature.
Symmetry is invariance against change. A circle is
invariant to any rotation about its center. A square is
invariant to a rotation of any multiple of 90 ° and pos-
sesses four-fold rotational symmetry. We are all familiar
with the mirror symmetry of our left and right hands
when joined at the thumbs.
5.2 Self-Similarity--The Invariance to Scaling
An infinite straight line is invariant to translation
and scaling and is self-similar. There are many simple
nonlinear deterministic systems which behave in an
apparently unpredictable and chaotic manner. These
problems with chaotic solutions are being addressed
by the field of chaotic dynamics of dissipative systems.
In many such situations the only property that provides
a handle on interpretation is self-similarity.
Phase space is the set of variables that specify the
state of the system. The phase space of a room, for
example, describes the energy versus frequency at every
instant of time. If one considers a system and its phase
enaoc, th_n th_ {n{t{_l r'nnrl{tlane ma,/ h_ _ttr_otpcl tn

coexisting nested self-similar scaled replicas, are frae- some subset of the phase space (the attractor) at some
tals. A fractal looks the same at any magnification, time. For example, for a damped harmonic oscillator
There is no simple definition of a fractal, but all attempts the attractor is the point at rest. Attractors can be a
at a simple definition incorporate the idea that the whole point, which is set with dimension 0, a closed curve
is made up of parts similar to the whole in some way. with dimension 1, or the attracting set can be much
The term fractal was coined by Mandelbrot, and the more irregular and in fact have a dimension that is not

Fig. 13. Rear wall of control room showing mid-high-frequency diffusors placed in front of LFD. Fabric allows low frequencies
to diffract around high-mid-frequency diffusors.

122 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March

PAPERS SOUND
DIFFUSOR

an integer. Such sets are called fractal, and when they
are attractors, they are called strange attractors. Strange
attractors can also be chaotic· By this term we mean
that if we take two typical points on the attractor that
are separated from each other by a small distance, then
as time progresses, they move apart exponentially fast.
Thus a small uncertainty in the initial state of the system
leads to an inability to forecast its future· In Schroeder's
fascinating new book [51] many chaotic systems are
value of D = I since a circle is not a fractal. Thus a
log-log plot of surface length versus 8 approaches 0
for a standard curve and approaches a constant for a
fractal. Eq. (7) illustrates the straight-line relation where
In L(8) is the ordinate, ln(8) is the abscissa, (1 - D)
is the slope, and Ina is the intercept.
Standard curve (1 - D) --->0 as 8 --> 0
Fractal curve (1 - D) --->constant as 8 --->0.

explored and explained. Mandelbrot initially described a fractal as a set for

With all of this impending chaos it is quite comforting which the Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension D exceeds
to us that the nineteenth-century English eccentric Sir
the topological dimension. The topological dimension
Francis Galton once observed: "I know of scarcely for a line is 1, for a plane it is 2, and for a sphere it is
anything so apt to impress the imagination as the won- 3. While the coast of Great Britain exceeds the topo-
derful form of cosmic order expressed by the law of
logical dimension of 1, we will see in a discussion of
frequency of error. It reigns with supreme serenity and Cantor sets that fractal surfaces also exist with D < 1.
in complete self-effacement amidst the wildest con- A good way to learn about fractals is to construct
fusion. The more chaotic the phenomenon, be it test them. The triadic Koch curve is a very elegant and
grades, dice throws, weight, height, etc., the more
perfect is the distribution. It is the supreme law of
unreason. Whenever a large sample of chaotic elements
are taken in hand and organized in the order of their
magnitude, an unsuspected and most beautiful form of
regularity proves to have been latent all along" [52].

