Composed by: Dr. U.S.

Mirdha MITS, Jadan [Pali] Page 1 of 37

Mahaveer Institute of Technology and Science,

Jadan

B.Tech. I Semester 2014-15

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

List of Physics Experiments:

1. To convert a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter of range 3.0 volts and calibrate it.
2. To convert a Galvanometer into an Ammeter of range 50 mA and calibrate it.
3. To study the variation of semiconductor resistance with temperature and hence
determine the Band Gap of semiconductor in the form of reverse biased P-N
junction diode.
4. To study the variation of thermo E.M.F. of Iron–constantan thermo couple with
temperature.
5. To determine the specific rotation of sugar solution using a (Lorentz half shade)
Polarimeter.
6. To determine the wave length of prominent lines of mercury by plane diffraction
grating with the help of spectrometer.
7. (A) To determine the wave length of monochromatic light with the help of
Fresnel’s Biprism.
(B) To determine the thickness of mica sheet with the help of a Fresnel’s Bi-prism
setup
8. To determine the wave length of sodium light by Newton’s Ring’s.
9. To determine the coherent length and coherent time of laser using He-Ne Laser.

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INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
¾ There are 09 experiments available for performing including 05 experiments of dark room.
¾ Students have to perform at least 07 experiments out of 09 experiments
¾ 02 – 04 students group of will be formed.
¾ Once the group of two students is formed, it will not be spilt up in any circumstances.
¾ Each group will be allotted one experiment at a time.
¾ Group of students are allowed to perform experiment, after successful completion of viva-voce of that
experiment.
¾ Viva-voce of the experiment contains questions related to the background theory of the
experiment/object, figure, least counts, procedure etc.
¾ During experiments, the apparatus/articles will be only issued on the submission of requisition form.
¾ Students are advised to come with scientific calculator and adequate graph papers, butter papers.
¾ Both the students of the group are suppose to write down object, apparatus required, formula,
observations in their own note books.
¾ It is supposed that experiment is completed only when student show his observations, desired graph,
calculation and result.
¾ The next experiment will be allotted only after proper completion of earlier allotted experiment.
¾ After taking observations, student must submit their issued items/apparatus and take-back their
requisition form.
¾ Students are request to put their bags/ drafter etc only on the central table.
¾ Students are supposed to not to bring mobile or any other electronic gadgets except scientific calculator.

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Experiment No – 01
Object:
To convert a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter of given range (3.0 volts) and calibrate it.

Apparatus required:
Galvanometer, high resistance box, voltmeter, plug key and power supply.

Formula used:
To convert the galvanometer into a voltmeter of a given range (3.0 Volts), the series resistance R needed for it and is
given by
E V
Cg = , I g = C g .N and R= −G,
n(r1 + G ) Ig
Where
G = Galvanometer resistance,
V = Required voltmeter range (3.0 V),
Ig= Value of the current required to get a full scale deflection in the galvanometer
N = Total number of divisions on the scale of the galvanometer (on one side of zero)
Cg = Figure of merit or current sensitivity
E = EMF of the cell or input voltage,
r1 = Resistance introduced in the circuit of galvanometer,
R = Required series resistance to convert galvanometer into voltmeter of V volt range.
n = Deflection in galvanometer on introducing resistance R (r1) in the galvanometer circuit

K1
r1 (RB)
Procedure:
E
I. Determination of the galvanometer resistance (G) by half
I I1
deflection method G
I2
1) Make a circuit as shown in figure 1
K2 r2
Figure 1
2) Put K1 key to ON position and note down the deflection of
galvanometer (n) for the high resistance r1.
3) Now put K2 Key ON position and adjust the value of resistance r2 using variable R.B. so that the deflection
now produced by the galvanometer is nearly half of the deflection n as noted in s.no. 1. Note down the values
of resistance r2 and observed value of deflection.
K1
4) Repeat the procedure for other value of r1. r1 (RB)
E

II. Determination of figure of merit (Cg)

G
1) Setup circuit as shown in figure 2 Figure 2
2) Measure EMF or input voltage to the circuit
3) Switch ON the k1 key and note down the deflection of the galvanometer for the introduced high resistance r1.
4) Switch off the K1 key
5) Repeat the procedure for another high resistance value r1 or vary the battery voltage

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III. Calibration of the converted galvanometer

1) Setup circuit as shown in figure 3
2) Calculate R for the given conversion range for Voltmeter i.e. 3
Volt and introduced this value of R in the circuit using various K
combination of resistance in series or parallel connections. R
E
3) Note down the readings of converted galvanometer (gives voltage V
G
across terminals) and standard voltmeter for different input
voltages by varying pot resistance.
Figure 3

Observations:
EMF or input voltage to the circuit =__________ Volts
No. of divisions on the galvanometer N = __________
Zero error in Standard Voltmeter = __________ Volts
Least count of Standard Voltmeter = __________ Volts/div
Internal resistance of galvanometer = __________ Ω
Values of resistance of S1 = __________ Ω
Values of resistance of S2 = __________ Ω
Values of resistance of S3 = __________ Ω

Table for determination of G

Battery EMF Resistance r1 Deflection Shunt resistance (r2) Half deflection position Mean G in ohms
S.No.
(E) in ohms (n) in ohms (n/2) Mean r2
1
2
3
4
5
6

Table for figure of merit (Cg) and Ig

S.No.
Battery EMF Series resistance
Deflection (n)
Figure of merit I g = C g .N Mean Ig
(E) r1 in ohms Cg amp/division in Amp
1
2
3
4
5
6

Required resistance for converting given galvanometer in to voltmeter of range ______V = ________ Ω
Actual resistance introduced in the circuit for converting given galvanometer in to voltmeter of range ______V = ________ Ω
Least count of converted voltmeter (after conversion) (V/N) = ______ Volts/division (Volts in which converted / N)

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Table for calibration of galvanometer

Corresponding reading of voltmeter
Readings of galvanometer Standard voltmeter reading Error
S.No. in volts
in divisions (a) in volts (Vst) (Vconv-Vst)
Vconv = a × least count of converted voltmeter
1
2
3
.
.
.

10

Calculations:
E
The figure of merit is calculated by C g =

Vconv-Vst
amp/division
n(r1 + G )
Then corresponding current following in the galvanometer is calculated
0 Vst
by I g = C g N Amp.

The value of series resistance used for conversion is calculated by

V
R= − G ohm
Ig
Required resistance for converting given galvanometer in to voltmeter of range ______V = ________ Ω
Actual series resistance introduced in the circuit for converting given galvanometer in to voltmeter of range ______V
= ________ Ω

Combination of resistances used to get required resistance R for conversion –

1. Series combination - R = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + .....

1 1 1 1 1
2. Parallel combination - = + + + + .....
R R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
3. Mixed combination
Plot a graph between standard voltmeter value (Vst) and error found in converted voltmeter (Vconv – Vst).

