UPCAT REVIEW 2014: Mathematics

BEGINNING ALGEBRA
A. SETS
- Finite or infinite collection of objects where order are not significant

 Symbols used:
 (element) - members of a set
 (subset) - set that is a part of a larger set
 (union) - contains all the elements that belong to either sets or both
 ( intersection) - contains only elements that belong to both sets
‘ (complement) – a set which contains all the elements not included in a certain set
{} or ø(empty or null set or void set) – does not contain any elements

B. NUMBERS
Any mathematical object used to represent a count, label and measure

 Real Number System

 Real numbers
- Include all rational numbers (integers, fractions) and irrational numbers
- Highest set of numbers
 Natural numbers
- Include all positive integers
- eg. 1, 2, 3, .......
 Whole numbers
- Include all natural numbers and zero
- eg. 0, 1, 2, 3, ......
 Rational numbers
- Number that can be written as the quotient of the integers , where is not 0
- Can appear in the form of a decimal and fraction
- eg. , 5.5
 Irrational numbers
- any number that is not rational
- In decimal form, these numbers can go on forever and the same patterns of digits are
not repeated
- eg. ,π
 Integers
- Include all positive and negative natural numbers including zero
- eg. -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

 Complex Numbers
Complex numbers
- Numbers which have a real and imaginary part
- It is of the form

C. PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS

 Properties of Real Numbers

Addition: If a=b, then a+c=b+c

Subtraction: If a=b, then a-c=b-c.

Multiplication: If a=b, then ca=cb.

Division: If a=b, and c  0 , then a  b .
 c c
Distributive: If a b  c   a  b  a  c and a  b  a  c  a b  c 


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Substitution: If a+b=c and b=d, then a+d=c.


Reflexive: a=a.

Symmetric: If a=b, then b=a.

Transitive: If a=b, and b=c, then a=c.


Note: Additive Identity Multiplicative Identity

The sum of any number and zero is the The product of any number and one is
The sum of any number and zero is the The product of any number and one is
number itself. the number itself.
number itself. the number itself.
a+0=a ax1=a
a+0=a ax1=a

D. OPERATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

 Addition and Subtraction- to add or subtract two complex numbers, you add or subtract the
real parts and imaginary parts separately

 Multiplication – use this formula to multiply two complex numbers:

(a + bi) * (c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i.

E. ORDER OF OPERATIONS ON REAL NUMBERS

First, perform the operations within each pair of grouping symbols

First, perform the operations
and within
braces)each pair of with
grouping symbols pair.
(parentheses, brackets beginning the innermost
(parentheses, brackets and braces) beginning with the innermost pair.
Next, perform multiplication and division as they occur from left to
Next,
right.perform multiplication and division as they occur from left to
right.
Last, perform addition and subtraction as they occur from left to right.
Last, perform addition and subtraction as they occur from left to right.

Remember : PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition,

Subtraction)

F. DIVISIBILITY RULE

Number Conditions Examples

Divisible by
2 The last digit is an even number: 0, 2, 4, 6, 752, 300678, 890
8
3 The sum of all the digits of the number is 5673
divisible by 3. 5+6+7+3 = 21
21 ÷ 3 = 7
4 The last two digits of the number is 7624
divisible by 4. 24 ÷ 4 = 6
5 The last digit of the number is 0 or 5. 534,670
735
6 The sum of all the digits of the number is 8862
divisible by 3 and the last digit is zero or an 8+8+6+2 = 24
even number. 24 ÷ 3 = 8
last digit, 2, is even
7 Double the value of the last digit and 385
subtract the result from the rest of the 38 – (2 × 5) = 28

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number. The answer is divisible by 7. 28 ÷ 7 = 4

8 The last three digits of a number is 1800
divisible by 8. 800 ÷ 8 = 100
9 The sum of all the digits of the number is 378
divisible by 9. 3 + 7 + 8 = 18
18 ÷ 9 = 2
10 The last digit is 0 8740
11 Alternately subtract and add the digits 143
from left to right. If the result (including 0) 1-4+3=0
is divisible by 11, the number is also 143÷11=13
divisible by 11.
12 If the number is divisible by both 3 and 4, 108
it is also divisible by 12. 1+0+8=9 ; 8 is
divisible by 4
108÷12=9
13 Delete the last digit from the number, and 195
then subtract 9 times the deleted digit 5x9=45 ; 45-19=26
from the remaining number. If what is left 195÷13=15
is divisible by 13, then so is the original
number.

G. RULES OF EXPONENTS

 Positive Exponents - Repeated Multiplication

 The notation an for n> 0, means a multiplied by itself n times.