5.3 The Fractal Dimensioned

Mandelbrot posed the question: "How long is the
coast of Britain?" It is evident that its length is at least
equal to the distance measured along a straight line
between its beginning and its end. A typical coastline
is irregular and the question is, how much longer? Well
it depends on the "yardstick," or measure interval 8.
As 8 gets smaller, the number of steps or intervals
N(8) increases as well as the length of the coastline,
L(8) = 8N(8).
I could not find a digitized map of Great Britain, but
keeping in Mandelbrotian tradition, Feder asked the
question: "How long is the coast of Norway?" and pro-
vided a digitized map of the southern coast of Norway
containing 1800 × 1200 pixels [Fig. 14(a)]. The square
grid has a spacing 8 = 50 km. It can be seen in Fig.
14(b) that the length of a coastline shows no sign of (a)
reaching a constant value as 8 is reduced. In fact, a
straight line is obtained when log]0_ is plotted versus I
logl0L(8). The measured length is nicely approximated -___
,_N_.___^°_,__
CIRCLE

bytheequation _ I
L(8) = a8 ]-° · (6) o_, _ SOUTH _AFRICAN, COAST

J
The
log-log plot °,_.S_co.o_
_ o
o '__._.ffRiT41N ,
,ASTOFSRiT41N

lnL(8) = (1 - D) ln(_) + Ina (7) $ 3.0

-._o_ _"-----_ _

in Fig. 14(b)indicates that most irregular coastlines - _O-_oN_

.
have a slope 1 - D, which is nonzero. D is the fractal
dimension and D = 1.3 for Great Britain· D can be ........... , ,.o ,,
thought of as the rate at which these surfaces approach L_,,o,_
...... _..............., _, .
infinity. (b)
It is interesting that a circle, also shown in Fig. Fig. 14. (a) Southern coast of Norway· (b) Log-log plot of
14(b), has a slope of 0 as 8 approaches 0, yielding a length of coastlines versus "yardstick" interval.

J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March 123

D'ANTONIO
AND
KONNERT
easy construct to illustrate how a curve can have a
fractal dimension D > 1. We will be using an initiator
and a generator curve. The initiator or starting curve,
n = 0 in Fig. 15, is a line segment of unit length
L(1) = 1. The generator, n -- 1 in Fig. 15, consists of
N(l/3) = 4 line segments of length g = ]/3with a length
L(1/3) -- 4/3. We begin the construction by replacing
each segment of the initiator by the generator, yielding
n = 1. The next generation is obtained by replacing
each line segment in n = 1 with a scaled down version
of the generator, yielding n -- 2. Thus in the second
generation we have a curve consisting of N(V9) -- 42
= 16 segments, each having length g -- 3 -2 = ]/9, and
the length of the curve is L(Vg) -- (4/3)2 = ]%. By
applying a reduce generator to all segments of a previous
generation of the curve, a new generation is obtained,
Such a curve is called a prefractal,
A little algebra yields an expression for the fractal
dimension D in terms of the interval g and the number
of segment N(g), which replace the initiator in the
limit where g approaches zero.
In N(g)
D -- lim_0 In(l/g) (8)
The triadic Koch curve has a D = 1.2618 because the
initiator of unit length is replaced with four segments,
N(1/3) = 4, of interval g = ]//3(D =In 4/ln 3). A fractal
set with D = 0.6309 is obtained from the triadic Can-
tor set construction in Fig. 16. The initiator of unit
length is replaced by three segments of interval ]/3; the
central segment is discarded. Thus N(V3) = 2 and g =
V3, yielding D = In 2/ln 3 = 0.6309.
n -0 INITIATOR
n. I
/2 GENERATOR
Fig. 15. Construction of triadic Koch curve. D =In 4/ln 3
= 1.2618.
124
PAPERS
G DIFFRACTAL
With this background in mind we can now address
the question of how to nest or combine an HFD and a
LFD. We begin with a straight-line initiator of unit
length in Fig. 17. 'The generator in this case is the one-
dimensional QRD diffusor we have come to know and
love, for the moment without the dividers. The initiator
is thus replaced with N(]/8) = 20 segments, which are
]/8of the length of the initiator, g -- ]/8. Thus the fractal
dimension D -- In 20/ln 8 = 1.4406.
We have named this surface a Diffractal (diffusing
fractal), and close examination reveals that we are es-
sentially dealing with a diffusor within a diffusor within
a diffusor. Each scaled replica can be used to scatter
a particular band of frequencies. What we have in fact
generated is analogous to a crossed-over multiway
loudspeaker, where each transducer, or diffusor in this
case, covers a particular frequency range.
Getting back to the real world, let us make use of
this concept of a diffusor within a diffusor and construct
a Diffractal, as shown in Fig. 18, which can be fab-
ricated. Each generation is obtained by replacing the
wells, segments between vertical dividers which remain
/ / I 1
·mm · Imm ·m. Im ·mm ·mm ·.la
as ll ss ss sl ss .. s.
Illl IIll fill Illl fill Illl fill fill
Fig. 16. Construction of triadic Cantor set. D =In 2/ln 3 =
0.6309.
/
Fig. 17. Construction ofDiffractal. D =In 20/ln 8 = 1.4406.
J. AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.40,No.3, 1992March
PAPERS SOUND
DIFFUSOR