Result:
• To convert the given galvanometer into voltmeter of the range of ______ volts, the resistance required is found to be
(1) R = _______ohms (According to calculation ) and
(2) R′ = _______ohms (Actual used resistance)
• % Error introduced due to actual resistance used for conversion and resistance calculated by formula =

⎛ R − R′ ⎞
⎜ × 100 ⎟% = __________________ %
⎝ R ⎠

• A graph for calibration between standard voltmeter value (Vst) and error found in converted voltmeter (Vconv – Vst) is
plotted.

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Precautions:
• Remove the zero errors in all moving coil apertures.
• Use constant voltage sources battery.
• Introduce required resistance according to calculation.
• The range of standard voltmeter should be nearly equal to the range in which galvanometer is to be converted.
Viva –

1) By which alternate apparatus can the voltmeter be calibrated?

2) What is half deflection method, used in conversion of voltmeter into galvanometer?
3) What is the resistance of ideal voltmeter?
4) Which method is used to determine the galvanometer resistance?
5) Why voltmeter always connected in parallel in an electric circuit?
6) Give the formula for the series resistance used for converting a galvanometer in voltmeter?
7) What do you mean by figure of merit or current sensitivity?
8) How you calculate least count of converted galvanometer in to voltmeter?
9) Derive the formula for required series resistance for conversion.
10) What do you mean by calibration and perfect calibrated instrument?
11) What is construction of galvanometer?
12) Can a galvanometer be used as voltmeter without using any series resistance?

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Experiment No – 02
Object:
To convert a Galvanometer into a Ammeter of given range (50 mA) and calibrate it.

Apparatus required:
Galvanometer, low resistance box, ammeter, plug key and power supply.

Formula used:
To convert the galvanometer into a ammeter of a given range, I, the shunt resistance S needed for it and is given by
E Ig
Cg = , Ig = Cg N and S= G
n(r1 + G ) I − Ig

Where
G = Galvanometer resistance,
I = Required ammeter range (50 mA),
Ig= Value of the current required to get a full scale deflection in the galvanometer
N = Total number of divisions on the scale of the galvanometer (on one side of zero)
Cg = Figure of merit or current sensitivity
E = EMF of the cell or input voltage,
r1 = Resistance introduced in the circuit of galvanometer,
S = Required shunt resistance to convert galvanometer into ammeter of I mA range.
n = Deflection in galvanometer on introducing resistance r1 in the galvanometer circuit

Procedure:
I. Determination of the galvanometer resistance (G) by half K1
r1 (RB)
deflection method E
1) Make a circuit as shown in figure 1
I I1
2) Put K1 key to ON position and note down the deflection of I2
G

galvanometer (n) for the high resistance r1. K2 r2

Figure 1
3) Now put K2 Key ON position and adjust the value of
resistance r2 using variable R.B. so that the deflection now
produced by the galvanometer is nearly half of the deflection n as noted in s.no. 1. Note down the values of
resistance r2 and observed value of deflection.
4) Repeat the procedure for other value of r1.

II. Determination of figure of merit (Cg)

1) Setup circuit as shown in figure 2 K1
r1 (RB)
2) Measure EMF or input voltage to the circuit E

3) Switch ON the k1 key and note down the deflection of the

galvanometer for the introduced high resistance r1. G
Figure 2
4) Switch off the K1 key
5) Repeat the procedure for another high resistance value r1.

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III. Calibration of the converted galvanometer

6) Setup circuit as shown in figure 3
I
7) Calculate S for the given conversion range for ammeter, I, and K

Rheostat pot
introduce this value of S in the circuit using various
E
combination of resistance in series or parallel connections. G S

8) Note down the readings of converted galvanometer into

ammeter and standard ammeter for different input current
Figure 3
values by varying pot resistance.
Observations:
EMF or input voltage to the circuit = __________ Volts
No. of divisions on the galvanometer N = __________
Zero error in Standard Ammeter = __________ mA
Least count of Standard Ammeter = __________ mA/div
Internal resistance of galvanometer = __________ Ω
Values of resistance of S1 = __________ Ω
Values of resistance of S2 = __________ Ω
Values of resistance of S3 = __________ Ω

Table for determination of G

Battery EMF Resistance r1 Deflection Shunt resistance (r2) Half deflection position Mean G in ohms
S.No.
(E) in ohms (n) in ohms (n/2) Mean r2
1
2
3
4
5
6

Table for figure of merit (Cg)

S.No. Battery EMF (E)

Series resistance
Deflection (n)
Figure of merit I g = C g .N Mean Ig amp
r1 in ohms Cg amp/division
1
2
3
4
5
6

Required resistance for converting given galvanometer in to Ammeter of range ______mA = ________ Ω
Actual resistance introduced in the circuit for converting given galvanometer in to Ammeter of range ______mA = ________ Ω
Least count of converted ammeter (after conversion) (I/N) = ______ mA/division (mA range in which converted / N)

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Table for calibration of galvanometer

Readings of galvanometer Corresponding reading of ammeter in mA (Iconv) Standard ammeter reading Error
S.No.
in divisions (a) = = a × least count of converted ammeter in mA (Ist) (Iconv-Ist)
1
2
3
4 ----- ---- ---- ----
10

Calculations:
E
The figure of merit is calculated by C g = mA/divisions
n(r1 + G )

Iconv – Ist
Then corresponding current following in the galvanometer is calculated
by I g = C g N mA. 0
Ist
The value of shunt resistance used for conversion is calculated by
Ig
S= G ohm
I − Ig

Required shunt resistance for converting given galvanometer in to ammeter of range ______mA = ________ Ω
Actual shunt resistance introduced in the circuit for converting given galvanometer in to ammeter of range ______mA
= ________ Ω

Combination of resistances used to get required shunt resistance S for conversion –

1. Series combination - S = S1 + S 2 + S3 + S 4 + .....

1 1 1 1 1
2. Parallel combination - = + + + + .....
S S1 S 2 S3 S 4
3. Mixed combination

Plot a graph between standard ammeter value (Ist) and error found in converted ammeter (Iconv - Ist).

Result:
• To convert the given galvanometer into ammeter of the range of ______ mA, the shunt resistance required is found to
be
(1) S = _______ohms (According to calculation ) and
(2) S′ = _______ohms (Actual used resistance)
• The % Error introduced due to actual resistance used for conversion and resistance calculated by formula =

⎛ S − S′ ⎞
⎜ × 100 ⎟% = ______________ %
⎝ S ⎠
• A graph for calibration between standard ammeter value (Ist) and error found in converted ammeter (Iconv - Ist) is
plotted.