 For a quantity an, a is called the base and n is called the exponent or index.

 Negative Exponents

 When the exponent of a number is negative we rewrite it using the following rule:

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 Fractional Exponents

 Let us first consider fractional exponents of the form:

In general, we define:

 We will now consider fractional exponents of the form:

In general, we define:

 Zero Exponents
 Any number (except 0) raised to the zero power equals 1, for example:
3220= 1

H. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHM

1. log xy  log x  log y

x
2. log  log x  log y
y
3. log x 2  2 log x
log N
4. log b N 
log b

I.SEQUENCES
 Arithmetic Sequence -a sequence for which any element, except the first, can be obtained by adding
a constant to the preceding element,

The Nth element is given by: a N  a1  ( N  1)d

N
The sum of the first N elements is given by: SN  (a1  a N )
2

 Geometric Sequence - a sequence such that any element after the first can be obtained by
multiplying the preceding element by a constant.

The Nth element is given by: a N  a1 r N 1

a1  ra N
The sum of the first N elements is given by: SN 
1 r

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ADVANCED ALGEBRA
A. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
- a variable, a number or a collection of variables and numbers related by at least a fundamental
operation or grouping symbol
- ex: , ,
- Evaluating algebraic expressions: simply substitute the points to the given expression

EXAMPLE: Evaluate || if a = 2 and b=5.

| = |22 – 2(2)(5) – 3(5)2|

= |4 – 20 – 75|
= 91

B. EQUATIONS
- Statement that two algebraic expressions are equal

 Linear Equations
- Equations whose variables are of degree one
- ex:
 Standard form:
 Slope-intercept form:
Where m – slope of the line
b – y-intercept

rise changeiny y 2  y1
slope   
run changeinx x 2  x1

 Solving Linear equations:

a. Linear equation in one variable

- it is of the form:
- combine all similar terms then solve algebraically

EXAMPLE. Solve for the value of x given the

equation:

First, use the distributive property.

The equation now becomes:

Then, combine similar terms.

This will result to:

Solving this equation algebraically, we get .

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b. Linear equation in two variables

- can be solved using the elimination or substitution method

EXAMPLE. Solve for the value of x given the equations:

(1)
(2)

Using substitution method:

Rewriting eq. 1: Combining like terms:

Substituting to eq. 2: From this, we get: y=

Simplifying: Substituting this value to one of the equations, we get x=

EXAMPLE. Solve for the value of x given the equations:

(1)
(2)

Using elimination method:

To eliminate the variable y, multiply the eq. 1 by 2 and eq. 2 by -3.
Combining the remaining variables: , x=
Substituting to any of the two equations, we get y =

 Quadratic Equations
- second degree equations
- it is of the form , where a, b and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0
2 2
- ex: x + 5x +3, 7x + 4x + 8

 Solving Quadratic Equations

- can be solved using three methods: factoring, completing the square and using the
quadratic formula
 Factoring
- Finding the common factors of the equation
- Special Factors
o
Square of Sum: x2 + 2bx + b2 = (x + b)2
ex: x2 + 2x + 1 = ( x + 1 )2
x=-1
o
Square of Difference: x2 - 2bx + b2 = (x - b)2
ex: x2 - 2x + 1 = ( x - 1 )2
x=1
o
Difference of Two Squares: a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a - b)
ex: x2 – 25 = (x + 5) (x – 5)
x = 5, x = -5

o
Difference of Two Cubes: x 3  y 3  ( x  y )( x 2  xy  y 2 )
ex: x 3  8 y 3  ( x  2 y )( x 2  2 xy  2 y 2 )

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o
Perfect Square Trinomial: x 2  2 xy  y 2  ( x  y ) 2
ex: 144 x 2  120 xy  25 y 2  (12 x  5 y ) 2
 Completing the Square
- main task is to produce a perfect square trinomial on the left side of the quadratic
equation then, use the square root property
- to make an expression of the form x2 + bx a perfect square trinomial, add ( )2.

EXAMPLE:
What should be added to the expression x2 - x ?
b= To complete the square, the expression )2 =

 The Quadratic Formula:

The expression b 2  4ac is called the discriminant.