unchanged, of a previous generation with a scaled rep- given, respectively, by the equations
lica of the QRD from that generation. The invariance
to scaling is apparent because looking at the third- hM hN
generation well width, with a window equal to that dn = [h/N]2modM _ q- (hmod M)mod
2 N __
2N (9)
well width, reveals the second generation. Looking at
a well width in the second generation, with a window XM
equal to this well width, reveals the first generation, dh,k = {[h/N]2 + [k/N]2}m°d M 2M
and so on.
In practice we have gone to the second generation. )tN
The larger superstructure of the first generation acts as + [(hmod M)2mod N ''[- (kmodM)2mod N] 2N
the LFD andthe scaledreplicaof the firstgeneration (10)
acts as the HFD. The two diffusors are essentially or-
thogonal, or independent in performance, because low-
frequency wavelengths are unaware of the surface ir- where
regularity of the HFD, and the quadratic phase changes M = prime number of LFD
introduced by the LFD do not affect the polar distribution N -- prime number of HFD
of the HFD. h, k = diffractal well numbers
This can be seen in Fig. 19, where the polar pattern )tM = design wavelength of LFD
for the HFD is shown at the design frequency of the hN = design wavelength of HFD
HFD when the diffusors form the customary reference dh = total depth of well number h
plane [(Fig. 19(a)] and when they are imbedded into [h/NJ = truncate h/N; e.g., [13/7] = 1.
the LFD forming the Diffractal [Fig. 19(b)]. The phases
introduced by the LFD are also quadratic residues, and The Diffractal can also be designed in a two-dimensional
hence when they sum with the HFD phases, the result format. Fig. 20 shows a two-dimensional Omniffusor
is still a quadratic residue whose Fourier transform of
the exponentiated depths (phases) is constant. This is _atrlRe_ql_
a very useful outcome, because we can construct nested 0
diffusors covering overlapping frequency bandwidths. -30 30
The design equations for the one-dimensional QRD

Diffractal and the two-dimensional QRD Diffractal are -60 ' _ _x'x' f_'i /_ ''. ' ' 60

-90 48 H 90
(a)
i

-30 . , . 30

-60 ' . , '._ 60

_ _ -90 ' (b) 84Hz' 90

Fig. 19. Polar patterns for seven periods of (a) QRD diffusor
and (b) QRD Diffractal at HFD design frequency. Note that
_ incorporatingHFD into LFD does not degradeHFDper-
formance. This was simulated using near-field Kirchhoff dif-
Fig. 18. Construction of RPG Diffractal. fraction theory.

