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2.

Internal combustion engine performance parameters

Internal combustion engine generally operates within a useful range of speed. At


each speed within the useful range the power output varies and it has a maximum
usable value. The ratio of power developed to the maximum usable power at the same
speed is called the load. The specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed.
The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between power
developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within
the useful range of speed and load.
The following factors are to be considered in evaluating the performance of an
engine:
(i) Maximum power or torque available at each speed within the useful range of
speed.
(ii) The range of power output at constant speed for stable operation of the engine.
The different speeds should be selected at equal intervals within the useful
speed range.
(iii) Brake specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within the useful
range of operation.
(iv) Reliability and durability of the engine for the given range of operation.
Engine performance characteristics can be determined by the following two
methods.
(i) By using experimental results obtained from engine tests.
(ii) By analytical calculation based on theoretical data.
Engine performance is really a relative term. It is represented by typical
characteristic curves which are functions of engine operating parameters. The term
performance usually means how well an engine is doing its job in relation to the input
energy or how effectively it provides useful energy in relation to some other
comparable engines.
2.1 Engine power
In general, the energy flow through the engine is expressed in three distinct terms.
They are indicated power ip, friction power fp and brake power bp. Indicated power
can be computed from the measurement of forces in the cylinder and brake power
may be computed from the measurement of forces at the crankshaft of the engine. The
friction power can be estimated by motoring the engine or other methods. It can also
be calculated as the difference between the ip and bp if these two are known.

2.1.1 Indicated mean effective pressure ( pim )

The pressure in the cylinder varies throughout the cycle and the variation can be
expressed with respect to volume or crank angle rotation to obtain p-V or p-θ
diagrams respectively. However, such a continuous variation does not readily lend
itself to simple mathematical analysis in the computation of ip. If an average pressure
for one cycle can be used, then the computation becomes far less difficult.

Fig.1 p-V diagram of a four-stroke engine

As the piston moves back and forth between TDC and BDC (Fig.1), the process
lines on the p-V diagram indicate the successive states of the working fluid through
the cycle. The indicated net work of the cycle is represented by the area 1234
enclosed by the process lines for that cycle. If the area of rectangle ABCD equals area
1234 the vertical distance between the horizontal lines AB and CD represents the
indicated mean effective pressure, imep. It is a mean value expressed in N/m2, which,
when multiplied by the displacement volume, Vs, gives the same indicated net work
as is actually produced with the varying pressures.
pim × (V1 − V2 ) = Net work of cycle
(1)
Net work of cycle Area of the indicator diagram
⇒ pim = =
V1 − V2 Length of the indicator diagram
On an actual engine, the p-V diagram (called the indicator diagram) is obtained
by a mechanical or electrical instrument attached to the cylinder taking into
consideration the spring constant. The area enclosed by the actual cycle on the
indicator card may be measured by a Planimeter. The value of the area measured,
when divided by the piston displacement, results in the mean ordinate, or indicated
mean effective pressure, pim .

2.1.2 Indicated power ( ip )

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. In the analysis of cycles the net work
is expressed in kJ/kg of air. This may be converted to power by multiplying by the
mass flow rate of air through the engine in kg per unit time. Since, the net work
obtained from the p-V diagram is the net work produced in the cylinder as measured
by an indicator diagram, the power based there on is termed indicated power, ip .

ip = m a × net work (2)

where m a is in kg/s, net work is in kJ/kg of air and ip is in kW.

In working with actual engines, it is often desirable to compute ip from a given

pim and given engine operating conditions. The necessary formula may be developed

from the equation of net work based on the mean effective pressure and piston
displacement. From eq.3.1,
Indicated net work/cycle = pimVs

By definition,
Indicated power = Indicated net work × cycles/s
p V nK p LAnK (3)
ip = im s = im kW
1000 × 60 60000
where,
ip = indicated power (kW)
pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N/m 2 )
L = length of the stroke (m)
A = area of the piston (m 2 ) K = number of cylinders
N = speed in revolution per minute
n = number of power strokes per minute, it is N/ 2 for a four - stroke engine
N for a two - stroke engine

2.1.3 Brake power ( bp )

Indicated power is based on indicated net work and is thus a measure of the
forces developed within the cylinder. More practical interest is the rotational force
available at the delivery point, at the engine crankshaft, and the power corresponding
to it. This power is interchangeably referred to as brake power, shaft power or
delivered power, it is the power actually delivered by the engine.
The brake power is usually measured by attaching a power absorption device to
the drive-shaft of the engine. Such a device sets up measurable forces counteracting
the forces delivered by the engine, and the determined value of these measured forces
is indicative of the forces being delivered.
By using the geometry of a simple prony brake as the basis, a formula can now be
developed for computing the bp delivered by an engine. Work has been defined as

the product of a force and the distance through which the point of application of force
moves. Then the drive-shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any point on
the periphery of the rigidly attached wheel moves through a distance equal to 2π r
(Fig.2). During this movement, a friction force, f is acting against the wheel. The
force, f is thus acting through the distance 2π r, and producing work. Thus,
Work during one revolution = Distance × Force = (2π r × f) (4)