1. If b 2  4ac < 0; no real roots exist
2. If b 2  4ac = 0; the roots are real & equal
3. If b 2  4ac > 0; the roots are real & unequal

EXAMPLE: Solve for x in x2 + 9x + 14 = 0

Using the formula:

x = ; x = -2 and x = -7

C. RADICAL EXPRESSIONS
- Extensions of expressions involving exponents

 Finding the nth Root of a number

For each real number a,
= , if n is an odd integer
=| |, if n is an even integer

 Fractional Exponents
Let a be any real number, and n be a positive integer greater than 1. Then
= =

 Product Rule for Radicals

If a and b are non-negative real numbers then,
x =

 Quotient Rule of Radicals

If a and b then,

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D. RELATION AND FUNCTIONS

 Relation- a set of ordered pairs
 Domain- a set of all first elements
 Range- a set of all second elements of the ordered pairs
 Function- a set of ordered pairs in which no two ordered pairs have the same first element

 Notation of Functions
 The equation y = x + b can also be thought of as a function, where the value of y depends
on the value of x.
 Each value of x yields only one value of y.
y=x+bà f ( x )  x  b
Example:
Given f(x) = x2 + 2x, find the value of f(3)
Solution:
f(3) = (3)2 + 2(3) = 9 + 6 = 15

 Composite Functions
- A composite function is a composition of 2 or more functions into a single function.
Example:
Given f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 – 2, find: gf (5)

Solution:
gf (5) = g( f(5))
= g(2(5) + 1)
= g(11)
= 112 – 2
= 119

 Linear Functions
- functions defined by linear equations
- functions whose graph is a line
 Quadratic Functions

The general form of a quadratic function:

f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c where a, b, and c are constants and

a≠0
The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola with vertex: b ; 4ac  b 2
 2a 4a
 Logarithmic Functions

If ax = y such that a> 0, a ≠ 1 then loga y = x

ax = y ↔loga y = x

Take note of the following:

 Since a1 = a, loga a = 1
 Since a0 = 1, loga1 = 0
 Loga0 is undefined
 Logarithms of negative numbers are undefined.
 The base of logarithms can be any positive number except

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 Logarithms to the base 10 are known as common logarithms and are represented by log 10 or
log.

Examples:
log 3 9  2 à 32 9 , log 2 32  5 à 2 5  32

GEOMETRY
A. BASIC GEOMETRIC TERMS
 Line
- A line extends forever in both directions
- A line passing through two different points A and B can be written as ‘line AB’ or as ,
the two-headed arrow over AB signifying a line passing through points A and B

 Point
- Exact location in plane or surface
- Usually represented by a dot and a corresponding capital letter
- Does not have any length or width

 Plane
- A flat two dimensional surface
- Usually refers to a whole space

 Rays
- Part of a line that begins at a particular point and extends endlessly in one direction
- Also called a half-line
- Named with its endpoint in the first place, followed by the direction in which it is moving

- Written as

B. ANGLES
- Two rays that share the same endpoint
- The point where the rays intersect is called the vertex of the angle. The two rays are
called the sides of the angle.
- We can specify an angle by using a point on each ray and the vertex. The angle below
may be specified as angle ABC or as angle CBA; you may also see this written as ABC
or as CBA. Note how the vertex point is always given in the middle.

 Types of Angles
 Acute angle
- an angle which measures between 0 to 90 degrees (fig. a)
 Right angle
- an angle which measures exactly 90 degrees (fig. b)
 Obtuse angle
- an angle which measures between 90 and 180 degrees (fig. c)

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(a) (b) (c)

 Pairs of Angles
 Supplementary angle
- two angles having a sum of 180 degrees

 Complementary angle
- two angles having a sum of 90 degrees

 Bisector of an Angle
- a line which cuts the angle into two equal angles

C. TRIANGLES - polygon having three sides

- the sides of a triangle can be considered possible if and only if
SUM OF SHORTER SIDES LONGEST SIDE

 Kinds of triangles

1. According to number of equal or congruent sides

- Isosceles triangle
- A triangle having two sides of equal length

- Equilateral triangle
- A triangle having all three sides of equal length
- The angles of an equilateral triangle all measure 60 degrees

- Scalene triangle
- A triangle having three sides of different lengths

2. According to measure of angles formed

- Right triangle
- A triangle having a right angle.
- One of the angles of the triangle measures 90 degrees.
- The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
- The two sides that form the right angle are called the legs.
- A right triangle has the special property that the sum of the squares of the lengths of
the legs equals the square of the length of the hypotenuse.
- This is known as the Pythagorean Theorem. A2 + B2 = C2

- Acute triangle
- A triangle having three acute angles

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- Obtuse triangle
- A triangle having an obtuse angle
- One of the angles of the triangle measures more than 90 degrees

D. Polygons
The sum of angles of a polygon can be computed using the formula (n-2)* 180, where n is
the number of sides.
.