J.AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.40,No.3, 1992March 125

D'ANTONIO
ANDKONNERT PAPERS

LFD. The dot density reflects the depth of the respective ity, as described in Sec. 4.2. Application of the one-
wells, with the deepest wells having the highest dot dimensional Diffractal in Real World Studios, Bath,
density. If these LFD cells are filled with scaled Omnif- UK is shown in Fig. 22.
fusor replicas, as in a single quadrant shown in Fig. The one- and two-dimensional Diffractals represent
21, we form a two-dimensional Diffractal. a new design ingredient to control low frequencies in
rooms, with simultaneous mid-high-frequency diffu-
7 APPLICATIONS sion. The two-dimensional Diffractal offers additional
low-frequency control due to its 1/N 2 attenuation and
The ability to predict the full-spectrum diffusion omnidirectional coverage. These properties can be ex-
bandwidth and crossover frequency, as well as the un- ploited in recording control rooms. The first application
limited selection of aesthetic design approaches make of the two-dimensional Diffractal is at Crawford Post
the Diffractal a very attractive design ingredient. If Production, Atlanta, GA. The Diffractal covers the
low-frequency absorption is desired along with low- entire rear wall and consists of two sections. The lower
frequency diffusion, damped diaphragmatic membranes section is a full-spectrum one-dimensional Diffractal
or thick porous absorption can easily be fitted to the and the upper section is a pseudo two-dimensional Dif-
rear of the Diffractal, making dual use of the quadratic fractal wherein the HFDs within the LFD cells of the
residue cavities in the rear. Acoustically transparent two-dimensional Omniffusor are oriented one-dimen-
fabric borders can provide sonic access to the rear cav- sional QRD Diffusors (Fig. 23).

__ .:_ !3!:: .._,.

m. :i:i: !i!!!!

Fig. 20. Two-dimensional Omniffusor LFD. Different gray Fig. 21. If each cell in Fig. 20 is filled with a scaled two-
scales reflect relative cell depths. Clear is flush with surface, dimensional Omniffusor, we obtain a two-dimensional dif-
highest density is lowest cell. fractal, one quadrantof which is shown.

Fig. 22. Rear-wall Diffractal at Real World Studios, Bath, UK.

