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The pressure in the cylinder varies throughout the cycle and the variation can be
expressed with respect to volume or crank angle rotation to obtain p-V or p-θ
diagrams respectively. However, such a continuous variation does not readily lend
itself to simple mathematical analysis in the computation of ip. If an average pressure
for one cycle can be used, then the computation becomes far less difficult.
As the piston moves back and forth between TDC and BDC (Fig.1), the process
lines on the p-V diagram indicate the successive states of the working fluid through
the cycle. The indicated net work of the cycle is represented by the area 1234
enclosed by the process lines for that cycle. If the area of rectangle ABCD equals area
1234 the vertical distance between the horizontal lines AB and CD represents the
indicated mean effective pressure, imep. It is a mean value expressed in N/m2, which,
when multiplied by the displacement volume, Vs, gives the same indicated net work
as is actually produced with the varying pressures.
pim × (V1 − V2 ) = Net work of cycle
(1)
Net work of cycle Area of the indicator diagram
⇒ pim = =
V1 − V2 Length of the indicator diagram
On an actual engine, the p-V diagram (called the indicator diagram) is obtained
by a mechanical or electrical instrument attached to the cylinder taking into
consideration the spring constant. The area enclosed by the actual cycle on the
indicator card may be measured by a Planimeter. The value of the area measured,
when divided by the piston displacement, results in the mean ordinate, or indicated
mean effective pressure, pim .
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. In the analysis of cycles the net work
is expressed in kJ/kg of air. This may be converted to power by multiplying by the
mass flow rate of air through the engine in kg per unit time. Since, the net work
obtained from the p-V diagram is the net work produced in the cylinder as measured
by an indicator diagram, the power based there on is termed indicated power, ip .
pim and given engine operating conditions. The necessary formula may be developed
from the equation of net work based on the mean effective pressure and piston
displacement. From eq.3.1,
Indicated net work/cycle = pimVs
By definition,
Indicated power = Indicated net work × cycles/s
p V nK p LAnK (3)
ip = im s = im kW
1000 × 60 60000
where,
ip = indicated power (kW)
pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N/m 2 )
L = length of the stroke (m)
A = area of the piston (m 2 ) K = number of cylinders
N = speed in revolution per minute
n = number of power strokes per minute, it is N/ 2 for a four - stroke engine
N for a two - stroke engine
Indicated power is based on indicated net work and is thus a measure of the
forces developed within the cylinder. More practical interest is the rotational force
available at the delivery point, at the engine crankshaft, and the power corresponding
to it. This power is interchangeably referred to as brake power, shaft power or
delivered power, it is the power actually delivered by the engine.
The brake power is usually measured by attaching a power absorption device to
the drive-shaft of the engine. Such a device sets up measurable forces counteracting
the forces delivered by the engine, and the determined value of these measured forces
is indicative of the forces being delivered.
By using the geometry of a simple prony brake as the basis, a formula can now be
developed for computing the bp delivered by an engine. Work has been defined as
the product of a force and the distance through which the point of application of force
moves. Then the drive-shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any point on
the periphery of the rigidly attached wheel moves through a distance equal to 2π r
(Fig.2). During this movement, a friction force, f is acting against the wheel. The
force, f is thus acting through the distance 2π r, and producing work. Thus,
Work during one revolution = Distance × Force = (2π r × f) (4)
The torque, rf, produced by the drive-shaft is opposed by a turning moment equal
to the product of the length of the moment arm R and the force F measured by the
scale
T = rf = RF (5)
Indicated mean effective pressure may be considered to consist of fmep and bmep,
two hypothetical pressures. Friction mean effective pressure is that portion of imep
which is required to overcome friction losses, and brake mean effective pressure is the
portion which produces the useful power delivered by the engine.
imep = bmep + fmep (10)
Since bmep is that portion of imep which goes into the development of useful
power, it has the same relationship to bp as imep has to ip, or
bmep bp
= (11)
imep ip
Similar to the expression of ip in equation (3.3), bp can also be expressed as
pbm LAnK
bp = (12)
60000
And due to the same relationship, the mechanical efficiency, η m of the engine
Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit piston
area and is a measure of the engine designer’s success in using the available piston
area regardless of cylinder size. The specific power can be shown to be proportional
to the product of the mean effective pressure and mean piston speed.
Specific power output, Ps = bp / A (14)
defined as
s p = 2 LN (15)
where L is the stroke and N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft in rpm. It may be
noted that s p is often a more appropriate parameter than crank rotational speed for
operate at the higher end and large marine diesel engines at the lower end of this
range of piston speeds.
2
u Ap V p b Vp
And, = = =Z (18)
α Ai Ciα Di C i α
Where b is cylinder diameter,
Di is inlet valve diameter,
Vp is mean piston speed
α is inlet sonic velocity
Ci is inlet valve average flow co-efficient
Large number of experiments has been conducted on CFR single cylinder engine
with gaseous mixtures and short induction pipe lengths, at fixed valve timing and
fixed compression ratio, but varying inlet valve diameter and lift. The results are quite
revealing as regards the relationship of volumetric efficiency versus Mach index are
concerned. From Fig.3, it can be seen that the maximum volumetric efficiency is
obtainable for an inlet Mach number of 0.55. Therefore, engine designers much take
care of this factor to get the maximum volumetric efficiency for their engines.
Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, ip, to
the input fuel energy in appropriate units.
ip [kJ/s ]
h ith =
Energy in fuel per second [kJ/s ]
(19)
ip
=
mass of fuel/s × calorific value of fuel
fp = ip − bp
This is one of the very important parameters which decides the performance of
four-stroke engines. Four-stroke engines have distinct suction stroke and therefore the
volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be noted
that the utilization of the air is what going to determine the power output of the engine.
Hence, an engine must be able to take in as much air as possible.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn into
the engine during a given period of time to the theoretical mass which should have
been drawn in during that same period of time, based upon the total piston
displacement of the engine.
m a m a
hv = = (22)
m th ρ aVs n
Where, m a is the actual mass of air, Vs is the displacement volume of the engine, n
is the number of intake strokes per minute. For a four-stroke engine n=N/2 and for a
two-stroke engine n=N, where N is the speed of the engine in rev/min. The actual
mass is a measured quantity. The theoretical mass is computed from the geometry of
the cylinder, the number of cylinders, and the speed of the engine, in conjunction with
the density of the surrounding atmosphere.