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Precautions:
• Remove the zero errors in all moving coil apertures.
• Use constant voltage sources battery.
• Introduce required resistance according to calculation.
• The ammeter used for calibration of shunted galvanometer should be of the nearly same range.
Viva –
1. Can voltmeter be converted into an ammeter? How?
2. How can you convert an ammeter into a milli-ammeter?
3. What do you mean by calibration of converted galvanometer?
4. What do you mean by figure of merit of galvanometer?
5. What is galvanometer?
6. What is shunt resistance? What is its uses
7. What is the fundamental difference between a voltmeter and an ammeter?
8. What is the resistance of an ideal ammeter?
9. What will happen if an ammeter is connected in parallel to the circuit?
10. Why an ammeter is always connected in series in circuit?
11. How you calculate least count of converted galvanometer in to ammeter?
12. Derive the formula for required shunt resistance for conversion.
13. Can a galvanometer be used as ammeter without using any shunt resistance? How?
14. What is half deflection method?
15. Differentiate between EMF and Voltage?
16. What are the other techniques and methods available in the laboratory to determine the resistance of galvanometer?
17. What is the difference between potential and voltage?

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Experiment No – 03
Object:
To determine the Band Gap of semiconductor in the form of reverse biased P-N junction diode

Apparatus required: Thermometer

DC power supply
Power supply with microammeter, electric oven, thermometer,

Diode
semiconductor diode (PN junction diode OA79- Germanium diode)
and connection wires.

Microammeter Oven
Formula used: K

The band gap of the semiconductor is calculated by the slope of the straight line plotted between (log Is) i.e. log of
reverse saturation current and (103/T), using following formula.
Slope of line
Eg = eV
5.036
Procedure:

Log10 Is
1) Make the connections in reverse biased mode as shown in figure and put
the power supply switched ON positions.
2) Note down the room temperature.
3) Note down the initial reading of the micrometer before staring the oven.
4) Put the thermometer in the hole of the oven
103/T
5) Put the oven switch to ON positions
6) Allow the oven temperature to increase upto 90°C and then switch OFF the oven.
7) The temperature will rise further, say 100°C and will become stable. Take the reading of micro-ammeter for this point.
8) Now the temperature will begin to fall. Take current (in μA) and temperature reading in steps of 5° falls in thermometer,
up to room temperature.
When a p-n junction is reversed biased then current is due to minority carriers whose concentration is dependent on the
energy gap Eg. The reverse current Is (saturated value) is a function of the temperature of the junction diode, as described
above.
Observations:
Room temperature = __________ °C
Biasing Voltage = __________ V
Least count of DC micro ammeter = __________ μA
Current flowing in the circuit at room temperature = __________ μA
Table for band gap measurement

Temperature in °C Temperature in K Reverse saturation current Is in μA ⎛103 ⎞

S.No. ⎜ T ⎟⎠ Log Is
(t) (T) (Is) ⎝
1 95
2 90
3 …… ………. …….. …. ….
N Up to (room temperature + 5°)

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Calculations:
Plot a graph in (103/T) and Log Is and find the slope of curve which is straight line.
Then calculate Eg from above mentioned formula.

Result:
• The band gap of given p-n diode (OA 79 – Germanium) is found to be Eg = ________ eV (___________ Joules) at
room temperature ___________ °C
• The standard forbidden energy band gap of germanium semiconductor at room temperature (25°C) is 0.7eV.

⎛ E g − 0.7 ⎞
• The percentage error in band gap is fond to be ⎜⎜ × 100 ⎟⎟% = __________________ %
⎝ 0.7 ⎠
Precautions:
• Take observations in cooling period.
• Use constant voltage sources battery.
• A oil bath (dipping of diode in hot oil bath) gives better results, as heating of diode will be proper.
Viva –
1. Explain – conductor, semiconductor and insulator on the basis of band theory?
2. What are energy bands in solids?
3. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
4. What are majority and minority charge carriers in semiconductors?
5. What are N-type and P-type semiconductors?
6. What do you mean by forward and reverse biasing of junction diode?
7. What do you mean by valance band and conduction band?
8. What happen when diode is connected in reverse biased?
9. What is band gap in a good conductor?
10. What is depletion layer in semiconductor diode?
11. What is diode?
12. Write down the formula used to determine band gap of semiconductor?
13. What is unit of band gap? Also write relation between energy units - eV and joule?
14. Does the band gap denote the height in μm or energy difference between conduction band and valance band?
15. Describe the behavior of semiconductor at zero Kelvin temperature and room temperature
16. On which factors current due to minority carriers depends?
17. What are the effects of forward and reverse bias on the depletion layer?
18. What do you mean by reverse saturation current?
19. What is the difference between PN Diode and Zener Diode?

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Experiment No – 04
Object:
To study the variation of Thermo E.M.F. of copper-constantan thermo couple with temperature.

Apparatus required:
Digital micro voltmeter, copper-constantan thermocouple, thermometer, sand bath, beaker, funnel, tripod stand, test tube,
paraffin wax, wooden stand, heater, cotton and retort stand with ring.

Digital micro voltmeter

Procedure:
1) Make the connection as shown in figure Cu Constantan Cu
2) Put one junction (-ve) of the thermocouple in funnel which has a Thermometer
Thermocouple
wet cotton and other junction (+ve) of thermocouple in test tube Test tube

containing paraffin wax. Put the test tube on sand bath and place
the thermometer tip near the junction in wax. Sand bath

3) Heat the sand bath with the heater or burner up to 120°C and then
switch off the heater.
4) The temperature will rise further, say 150°C and will become Burner Wooden stand
Hot junction Cold junction
stable. Take the reading of micro-voltmeter for this point.
5) Now the temperature will begin to fall. Take thermo E.M.F. (in μV) and temperature reading in steps of 10° falls in
thermometer, up to 10°C above room temperature.
Observations:
Room temperature = _______°C
Temperature of wet cotton (cold junction) = _______°C

Table for emf generated by thermocouple

S.No. Temperature observed by thermometer Difference in temperature of cold and hot Thermo EMF
(hot junction) in °C junctions in °C (μV)
1
2
3
N Up to (room temperature + 10°C)

Calculations:
• Plot the graph between difference in temperature of cold and hot junctions and
Thermo emf in μV

observed micro voltmeter reading.