126 d.AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.40,No.3, 1992March

 PAPERS
8 REFERENCES
[1] M. R. Schroeder, Number Theory in Science and
Communication, with Applications in Cryptography,
Physics, Digital Information and Self-Similarity
(Springer, Berlin, 1986).
[2] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "The Reflection
Phase Grating Diffusor: Design Theory and Applica-
tion," J. Audio Eng. Soc., vol. 32, pp. 228-238 (1984
Apr.).
[3] Synergetic Audio Concepts Newsletter, vol. 11,
no. 2, pp. 14-17 (1984 Winter).
[4] Synergetic Audio Concepts Tech Topics, vol. 11,
no. 7 (1984 Spring).
[5] P. D'Antonio and J. Konnert, "The RPG Re-
flection Phase Grating Diffusor," Mix Mag., vol. 8,
pp. 74-76 (1984 Aug.).
[6] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "The RPG Re-
flection Phase Grating Acoustical Diffusor: Applica-
tions," presented at the 76th Convention of the Audio
Engineering Society, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts),
vol. 32, pp. 1012, 1014 (1984 Dec.), preprint 2156.
[7] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "The RFZ/RPG
Approach to Control Room Monitoring," presented at
the 76th Convention of the Audio Engineering Society,
J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts), vol. 32, p. 1015 (1984
Dec.), preprint 2157.
[8] P. D'Antonio, J. Konnert, and F. Becker, "RPG
Reflection Phase Grating Diffusor: Experimental Mea-
surements," presented at the 76th Convention of the
Audio Engineering Society, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Ab-
Fig. 23. Rear-wall one- and two-dimensional
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March
SOUND
DIFFUSOR
stracts), vol. 32, p. 1012 (1984 Dec.), preprint 2158.
[9] Synergetic Audio Concepts Tech Topics, vol. 12,
no. 1 (1984 Fall).
[10] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "The Role of
Broad-Bandwidth Wide-Angle Diffusion in Critical
Listening and Performing Environments," presented
at the 78th Convention of the Audio Engineering So-
ciety, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts), vol. 33, p. 590
(1985 July/Aug.), preprint 2255.
[11] P. D'Antonio,J. Konnert,and R. E. Berger,
II, "Live-End-Dead-End Control Room Design Uti-
lizing a Reflection-Free Zone and Reflection Phase
Grating Diffusors: A Case Study," presented at the
78th Convention of the Audio Engineering Society, J.
Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts), vol. 33, p. 590 (1985
July/Aug.).
[12] P. D'Antonio, "The Reflection Phase Grating
Acoustical Diffusor: Diffuse It or Lose It," db Mag.,
vol. 19, pp. 46-49 (1985 Sept./Oct.).
[13] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "The Acous-
tical Properties of Sound Diffusing Surfaces: The Time,
Frequency and DirectivityEnergy Response," presented
at the 79th Convention of the Audio Engineering So-
ciety, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts), vol. 33, p. 1008
(1985 Dec.), preprint 2295.
[14] W. Baldwin, "Technology: Applied Gozinta,"
Forbes Mag., pp. 152-153 (1985 Oct.).
[15] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "Recording
Control Room Design Incorporating a Reflection Free
Zone and Reflection Phase Grating Acoustical Diffu-
sors," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., suppl. 1, vol. 78, p. S9
Diffractal at Crawford Post Production, Atlanta, GA, USA.
127
D'ANTONIO
ANDKONNERT
(1985Nov.).
[16] I. Peterson, "Acoustic Residues," Science News,
vol. 129, no. 1, pp. 12-13 (1986).
[17] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "Advanced
Acoustic Design of Broadcast and Recording Facilities,"
in Proc. NAB Engineering Conf., TV Multichannel
Sound Session (1986 Apr.), pp. 215-224.
[18] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "The Reflection
Phase Grating Acoustical Diffusor: Application in
Critical Listening and Performing Environments,"
presented at the 12th ICA, Toronto, 1986 July.
[19] P. D'Antonio, "Control Room Design Incor-
porating RFZ, LFD and RPG Diffusors," db Mag., pp.
47-55 (1986 Sept./Oct.).
[20] P. D'Antonio, J. Konnert, and W. Peterson,
"Incorporating Reflection Phase-Grating Diffusors in
Worship Spaces," presented at the Convention of the
Audio Engineering Society, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Ab-