Fig.2 Adaptation of Prony Brake for power measurement

The torque, rf, produced by the drive-shaft is opposed by a turning moment equal
to the product of the length of the moment arm R and the force F measured by the
scale
T = rf = RF (5)

Work during one revolution =2πRF


Work N
Power = = 2πRF (6)
Time 60
where, N is the revolutions per minute of the drive-shaft. Therefore,
2pRFN
bp = kW (7)
60 × 1000
It should be noted that N is the rpm of the engine. The friction force is acting
during every revolution of the crankshaft, regardless of whether or not that revolution
contains a power stroke.
The product of the moment are R and the measured force, F is termed the torque
of the engine and is usually expressed in Nm. Torque, T is the uniform or fluctuating
turning moment, or twist, exerted by a tangential force acting at a distance from the
axis of rotation. For an engine operating at a given speed and delivering a given
power, the torque must be a fixed amount, or the product of F and R must be constant
(T=FR). In such a case, if R is decreased, F will increase proportionately and vice
versa.
The brake power, bp, can also be written as
2pNT
bp = kW (8)
60000
In practice, the length of the moment arm R of the measuring equipment is so
designed that the value of the constants 2π and the constant R and 60000 combine to
give a convenient number (i.e., in thousands and ten-thousands) in order to simplify
computations.
FN FN
bp = = (9)
60000 / 2pR C1

In order to have C1=10000, R should be 0.955 m.


It should be noted that the torque is the capacity of an engine to do work while
power is the rate at which an engine does work. A simple example is that a tractor
pulling a given load. The torque developed will determine whether or not the tractor is
capable of pulling the load, and the power delivered will determine how fast the load
can be pulled.

2.1.4 Brake mean effective pressure ( pbm )

Indicated mean effective pressure may be considered to consist of fmep and bmep,
two hypothetical pressures. Friction mean effective pressure is that portion of imep
which is required to overcome friction losses, and brake mean effective pressure is the
portion which produces the useful power delivered by the engine.
imep = bmep + fmep (10)

Since bmep is that portion of imep which goes into the development of useful
power, it has the same relationship to bp as imep has to ip, or
bmep bp
= (11)
imep ip
Similar to the expression of ip in equation (3.3), bp can also be expressed as
pbm LAnK
bp = (12)
60000

Where pbm is brake mean effective pressure (N/m2).

And due to the same relationship, the mechanical efficiency, η m of the engine

can be expressed as the ratio of bmep to imep.


bp bmep
ηm = = (13)
ip imep
It should be noted that for a given engine operating under given conditions, the
torque developed is proportional to the bmep. This relationship can be obtained by
equating Eq.8 and Eq.12.
Brake mean effective pressure is very useful in comparing engines or in
establishing engine operating limits.

2.1.5 Specific power output ( Ps )

Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit piston
area and is a measure of the engine designer’s success in using the available piston
area regardless of cylinder size. The specific power can be shown to be proportional
to the product of the mean effective pressure and mean piston speed.
Specific power output, Ps = bp / A (14)

2.2 Mean piston speed


An important parameter in engine applications is the mean piston speed, s p . It is

defined as
s p = 2 LN (15)

where L is the stroke and N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft in rpm. It may be
noted that s p is often a more appropriate parameter than crank rotational speed for

correlating engine behaviour as a function of speed.


Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the moving
parts limit the maximum value of s p to within 8 to 15 m/s. Automobile engines

operate at the higher end and large marine diesel engines at the lower end of this
range of piston speeds.

2.3 Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio


The relative properties of the fuel and air in the engine are very important from
the standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine. This is expressed either
as a ratio of the mass of the fuel to that of the air or vice versa.
In the SI engine the fuel-air ratio practically remains a constant over a wide range
of operation. In CI engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with load; it is
the fuel flow that varies directly with load. Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is
generally used instead of air-fuel ratio.
A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in
the mixture is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio. A mixture
having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as rich mixture
and a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air) is called a lean mixture. The ratio
of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called equivalence ratio and is
denoted by φ .
Actual fuel - air ratio
f= (16)
Stoichiometric fuel - air raio
Accordingly, φ = 1 means stoichiometric (chemically correct) mixture, φ < 1

means lean mixture and φ > 1 means rich mixture.