• Calculate the slope of the curve.
Result:
• The variation of thermo e.m.f. of copper constantan with temperature is shown in the
graph.
T in °C

• The slop of the curve gives thermo emf per degree centigrade is found to be _______ μV/°C, which tells that the given
thermocouple is made by ______________________.
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Precautions:
• Take observations in cooling period.
• Range of micro-voltmeter should be such that it can give readings up to two decimal.
Viva –
1. State the See Back Effect
2. State the Peltier and Thomson effects?
3. What is unit of Thermo EMF?
4. What do you mean by Thermo-EMF and thermo electric current?
5. What is the order of Thermo EMF generated in Cu-Constantan couple?
6. What do you mean by thermo couple?
7. What are the applications of thermo couple?
8. Which type of emf is produced in thermo emf experiment - DC or AC?
9. What do you mean by neutral temperature and temperature inversion?
10. Write down the name of few thermo couple series.
11. On what factor does the direction of thermo-electric current depends?
12. What is the direction of current in case of (i) antimony – bismuth and (ii) copper – iron couples?
13. What are the values of thermo emf per unit degree centigrade for rising curve for Antimony – Bismuth, Copper –
Constantan and Copper – Iron thermocouples?
- The values are as follows -
Rate of thermo emf for rising curve
Thermocouple dE
(μV/°C)
dt
Antimony – Bismuth 113
Copper – Constantan 41.8
Copper – Iron 8.6

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Experiment No – 05
Object:
To determine the specific rotation of sugar solution with the help of polarimeter (Laurent half shade polarimeter)

Apparatus required:
Laurent half shade polarimeter, polarimeter tube, physical balance, measuring cylinder, beaker and sodium light source,
sugar cubes

Formula used:
The specific rotation of plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in water is determined by the formula as given below;
θ θ× v
S= = ,
L×c L× m
where
θ = rotation produced by solution of known concentration (in degree),
L = length of polarimeter tube (in decimeter),
m = mass of sugar dissolved in water (in gms.) and
v = volume of sugar solution.

Polarizer Analyzer

Lens Nicol prism Nicol prism

Polarimeter tube Telescope

Half Shaded device

Description of the apparatus:

The polarimeter has following parts:
1. Polarizer
2. Polarimeter tube
3. Telescope

The polarizer is made by Nicol prism, which polarizes the incident light in plane polarization. Laurent’s half shade will
then generate two mutually perpendicular plane polarized light.
The polarimeter tube contains the solution to which specific rotation is being to find.
The last section contains analyzer and telescope. The Nicol prism is here used as analyzer, according to Malus Law. The
first Nicol used in polarizer produces plane polarized light from incident un-polarized light by eliminating o-ray. Where
as the second Nicol prism used in analyzer gives various intensity pattern on rotation according to Malus Law.
Procedure:
1) Fill the water in polarimeter tube and it should not have any air bubble along the tube. And place the tube inside the
polarimeter.
2) In case of Laurent half shade device –

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a. Two halves of unequal intensities are observed by moving analyzer on the both sides of zero (clockwise and
anticlockwise)
b. Rotate the analyzer until two halves appear equally bright. Take the reading in this position for clockwise
and anti clock wise rotations.

OR
c. The readings can also be taken -
Clockwise: when one half (left/right) is fully bright and other is completely dark
Anti clockwise: when one half (right/left) is fully bright and other is completely dark.
3) Prepare the sugar solution of known concentration in beaker. (with 4 cubes and 200ml water)
4) Now refill the tube with sugar solution and take the reading for two positions descried above s.no. 2 and 3.
5) Throw 50ml solution and add 50 ml pure water, to change the strength of sugar solution.
6) Repeat the procedure for different strengths of sugar solution. (s.no. 2/3 to 6)
Observations:
Preparation of sugar solution–
Mass of sugar taken (m) = ________ gm
Volume of water (v) = ________ cc
Concentration of solution (m/v) = ________gm/cc
Length of polarimeter tube (L) = ________ cm = _______ decimeter (10cm = 1 decimeter)

Least count of polarimeter–

Value of one division of main scale on micrometer = ________ degree
Total number of division on vernier scale =_________
Least count of the micrometer =_________ degree

Table for specific rotation

Clockwise reading Anti clockwise reading Mean value Angle of
from zero from zero
(a + b ) rotation θ S
S.no. Solution concentration 2 (Y-X)
(m/v)
Total Total Total Total θ
MS VS
Degree (a)
MS VS
Degree (b) Degree Degree
=
l×c
1 Water X ----- -----
2 Sugar sol. 1 Y1 Y1 – X S1
3 Sugar sol. 2 Y2 Y2 – X S2
4 Sugar sol. 3 Y3 Y3 – X S3
5 Sugar sol. 4 Y4 Y4 – X S4

Calculations:
1. Calculate the specific rotation for individual solution and then take mean
Angle of rotation

value.
S1 + S 2 + S 3 + S 4
S Calculation =
4

Concentration 16
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2. Draw the graph between concentration and angle of rotation θ and find the slope of the straight line.
Then calculate the value of
Slop of curve
S Graph = degree/dm/gm/cc/°C.
l
Result:
The specific rotation of the cane sugar is found to be
1.) Sob = ___________ degree/dm/gm/cc/°C at room temp ______°C.
The standard value of specific rotation for cane sugar is Sst = 66.5 degree/dm/gm/cc/°C.

⎛ S − S ob ⎞
The % error is found to be ⎜⎜ st × 100 ⎟⎟% = __________________ %
⎝ S st ⎠
Precautions:
• Dissolve the sugar properly.
• Remove any air bubble from Polarimeter tube.
Viva –
1. Define Malus law
2. Define specific rotation and also give unit of Specific rotation?
3. What is a half wave plate (HWP)? Where is it used?
4. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization?
5. Define the terms optical active material, optical activity and angle of rotation?
6. How does polarized light differ with un-polarized light or ordinary light?
7. How does rotation change with temperature?
8. On what factors does specific rotation depend?
9. On what factors does the angle of rotation of the plane of polarization depend?
10. What are dextrorotatory and laevorotatory substances? Give examples
11. What are the functions of the polarizer and the analyzer?
12. What are the various methods to produce plane polarized light?
13. What do mean by plane polarized light?
14. What do you mean by circularly and elliptically polarized light?
15. What do you mean by polarization?
16. What happen on rotation if concentration of solution is increased in Polarimeter experiments?
17. What is a biquartz plate?
18. What is Nicol prism?
19. What is saccharimeter?
20. What is the half shade plate or a Laurent’s plate?
21. What types of sources are used in Bi-quartz and Laurent half shaded Polarimeter respectively? why
22. What will be the resultant rotation if the plane polarized light is passed through a number of optically active Solutions?
23. What will be the rotation produced if an optically active substance is dissolved in another optically active liquid?

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Experiment No – 06

Object:
To determine the wave length of prominent lines of mercury by plane diffracting grating.

Apparatus required:
A diffraction grating, spectrometer, mercury lamp and reading lens.