straets), vol. 34, p. 1024 (1986 Dec.), preprint 2364.
[21] P. D'Antonio, "New Types of Acoustical Ma-
terials Simplify Room Designs," presented at the Con-
vention of the Audio Engineering Society, J. Audio
Eng. Soc. (Abstracts), vol. 34, pp. 1022, 1024 (1986
Dec.), preprint2365.
[22] P. D'Antonio and D. Eger, "T60--How Do I
Measure Thee, Let Me Count the Ways," presented at
the Convention of the Audio Engineering Society, J.
Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts), vol. 34, p. 1022 (1986
Dec.), preprint 2368.
[23] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "New Acous-
tical Materials Improve Broadcast Facility Design," in
Proc. 41st Annual Broadcast Engineering Conf. (Na-
tional Association of Broadcasters, Dallas, TX, 1987),
pp. 399-406.
[24] P. D'Antonio, "Advanced Design of Broadcast
Facilities," Broadcast Eng. (1987 July).
[25] M. Wagner and D. Paoletti, "Acoustics: The
RPG Diffusor," Interiors, p. 56 (1987 July).
[26] D. Davis, "The LEDE Concept," Audio Mag.,
pp. 48-58 (1987 Aug.).
[27] B. V. Pisha and C. Bilello, "Designing a Home
Listening Room," Audio Mag., pp. 56-63 (1987 Sept.).
[28] P. D'Antonio and J. H. Konnert, "Complex
Time-Response Measurements Using Time-Delay
Spectrometry," presented at the 83rd Convention of
the Audio Enginering Society, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Ab-
straets), vol. 35, p. 1049 (1987 Dec.), preprint 2542.
[29] P. D'Antonio, F. Becker, and C. Bilello, "Sound
Intensity and Interaural Cross-Correlation Measure-
ments Using Time-Delay Spectrometry," presented at
the 83rd Convention of the Audio Engineering Society
(1987 Dec.), preprint 2543.
[30] B. A. Bell, G. N. Stenbakken, D. R. Flynn,
D. J. Evans, E. D. Burnett, V. Nedzelnitsky, and
K. R. Eberhardt, "Evaluation of a Copy Prevention
Method for Digital Audio Tape Systems," Rep. NBSIR
88-3725, National Bureau of Standards (1988 Feb.).
[31] P. D'Antonio, "Acoustical Troubleshooting and
Modification in Broadcast Facilities," presented at the
NAB Engineering Conf. on Studio Construction and
128
PAPERS
Acoustics,1988Apr.
[32] P. D'Antonio, "Complex Time Response Mca-
surements Using TEF: Importance of the Functional
Form Phase Shift," presented at the 86th AES Int. Conf.,
Nashville, TN, 1988 May.
[33] K. Yates, "A Matter of Diffusion," Stereophile,
vol. 11, pp. 58-77 (1988 Apr.).
[34] P. D'Antonio, "Acoustical Control of Worship
Spaces," Resources Mag., p. 223 (1988 Spring).
[35] P. D'Antonio, "Optimizing Home Listening
Rooms, Part I," presented at the 851h Convention of
the Audio Engineering Society, J. Audio Eng. Soc.
(Abstracts), vol. 36, p. 1030 (1988 Dec.), preprint
2735.
[36] P. D'Antonio, "Acoustical Design of Worship
Spaces," 851h Convention of the Audio Engineering
Society, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts), vol. 36, p.
1030 (1988 Dec.), preprint 2721.
[37] P. D'Antonio, "The Reflection Phase Grating
Diffusor: A Five-Year Progress Report," J. Acoust.
Soc. Am., suppl. 1, vol. 85, p. S16 (1989 Spring).
[38] P. D'Antonio, "Optimizing Home Listening
Rooms," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., suppl. 1, vol. 85, p.
SI01 (1989Spring).
[39] F. Alton Everest, The Master Handbook of
Acoustics, 2d ed. (TAB Books, Blue Ridge Summit,
PA, 1989).
[40] P. D'Antonio, "The RPG Diffusor: A New Ar-
chitectural Acoustic Design Ingredient," Archit. Mag.,
pp. i09- i i2, i37 (i989 June).
[41] P. D'Antonio, "The Reflection Phase Grating
Diffusor: A Five Year Progress Report," presented at
the Audio Engineering Society 4th Regional Conven-
tion, Tokyo,Japan(1989June).
[42] P. D'Antonio, J. Konnert, F. Becker, and C.
Bilello, "Sound Intensity and Interaural Cross-Corre-
lation Measurements Using Time-Delay Spectrometry,"
J. Audio Eng. Soc., vol. 37, pp. 659-673 (1989 Sept.).
[43] P. D'Antonio and J. Konnert, "Complex Time-
Response Measurements Using Time-Delay Spec-
trometry (Dedicated to the late Richard C. Heyser),"
J. Audio Eng. Soc., vol. 37, pp. 674-690 (1989 Sept.).
[44] J. Konnert, P. D'Antonio, and J. Borish,
"Comments on 'Diffusing Surfaces in Concert Halls:
Boon or Bane?,'" J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Letters to the