E. Circles
A circle is the collection of points in a plane that are all the same distance from a fixed point

 Parts of a circle:
a. Center – point inside the circle that has equal distance from any point on its
circumference

b. Radius / Radii - A line from the center of a circle to a point on the circle and the distance
from the center of a circle to a point on the circle

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c. Chord/s - A line that links two points on a circle or curve

d. Diameter – The distance across a circle through its center point

e. Secant – a line that intersects the circle in two points

f. Tangent Line – a line which touches the circle in only one point

 Angles in a Circle
∠ABC in the diagram below is known as an angle at the circumference.. The angle
is also said to be subtended by (i.e. opposite to) arc ADC or chord AC

The angles at the circumference subtended by the same arc are equal.

∠ x = ∠ y because they are subtended by

the same arc AEC.

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An angle at the centre has its vertex at the centre of the circle.

∠AOC is an angle at the centre.

Angles at the centre subtended by arcs of the same length are equal.

x = y because arc AB = arc CD

The angle at the centre of a circle is twice any angle at the circumference
subtended by the same arc.

 Angles and Intercepted Arcs

 Central Angle
A central angle is an angle with its vertex at the center of the circle.
Central angle = intercepted arc

 Inscribed Angle
An inscribed angle is an angle with its vertex on the circle.

Inscribed angle = 1/2 *(intercepted arc)

 Angle with vertex inside the circle

Angle = 1/2 * (sum of intercepted arcs)

 Angle with vertex outside the circle

Angle = 1/2 * (difference of intercepted arcs)

 Arc Of A Circle
 An arc is a part of the circumference of a circle.

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 The arc length is then a fraction of the circumference it covers. This length is
proportional to the size of an angle at the centre subtended (i.e. opposite to) by the
arc. For convenience we call this angle the angle of the arc.

The angle at the centre is 360˚ and is proportional to the circumference. Using
proportionality, we have

 Area Of A Sector

F. Area
 The area of a figure measures the size of the region enclosed by the figure.
 This is usually expressed in terms of some square unit.

POLYGON ILLUSTRATION AREA

Square Side x side

Rectangle Length x width

Circle Pi × r2

Triangle 1/2 × b × h

Parallelogram b×h

Trapezoid 1/2 × h × (a + b)

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G. Volume
Volume is a measure of how much space a space figure takes up.

SOLID FIGURE ILLUSTRATION LATERAL AREA, L TOTAL SURFACE AREA, T VOLUME, V

Prism L= Ph T= L + 2B V= Bh

Pyramid T= L + B
L= Pl V= Bh
Where l is the slant
height
Cylinder L= 2 h T= L + V= h

Cone L= l T= L + V= h

Sphere -------- T= V=

Lateral Area, L –the sum of all the faces connecting the bases (in square units)
Total Surface Area, T - the sum of the lateral area and the area of the base/s (in square units)
Volume, V – the amount of space contained in a solid (in cubic units)

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TRIGONOMETRY
A. THE 30◦- 60◦ – 90◦ TRIANGLE

In the right triangle PQR,

 the side PQ, which is opposite to the right angle PRQ is called the hypotenuse. (The hypotenuse is
the longest side of the right triangle.)
 the side RQ is called the adjacent side of angle θ .
 the side PR is called the opposite side of angle θ .

Identities:
sin 2 x  cos 2 x  1
1
sin x 
csc x
1
cos x 
SOH-CAH-TOA CHO-SHA-CAO sec x
1
opposite hypotenuse tan x 
sin   csc   cot x
hypotenuse opposite
adjacent hypotenuse
cos   sec  
hypotenuse adjacent
opposite adjacent
tan   cot  
adjacent opposite

B. THE SINE AND THE COSINE LAW

 The Sine Law

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The law of sines can be used to compute the remaining sides of a triangle when two angles and a
side are known. It can also be used when two sides and one of the non-enclosed angles are known. In some
such cases, the formula gives two possible values for the enclosed angle, leading to an ambiguous case.

 The Cosine Law

where γ denotes the angle contained between

sides of lengths a and b and opposite the side of
length c.

The law of cosines is useful for computing the third side of a triangle when two sides and
their enclosed angle are known, and in computing the angles of a triangle if all three sides are known.

By changing which side of the triangle is unknown, the formula becomes:

C. The Unit Circle

Conversion of rad to
degree

180
rad   deg rees


Conversion of degree to rad


deg rees   rad
180

Identities:
sin 2 x  cos 2 x  1
1
sin x 
csc x
1
cos x 
sec x
1
tan x 
cot x

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