Formula used:
The wave length λ according to diffraction law is given by
(a+b) sinθ = nλ

λ=
(a + b ) sin θ ,
n
where
(a+b) = grating element,
θ = angle of diffraction,
n = order of spectrum

Adjustment Slit

I. Adjustment for spectrometer

As done in experiment of “Dispersive Power of Prism”. Collimator
II. Adjustment for grating
1) Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line and the
image of the slit is focused on the vertical cross wire, the 45° angle

reading is noted on both the verniers. Grating

Telescope
2) The telescope is now rotated by 90°.
Prism table
3) Mount the grating on the prism table and rotate the prism
table so that the reflected image is seen on the vertical cross wire. Take the reading of the verniers.
4) Turn the prism table from this position through 45° or 135°. In this position the grating is normal to the incident
beam.
III. The slit should be adjusted parallel to the lines of grating
For this setting, the slit is rotated in its own plane till the
spectral lines become very sharp and bright.
Procedure: R2
1) After adjusting grating normal to the axis of the collimator, 2nd 2nd
Order V2 Order
spectrum as shown in figure has been obtained.
R1 R1
2) Rotate the telescope to the left side of the direct image and V1 Zero V1
adjust the different spectral lines (violet, blue, green and red) Order
1st Order 1st Order
turn by turn on the vertical crosswire for first order. Note
down the readings of both the verniers for each color.
3) Rotate the telescope further to obtain the second order spectrum and again note the readings of each color.
4) Now rotate the telescope to another side of direct image and repeat the procedure.
Observations:
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Least count of spectrometer –

Value of one division of main scale = ________ degree
Total number of division on vernier scale =_________
Least count of the spectrometer =_________ minutes or seconds
No. of rulings per inch on the grating, N = 15000 per inch
Reading of telescope for direct image = ________
Reading of telescope after rotating it through 90° = ________
Reading of circular scale when reflected image is obtained on the crosswire = ________ (After placing grating)
Reading of telescope after again rotating it through 90° = ________
Reading after rotating the prism table through 45° or 135° = ________

Table for angle of diffraction

Spectrometer reading on right
Spectrometer reading on left side 2θ = (c – d) Mean θ
side
Order Color Vernier degree
MS VS Total in MS VS Total
Total degree (V1+V2)/2
degree sec degree (c) degree sec degree (d)
V1
Violet
V2

V1
Blue
V2
First Order (n = 1)

V1
Green
V2

V1
Yellow
V2

V1
Red
V2

V1
Violet
V2

V1
Blue
Second Order (n = 2)

V2

V1
Green
V2

V1
Yellow
V2

V1
Red
V2

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Calculations
Grating element (a+b) = 2.54/N = _______ per cm, where N = number of ruling per inch on the grating (15000LPI)

The wavelength of various lines in the first order (n = 1) is calculated by

λ=
(a + b )sin θ
1
λViolet-I = ______ Å. and calculate wavelengths for other colors.

The wavelength of various lines in the second order (n = 2) is calculated by

λ=
(a + b )sin θ
2
λViolet-II = ______ Å. and calculate wavelengths for other colors.

(λ violet −I + λ violet −II )

Mean λ violet = and also calculate mean values of wavelengths for other colors
2

Result:
The wavelengths of different colors diffracted by grating are found to be
1. λViolet = _______ Å
2. λBlue = _______ Å
3. λ green = _______ Å
4. λ yellow = _______ Å
5. λ red = _______ Å
Precautions:
• Keep the spectrometer table in horizontal position.
• Place the grating vertically to the table.
• Align the gating normal to the incident light by proper method mentioned above.
• Take the observations of bright intense (prominent) colored line.

Viva –
1. Are the intensities of light equal in all orders of the spectrum?
2. Do we use original plane transmission diffraction grating in the laboratory?
3. How a diffraction grating works?
4. How is a replica grating prepared?
5. How many lines are drawn on the grating?
6. How many orders can be obtained with the help of grating?
7. How many types of grating are there?
8. How you adjust the grating normal to the incident light?
9. Is the angle of diffraction depends on the total number of ruling or slits on the grating for the same grating Element?
10. Is the angular dispersion same in all orders of the spectrum?
11. Is the width of the spectral line equal for all colors in a spectrum?

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12. Is the width of the spectral line increase by decreasing total width of ruled surface?
13. Is there any overlapping of the spectral lines of first two spectrum in the visible region?
14. On what factors does the dispersive power depend?
15. Out of grating and prism, which have higher dispersive power? Why:
16. What are the main parts of spectrometer? Explain briefly
17. What do you mean by dispersive power?
18. On what factor diffraction depends? What are the classes of diffraction?
19. What is grating element?
20. What is main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum?
21. What is meant by order of spectrum?
22. What is the best source of light for determining dispersive power of a prism?
23. What is the difference between Fraunhofer and Fresnel’s classes of diffraction?
24. What is the difference between plane transmission grating and reflection grating?
25. What is the difference between the dispersive power and the resolving power grating?
26. What is the diffraction grating?
27. What is the necessary for a good grating?
28. What should be the order of slit width in order to obtain sharp spectral lines?
29. What type of spectrum is emitted by the sodium lamp?
30. What will happen to the angular dispersion if the number of lines in the same space be doubled?
31. What will happen when the width of lines on the grating becomes equal to the spacing between them?
32. Which color is obtained in the spectrum, when the telescope is moved left or right side from the direct image?
33. Which type of grating you have used in this experiment?
34. Why do you adjust the grating normal to the incident light?
35. Why is the prism spectrum more intense than the grating spectrum?
36. Why it is called a Plane transmission grating?

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Experiment No – 07 A
Object:
To determine the wavelength of sodium light with the help of a Fresnel’s Bi-prism setup.

Apparatus required:
Fresnel’s Biprism setup OR optical bench with uprights, sodium lamp, Biprism, convex lens, slit, micrometer with eye
piece and reading lens.

Formula used:
The wave length of sodium light for Fresnel’s Biprism experiment is given by
2d
λ =β ,
D
where
β = fringe width,
D = distance between the slit and screen (eye piece upright)

2d = (d1d 2 ) = distance between two virtual sources,

d1 =distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in one position,
d2 =distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in second position

S1
Region of
2d S interference

S2

Bi prism b

D
Eye piece

Adjustment
1. Place the Biprism upright near the slit and move the eye piece sideway,
two images of virtual sources are found at a and b position as shown in
figure.
2. If they are not seen, move the upright of Biprism right angle to the bench
till they are appeared. Make the two images parallel by rotating Biprism
in its own plane.
3. Bring the eyepiece near the Biprism and give it a rotation at right angle of
the bench to obtain a patch of light. As a matter of fact, the interference fringes are obtained in this patch provided that
the edge of the prism is parallel to the slit, as shown in figure.
4. To make the edge of the Biprism parallel to the slit, the Biprism is rotated with the help of tangent screw till a clear
interference pattern is obtained.
5. The line joining the center of the slit and the edge of the Biprism should be parallel to the bed of the bench. If this is not
so, there will be a lateral shift and its removal is most important as shown in following figure.