2.4 Inlet valve Mach index (Z)


In a reciprocating engine the flow of intake charge takes place through the intake
valve opening which is varying during the induction operation. Also, the maximum
gas velocity through this area is limited by the local sonic velocity. Thus gas velocity
is finally chosen by the following equation,
Ap
u= Vp (17)
Ci Ai
Where, u is gas velocity through the inlet valve at smallest flow area
Ap is the piston area
Ai is nominal intake valve opening area

Ci is inlet valve flow co-efficient

2
u Ap V p b  Vp
And, = =   =Z (18)
α Ai Ciα  Di  C i α
Where b is cylinder diameter,
Di is inlet valve diameter,
Vp is mean piston speed
α is inlet sonic velocity
Ci is inlet valve average flow co-efficient

Z is inlet valve Mach index


Fig.3 Volumetric efficiency vs inlet valve Mach index

Large number of experiments has been conducted on CFR single cylinder engine
with gaseous mixtures and short induction pipe lengths, at fixed valve timing and
fixed compression ratio, but varying inlet valve diameter and lift. The results are quite
revealing as regards the relationship of volumetric efficiency versus Mach index are
concerned. From Fig.3, it can be seen that the maximum volumetric efficiency is
obtainable for an inlet Mach number of 0.55. Therefore, engine designers much take
care of this factor to get the maximum volumetric efficiency for their engines.

2.5 IC engine efficiency


Apart from expressing engine performance in terms of power, it is also essential to
express in terms of efficiencies. Various efficiencies are introduced below.
2.5.1 Indicated thermal efficiency (h ith )

Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, ip, to
the input fuel energy in appropriate units.
ip [kJ/s ]
h ith =
Energy in fuel per second [kJ/s ]
(19)
ip
=
mass of fuel/s × calorific value of fuel

2.5.2 Brake thermal efficiency (h bth )


Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power, bp, to the input
fuel energy in appropriate units.
bp
h bth = (20)
mass of fuel/s × calorific value of fuel

2.5.3 Mechanical efficiency (η m )

Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to


the indicated power (power provided to the piston).
bp bp
ηm = = (21)
ip bp + fp

fp = ip − bp

Where, fp is the frictional power.

2.5.4 Volumetric efficiency (η v )

This is one of the very important parameters which decides the performance of
four-stroke engines. Four-stroke engines have distinct suction stroke and therefore the
volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be noted
that the utilization of the air is what going to determine the power output of the engine.
Hence, an engine must be able to take in as much air as possible.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn into
the engine during a given period of time to the theoretical mass which should have
been drawn in during that same period of time, based upon the total piston
displacement of the engine.
m a m a
hv = = (22)
m th ρ aVs n

Where, m a is the actual mass of air, Vs is the displacement volume of the engine, n

is the number of intake strokes per minute. For a four-stroke engine n=N/2 and for a
two-stroke engine n=N, where N is the speed of the engine in rev/min. The actual
mass is a measured quantity. The theoretical mass is computed from the geometry of
the cylinder, the number of cylinders, and the speed of the engine, in conjunction with
the density of the surrounding atmosphere.

2.5.5 Relative efficiency


The relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as it is sometimes called is the ratio of
the actual efficiency obtained from an engine to the theorectical efficiency of the
engine cycle. Hence,
Actual brake thermal efficiency
Relative efficiency =
Air standard efficiency
Relative efficiency for most of the engines varies from 75 to 95%.

2.5.6 Air-Standard efficiency


The air-standard efficiency is also known as thermodynamic efficiency. It is
mainly a function of compression ratio and other parameters. It gives the upper limit
of the efficiency obtainable from an engine.

2.5.7 Scavenging efficiency


In case of two-stroke engines, scavenging efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
amount of air or gas-air mixture, which remains in the cylinder, at the actual
beginning of the compression to the product of the total volume and air density of the
inlet. Scavenging efficiency for most of the two-stroke engines varies from 40 to 95
per cent depending on the type of scavenging provided.

2.5.8 Combustion efficiency


Combustion efficiency is the ratio of heat liberated to the theoretical heat in the
fuel. The amount of heat liberated is less than the theoretical value because of
incomplete combustion either due to dissociation or due to lack of available oxygen.
Combustion efficiency in a well adjusted engine varies from 92% to 97%.

2.5.9 Specific fuel consumption

Specific fuel consumption is defined as the fuel consumption per KW power


generation, and it can be classified into two types, namely, brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) and indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC).

BSFC=fuel consumption per unit time/brake power (bp)

ISFC=fuel consumption per unit time/indicated power (ip)

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