Editor), vol. 37, pp. 839-844 (1989 Oct.).
[45] P. D'Antonio, Chairman, Workshop on "Op-
timizing the Listening Environment," presentations:
"Tribute to Charles Bilello," "Reflection Control in
the Listening Environment," "The Evolution of the RFZ,
RPG and Full Spectrum Diffusor," "Optimizing an Ex-
isting Listening Room," "Recent Experiences Using
Diffusive Surfaces to Improve Mutual Hearing on Stage
and intheOrchestraPit,""ReflectionControlinWorship
Spaces," 871h Convention of the Audio Engineering
Society, New York, 1989 Oct.
[46] P. D'Antonio and N. Grant, "The RPG Low
Frequency Diffusor: A Case Study at Real World Stu-
dios," presented at the 871h Convention of the Audio
Engineering Society, J. Audio Eng. Soc. (Abstracts),
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March
PAPERS
vol. 37, pp. 1074, 1075 (1989 Dec.).
[47] P. D'Antonio, "Employing the Complete Acous-
tical Palette in Teleconferencing Design," J. Acoust.
Soc. Am., suppl. 1, vol. 89, p. S56 (1989 Fall).
[48] P. D'Antonio, "The QRD Diffractal: A New 1-
or 2-Dimensional Fractal Sound Diffusor," presented
at the ll9th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of
America, Penn State University (1990 May).
[49] B. B. Mandelbrot, The Fractal Geometry of
THE AUTHORS
i
P.D'Antonio
Peter D'Antonio was born in Brooklyn, New York,
in 1941. He received a B.S. degree from St. John's
University in 1963 and a Ph.D. from the Polytechnic
Institute of Brooklyn in 1967.
Dr. D'Antonio has specialized in a wide variety of
scientific disciplines including spectroscopy, x-ray and
electron diffraction, electron microscopy, software
development, and architectural acoustics. In 1974, he
designed Underground Sound Recording Studio, Largo,
MD, where he pioneered the development of the re-
fiection free zone (RFZ) concept and the reflection-
phase grating (RPG) diffusor system. Dr. D'Antonio
is president of RPG DiffusorSystems, Inc., which was
founded in 1983 to carry out basic research in room
acoustics and to develop designs and number-theoretic
architectural surfaces, to enhance the acoustics of crit-
ical listeningand performanceenvironments,for which
he holds many trademarks and patents.
Dr. D'Antonio has lectured extensively on architec-
rural acoustics and his designs and diffusor systems
have been used in over a thousand recording, broadcast,
educational, performing, and residential listening ap-
plications throughout the world. He has published nu-
merous scientific articles in technical journals and
magazines and his research is referenced in many
acoustical texts. He currently serves as chairman of
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 40, No. 3, 1992 March
SOUND
DIFFUSOR
Nature (Freeman, San Francisco, 1983).
[50] J. Feder, Fractals (Plenum, New York, 1988).
[51] M. Schroeder, Minutes from an Infinite Para-
dise: Fractals, Chaos & Power Laws (Freeman, New
York, 1991).
[52] L. C. Tippett, "Sampling and Standard Error,"
in The World of Mathematics, vol. 3, J. R. Newman,
Ed. (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1956), pp. 1456-
1486.
J.H. Konnert
the AES Subcommittee on Acoustics for the Charac-
terization of Acoustical Materials and is adjunct pro-
fessor of acoustics at the Cleveland Institute of Music.
His current research interests include performance
acoustics and directional scattering coefficient mea-
surement methodology.
He is a member of Sigma Xi, the American Crys-
tallographic Association, American Chemical Society,
National Association of Broadcasters, Audio Engi-
neering Society, National Sound and Communications
Association, Music Educators National Conference,
Custom Electronic Design and Installation Association,
a professional affiliate of the American Institute of
Architects and the Association of Collegiate Schools
of Architecture, and a sustaining member of the
Acoustical Society of America.
·
John H. Konnert was born in Kingsville, Ohio, in
1941. He received a B.A. degree from the College of
Wooster in 1963 and a Ph.D. from the University of
Minnesota in 1967. He is a founding member and vice
president of RPG Diffusor Systems, Inc.
Dr. Konnert is a member of the American Crystal-
lographic Association, the American Chemical Society,
and Sigma Xi.
129