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a. In order to adjust the system for no lateral shift, the eyepiece is moved away from Biprism. In this case the fringes
will move to the right or left but with the help of base screw
provided with Biprism, it is moved at right angle to the bench in a
direction to bring the fringes back to their original position.
b. Now move the eyepiece towards the Biprism and the same
adjustment is made with the help of eyepiece.
c. Using the process again and again, the lateral shift is removed.
Procedure:
I. Measurement of fringe width (β)
1) Find the least count of micrometer attached with eyepiece.
2) Place the eyepiece at a larger distance from Biprism where the fringes are distinct, bright and widely spaced.
3) The crosswire is moved on one side of the fringes to avoid backlash error. Now the cross wire is fixed at the
center of a bright fringe and its reading is noted.
4) The crosswire is now moved and fixed at the center of every second bright fringe and their readings are noted.
5) The difference between two consecutive bright fringe readings gives width of fringe β.
II. Measurement of D
The distance between slit and eyepiece gives the value of D
III. Measurement of 2d
1) Place the convex lens between the Biprism and eyepiece with disturbing them at all and then move lens in
between to obtain two sharp images of virtual sources. Place the crosswire on each image and get its reading.
The difference between these two readings gives d1.
2) Now move the convex lens towards eyepiece to obtain the second similar position as described in s.no. 2 and the
distance d2 is measured.
3) Then the 2d can be calculated by the formula
Observations:
Least count of micrometer of eye piece –
Value of one division of main scale on micrometer = ________ mm
Total number of division on vernier scale =_________
Least count of the micrometer piece =_________mm
Measurement of D
Position of slit upright (A) = ________cm
Position of eyepiece upright (B) = ________cm
Observed value of D (B-A) = ________cm
Table for fringe width β
Micrometer Micrometer
reading reading Difference for 10 Fringe width
Fringe Mean for 10
Total Total fringes (mean/10)
no. MS VS MS VS fringes
(a – b) cms
cm (a) cm (b)
1
2
3
8 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

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Table for 2d
First position of lens Second position of lens
I image II image I image II image 2d cm Mean
S.no.
MS VS
Total
MS VS
Total
d1 cm
(b-a) MS VS
Total
MS VS
Total
d2 cm
(b-a)
( dd )
1 2 2d cm
(a) (b) (a) (b)
1
2 ----
8 ---- --- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- ----

Calculations
The wave length of sodium light used in Fresnel’s Biprism is calculated by the above given formula.
Result:
1. The wave length of sodium light used in Fresnel’s Biprism is found to be λ = ____________ A.
2. The standard wavelength of sodium light is λst = __________ Å 

⎛ λ st − λ ob ⎞
3. The % error is found to be ⎜⎜ × 100 ⎟⎟% = __________________ %
⎝ λ st ⎠
Precautions:
• Place the Biprism normal to the axis.
• All should be in optical line of sight

Viva –
1. What is a difference between interference produced in Newton’s ring and by Bi-prism?
2. What do you mean by interference?
3. Is there any loss of energy in interference phenomenon?
4. What are the different types of interference?
5. What is biprism?
6. On what factor does the fringe width depends?
7. What will happen if monochromatic light source is replaced by white light source?
8. What is lateral shift?

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Experiment No – 07 B
Object:
To determine the thickness of mica sheet with the help of a Fresnel’s Bi-prism setup

Apparatus required:
Fresnel’s Biprism setup OR optical bench with uprights, sodium lamp, Biprism, convex lens, slit, micrometer with eye
piece, white light source, mica sheet, stand and reading lens.

Formula used:
Thickness of mica sheet t is given by
Sλ
t= ,
β(μ − 1)
where
S = shift of the central white fringe,
μ = refractive index of mica
β = fringe width,
λ = wavelength of incident light,

S1
Region of
2d S interference

S2

Bi prism b

D
Eye piece

Adjustment
1. Place the Biprism upright near the slit and move the eye piece sideway,
two images of virtual sources are found at a and b position as shown in
figure.
2. If they are not seen, move the upright of Biprism right angle to the bench
till they are appeared. Make the two images parallel by rotating Biprism
in its own plane.
3. Bring the eyepiece near the Biprism and give it a rotation at right angle of
the bench to obtain a patch of light. As a matter of fact, the interference fringes are obtained in this patch provided that
the edge of the prism is parallel to the slit, as shown in figure.
4. To make the edge of the Biprism parallel to the slit, the Biprism is
rotated with the help of tangent screw till a clear interference pattern is
obtained.
5. The line joining the center of the slit and the edge of the Biprism
should be parallel to the bed of the bench. If this is not so, there will be

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a lateral shift and its removal is most important as shown in following figure.
a. In order to adjust the system for no lateral shift, the eyepiece is moved away from Biprism. In this case the
fringes will move to the right or left but with the help of base screw provided with Biprism, it is moved at
right angle to the bench in a direction to bring the fringes back to their original position.
b. Now move the eyepiece towards the Biprism and the same adjustment is made with the help of eyepiece.
c. Using the process again and again, the lateral shift is removed.
Procedure:
I. Measurement of fringe width (β)
1) Find the least count of micrometer attached with eyepiece.
2) Place the eyepiece at a larger distance from Biprism where the fringes are distinct, bright and widely spaced.
3) The crosswire is moved on one side of the fringes to avoid backlash error. Now the cross wire is fixed at the
center of a bright fringe and its reading is noted.
4) The crosswire is now moved and fixed at the center of every second bright fringe and their readings are noted.
5) The difference between two consecutive bright fringe readings gives width of fringe β.
II. Measurement of S
1) Without disturbing the adjustments replace the
sodium light source with a white light source. Mica sheet

2) Place the crosswire of eyepiece at central white S

fringe and note down its reading
3) Introducing a thin mica sheet in one of the
interfering beams as show in figure. Due to
introduction of mica sheet, the central white fringe D

is shifted. Again set the cross wire on white fringe

and take its reading.
4) The difference between these two readings gives the vale of S.
Observations:
Least count of micrometer of eye piece –
Value of one division of main scale on micrometer = ________ mm
Total number of division on vernier scale =_________
Least count of the micrometer piece =_________mm

Wavelength of incident light = 5000 Å

(average wavelength is considered since white light is used)

Table for fringe width β

Micrometer Micrometer
Difference for 10 Fringe width
Fringe reading reading Mean for 10
fringes (mean/10)
no. Total Total fringes
MS VS MS VS (a – b) cms
cm (a) cm (b)
1
2
3
8 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

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Table for S
Position of central white fringe without mica Position of central white fringe with mica Difference
S.No. Mean S in cm
MS VS Total (a) MS VS Total (b) (b-a)
1
2
3

Calculations
Calculate the thickness of mica sheet using above given formula.
Result:
The thickness of mica sheet is found to be _________ mm.
Precautions:
• Place the Biprism normal to the axis.
• All should be in optical line of sight

Viva –
1. What is biprism?
2. On what factor does the fringe width depends?
3. What will happen if monochromatic light source is replaced by white light source?
4. How thickness of mica sheet is measured by biprism?
5. What is lateral shift?

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Experiment No – 08
Object:
To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s ring.

Apparatus required:
A Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, optical arrangement for Newton’s ring, plane glass plate, sodium lamp
and traveling microscope.

Microscope

Glass plate inclined at

45°

Convex lens
Slit
Sodium lamp

Plano-convex lens

Air wedge film

Glass plate

Formula used:
The wave length of light is given by

D 2n + p − D 2n
λ= ,
4pR
where
Dn+p = diameter of (n+p)th ring,
Dn = diameter of nth ring,
p = an integer number (of the ring) and
R = radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens.

Procedure:
I. Measurement of diameter of rings (Dn)
2) Focus the eyepiece on the crosswire and move the microscope in the vertical plane
by means of rack and pinion arrangement till the rings are quite distinct.
3) According to theory, the center of the interference fringes should be dark but
sometime the center appears white. This is due to the presence of dust particles
between plane glass plate and Plano-convex lens. In this case lens and plate should
be cleaned again.
Dn

Dn+p
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4) Move the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes. Fix up the crosswire tangential to the
ring and note this reading. Again the microscope is moved in the horizontal plane and the cross wire is fixed
tangentially to the successive bright fringes noting the vernier readings till the other side is reached.
II. Measurement of radius of curvature (R)

l2 h
R= + ,
6h 2
where
l = distance between the two legs of spherometer,
h = difference between readings of spherometer when it is placed on the lens as well as when laced on plane surface.

Observations:
Least count of traveling microscope–
Value of one division of main scale = ________ cm
Total number of division on vernier scale =_________
Least count of the microscope =_________cm
Radius of curvature of planoconvex lens =_________cm (for l = 3 cm and h = 10mm)

Table for diameter of rings

Left end reading Right end reading Diameter Mean value

Diameter D D 2n + p − D 2n
Fringe no. MS VS Total MS VS Total Dn 2
D 2n + p − D 2n P
(a-b) cm in cm 2
(mm) (mm) (a) mm (mm) (mm) (b) mm in cm2 in cm2
5
7
…

21

Calculations
1. Calculate wave length using observed values of diameter and radius of curvature by using above formula

2. Also, plot the graph between ring number and the values of D 2n and by the slope of the curve find the slope of curve.

Slop of the line

3. Calculate the wavelength by using λ =
4R
Result:
The wave length of sodium light is found to be _________Å from observed

values and ________Å from graph.

The standard wavelength of sodium light is λst = __________ Å  Dn2

⎛ λ − λ ob ⎞
The % error is found to be ⎜⎜ st × 100 ⎟⎟% = _____________ %
⎝ λ st ⎠

n
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Precautions:
• Clean both planoconvex lens and plane glass plate.
• Light should fall normally to the planoconvex lens
• Take the observation from left to right side or right to left side from outer most ring to inner most and continue toward
other side from inner most to outer most, to remove backlash error.
• Do not take observation from centre to left and then right or vice versa.
Viva –
1. Are the Newton’s fringes equi-spaced?
2. Can interference be observed by two independent light bulbs? If not, why?
3. How does interference take place in the case of Newton’s rings?
4. Is the center of the pattern, where the pieces of glass touch, bright due to Constructive interference or dark due to
Destructive interference?
5. On what factors does the diameter of a ring depend?
6. Sometime the center becomes bright, why?
7. Sometimes these rings are elliptical or distorted, why?
8. Suppose you create a Newton’s rings pattern with red light. Now you switch to green light will the rings in the Pattern
be larger, smaller, or remain the same size?
9. What are interference fringes?
10. What are Newton’s rings?
11. What is order of ring at the center, in Newtown’s ring experiment and Michelson Interferometer experiment?
12. What is the basic difference in the principle of Newtown’s rings and Michelson rings?
13. What is the difference between the rings observed by reflected light and those observed by transmitted light?
14. What is the necessity of choosing a broaden source in this experiment?
15. What is the smallest division that can be read on each scale of Newton’s’ ring apparatus?
16. What type of spectrum is emitted by the sodium lamp?
17. What will happen if the glass plate is replaced by a plane mirror?
18. What will happen if the lens and glass plate is not in contact?
19. What will happen when a little drop of water is introduced in between the Plano-convex lens and the plate?
20. What will happen when sodium lamp is replaced by white light source?
21. Where are the fringes located? Why they are called localized fringes?
22. Why do the rings get closer and finer as we move away from the center?
23. Why is that the glass plate in Newton’s rings experiment inclined at 45 degrees?
24. Why the Newton’s are rings circular? Why these fringes called fringes of equal thickness?
25. Can thickness of mica sheet be measured by Newton’s ring experiment? If so, why?

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Experiment No – 09 (a)
Object:
To determine the coherent length and coherent time of laser using He-Ne / diode Laser

Apparatus required:
Laser source (He –Ne / Diode Laser) (red λ = 6328A / 67000A), laser power supply, spectrometer without collimator and
telescope, laser detector (crystal diode), miliammeter, connection wires.

Formula used:
The coherence length is given by Laser source

λ2
lc = , 45°
Δλ angle
And coherent time
Grating
l Detector
τc = c
c Prism table

where mA

Δλ = variance observed in the wavelength

c = velocity of light
Adjustment
1) Connect the detector with ammeter.
2) Height of laser source and detector should be equal.
3) The spectrometer should be leveled by using sprit level.
4) The laser rays should be incident perpendicular on the diffraction 2nd
2nd
Order
Order
grating i.e. setting of grating shold be done so that incidence is
normal to it. Adjustment for grating 1st Order 1st Order
I. Laser source and detector are arranged in a line in such a way Zero
Order
that maximum power is received at detector; the reading is
noted by either of verniers.
II. The detector is now rotated by 90°.
III. Mount the grating on the prism table and rotate the prism table so that the reflected ray gives again maximum
power output at detector. Take the reading of the verniers.
IV. Turn the prism table from this position through 45° or 135°. In this position the grating is normal to the
incident beam.
5) Do not see the laser directly.
Procedure:
1) After adjusting grating normal to the axis of the source, maximum power output is obtained.
2) Rotate the telescope to the left side of the direct ray till again maximum current is observed. Note down the readings
of both the verniers.
3) Rotate the telescope further to obtain the second order maxima and again note the readings of each color.
4) Now rotate the telescope to another side of direct image and repeat the procedure.

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Observations:
Least count of ammeter = ________ μA

Least count of spectrometer–

Value of one division of main scale = ________ degree
Total number of division on vernier scale =_________
Least count of the spectrometer =_________ seconds

No. of rulings per inch on he grating, N = ________

Reading of telescope for direct image = ________
Reading of telescope after rotating it through 90° = ________
Reading of circular scale when reflected image is obtained on the crosswire = ________
(After placing grating)
Reading after rotating the prism table through 45° or 135° = ________
Reading of telescope after again rotating it through 90° = ________

Table for angle of diffraction

Power output Spectrometer reading on left Spectrometer reading on
2θ = (c – d)
received side right side
Mean θ degree
Order (mA) Vernier
MS VS Total in MS VS Total (V1+V2)/2
Total degree
degree sec degree (c) degree sec degree (d)

V1
First order

θ1
V2

V1
Second order

θ2
V2

V1
Third order

θ3
V2

Calculations
Grating element (a+b) = 2.54/N = _______ per cm, where N = number of ruling per inch on the grating

The wavelength of incident laser light for first order diffraction (n = 1) is calculated by
λ1 = (a+b) sinθ1 = ______________ A

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Similarly, wavelengths for second order (n = 2) and third order diffraction are calculated by
λ2 = [(a+b) sinθ2]/2 = ______________ A
λ3 = [(a+b) sinθ3]/2 = ______________ A

Mean wavelength

λ=
(λ1 + λ2 + λ3 )
3

Coherent lengths –

l c1 =
λ2 (λ1 + λ2 )
=
2
(λ + λ2 ) , Δλ = λ − λ
, λ= 1
Δλ 4( λ1 − λ2 )
1 2
2

λ2 (λ2 + λ3 )
2

lc 2 = =
Δλ 4( λ2 − λ3 )

λ2 (λ1 + λ3 )
2

= =
Δλ 4( λ1 − λ3 )
lc3

Mean coherent length l c =

(l c 1 + l c 2 + l c 3 ) (in A)
3
lc
Therefore mean coherent time τc = (in sec)
c
Result:
The wavelengths of laser obtained by diffraction grating is λ = ____________________ A
The coherent length of given laser is found to be lc = ________________A
The coherent time is found to be = ____________ sec
Precautions:
• Do not see the laser by necked eyes.
• Spectrometer table should be leveled well.
Viva –
1. What do you mean by coherence?
2. What do you mean by spatial coherence?
3. What do you mean by temporal coherence?
4. What do you mean by population inversion?
5. Are natural sources shows coherency?
6. How coherency depends on visibility?
7. What is relation between coherence time and frequency band (spectral band)?
8. Define stimulated emission?
9. What do you mean by angular divergence in terms of LASER?
10. What do you mean by coherent length?
11. What do you mean by coherent time?
12. What is the LASER?
13. Write the properties of LASER?
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Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha MITS, Jadan [Pali] Page 34 of 37

Experiment No – 09 (b)
Object:
To determine the coherent length and coherent time of laser using He-Ne Laser

Apparatus required:
Laser source (He –Ne) (red λ = 6328AA) with laser power supply, Optical Bench, riders, Graph paper with screen,
Transmission Diffraction Grating.

Formula used:
The coherence length is given by

λ2
lc = ,
Δλ
And coherent time
2nd
lc 2nd
τc = Order
Order
c
where 1st Order 1st Order

Δλ = variance observed in the wavelength Zero

Order
c = velocity of light
Adjustment
1) Make the setup as shown in figure.
y˝ y′
2) Keep the height of laser source in optical level with
grating.
3) Do not see the laser directly.
Procedure:
1) After adjusting grating normal to the axis of the source,
y˝ y′
diffraction pattern in terms of small dots appeared on graph
paper / screen.
2) Mark these points by pencil on graph paper.

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Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha MITS, Jadan [Pali] Page 35 of 37

3) The central intense point is 0th order of diffraction (Central Maxima) and the other points are first and second
maxima on either side of central maxima.
4) Take distances of these points from central maxima i.e. y′ and ˝ (in cm).
5) Take the reading of distance between grating and screen (between two riders) i.e. x (in cm).
6) Now, change the distance between grating and screen by varying position of grating rider.
7) Repeat the procedure for different value of x.

Observations:
Least count of optical bench = ________ mm
Least count of graph paper = ________ mm

No. of rulings on the grating, N = ________ per mm

Grating element (a+b) = 1/N = _______ per mm, where N = number of ruling per mm on the grating

Second
order

y′
First order

y
′
θ

Laser source
θ
y˝
Grating
First order

y˝

Second
order

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Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha MITS, Jadan [Pali] Page 36 of 37

Observation Table

maxima from maxima from Angle of

Distance
central central Mean diffraction
λ=
(a + b ) sin θ Mean
Order between grating
and screen
maxima maxima
Y=
(Y ′ + Y ′′) ⎛Y ⎞ n λ
X (in cm)
on right side on left side 2 θ = tan ⎜ −1
⎟ in Å in Å
Y′ (in cm) Y˝ (in cm) ⎝X⎠
First order

λ1
Second order

λ2

Calculations
Grating element (a+b) = 2.54/N = _______ per cm, where N = number of ruling per inch on the grating

The wavelength of incident laser light for first order diffraction (n = 1) is calculated by
λ1 = (a+b) sinθ1 = ______________ A

Similarly, wavelengths for second order (n = 2) diffraction are calculated by

λ2 = [(a+b) sinθ2]/2 = ______________ A

Mean wavelength of both orders

λ=
(λ1 + λ2 ) ,
2
Difference of wavelength of two orders

Δλ = λ1 − λ2

λ2 lc
Calculate (i) Coherent length lc = (in Å) and (ii) mean coherent time τc = (in sec)
Δλ c

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Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha MITS, Jadan [Pali] Page 37 of 37

Result:
The wavelengths of laser obtained by diffraction grating is λ = ____________________ Å
The coherent length of given laser is found to be lc = ________________ Å
The coherent time is found to be τc = ____________ sec
Precautions:
• Do not see the laser by necked eyes.
• Optical bench should be leveled well.
Viva –
1. What do you mean by coherence?
2. What do you mean by spatial coherence?
3. What do you mean by temporal coherence?
4. What do you mean by population inversion?
5. Are natural sources shows coherency?
6. How coherency depends on visibility?
7. What is relation between coherence time and frequency band (spectral band)?
8. Define stimulated emission?
9. What do you mean by angular divergence in terms of LASER?
10. What do you mean by coherent length?
11. What do you mean by coherent time?
12. What is the LASER?
13. Write the properties of LASER?

37