JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION
AUGUST AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION
OPTIMUM STORAGE VOLUME OF ROOFTOP RAIN WATER
HARVESTING SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC USE1
Chao-Hsien Liaw and Yao-Lung Tsai2
ABSTRACT: Major parameters and optimum storage volumes of
rooftop rain water harvesting systems (RRWHSs) have not been
investigated in detail in Taiwan. Accordingly, the four major
parameters of RRWHSs were herein identified and elucidated using
a simulation method. Because the performance of the RRWHSs is
sensitive to the runoff coefficient, a field experiment was conducted
to determine the runoff coefficient more precisely for various types
of roofs. A simulation model including production theory was devel-
oped and employed to estimate the most cost effective combination
of the roof area and the storage capacity that best supplies a specif-
ic volume of water. Consequently, the expansion path of optimum
solutions for different volumetric reliability of water supply can be
determined. Additionally, the method based on the marginal rate of
substitution can be used for determining the rational volumetric
reliability. The procedures developed herein constitute an effective
tool for preliminarily estimating the most satisfactory storage
capacity of any specific roof area and for determining the rational
reliability of a corresponding water supply.
(KEY TERMS: rooftop rain water harvesting system; urban water
management; cost function optimization; water supply; reliability
analysis; runoff coefficient.)
Liaw, Chao-Hsien and Yao-Lung Tsai, 2004. Optimum Storage Volume of
Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting Systems for Domestic Use. Journal of the
American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 40(4):901-912.
INTRODUCTION
Growing pressure on the earth’s limited resources
and, in particular, the worsening water crisis in many
regions have been widely discussed. Given the acute
problem of water scarcity that many are likely to face
in the near future, the direct exploitation of the natu-
ral, simple, and most fundamental source of renew-
able fresh water – rain – should not be ignored
(Postel, 1992). Perhaps the most important issue in
1Paper No. 03014 of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) (Copyright © 2004). Discussions are open until
February 1, 2005.
2Respectively, Associate Professor and Graduate Student, Department of River and Harbor Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean Universi-
ty, No. 2 Pei Ning Road, Keelung, Taiwan 20224, R.O.C. (E-Mail/Liaw: chliaw@ms41.hinet.net).
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION
2004
this regard is the growing number of potential catch-
ment surfaces available globally due to the use of
modern impervious roofing materials and paved sur-
faces. Roof water and rain water have been harvested
in several parts of the world where conventional
water supply systems have failed to meet the needs of
the people. A typical rooftop rain water harvesting
system (RRWHS) comprises three basic subsystems –
a catchment system (roof), a delivery system (filters
and gutters), and a storage system.
Rain water can be collected, but until recently, such
collection has all too often been ignored. Comprehen-
sive studies of the parameters that influence RRWHS
design are few. Most studies concentrate on methods
of determining storage capacity and operating policy
(Lo and Fok, 1981; Schiller and Latham, 1987; Waller,
1989; Chu and Fok, 1991, Dixon et al., 1999). Howev-
er, determining the most cost effective dimensions of
the roof and the tank is complicated by variations in
rainfall and economic conditions.
During recent years, numerous metropolitan areas
in Taiwan have experienced water shortages, partial-
ly caused by droughts, economic development, and
rapid urbanization. The use of rain water to supple-
ment the potable water supply in Taiwan has been
demonstrated to be practical and effective where tra-
ditional ground water and/or surface water are limit-
ed (Liaw et al., 1997). To support the implementation
of the rain water harvesting systems for domestic use,
the government has published the “Rainfall Catch-
ment and Dual Water Supply System Handbook” as
a reference for engineers who are involved in the
preliminary design stage of RRWHSs (WRB, 2000),
but the manual lacks a comprehensive and detailed
901 JAWRA
 LIAW AND TSAI
examination of the effects of major parameters and
estimates of their optimal values.
To address these shortcomings, this study applies a
simulation model to evaluate the major parameters in
the literature and then applies economic theory to
determine the most cost effective system.
METHODOLOGY
Before the most cost effective proportion of the area
of a roof to be used for storage by RRWHSs can be
determined, the relationship between roof area and
storage capacity must be specified and the major
parameters that significantly affect their relationship
must be identified. In this study, simulation is used to
elucidate the interactions among major parameters,
roof area, and storage capacity. Optimization proce-
dures are discussed thereafter.
System Simulation
Numerous methods are available for determining
the size of the storage capacity required to satisfy a
given demand. These methods vary in complexity and
sophistication (McMahon and Mein, 1986). They can
be categorized as: graphical, mass curve, statistical,
and simulation methods. Graphical and mass curve
methods that can be used for rapid assessment are
designated as preliminary design techniques. A sta-
tistical approach is sometimes adopted to determine
the relationship of the capacity of a large reservoir
with its inflow and potential releases (Srikanthan and
McMahon, 1985; Tsai, 1996). Many researchers have
used simulation (Liaw et al., 1997; Fewkes, 1999) to
investigate the performance of rain water systems. In
a simulation analysis, the changes in storage content
of a finite capacity are determined using a mass bal-
ance equation. The procedure takes into account seri-
al correlation and seasonality and applies any time
interval. For most RRWHSs, the amount of rain water
supplied depends on the quantity of rainfall, the area
of the roof, and the calculated yield.
Two water release rules are considered, namely,
YAS (yield after spillage) and YBS (yield before
spillage). The YAS rule can be understood by consid-
ering that the demand is withdrawn after the rainfall
has been added to the storage facility and spillage has
been determined. The YBS rule assumes that the
demand is withdrawn before spillage is determined.
The operation principles of YAS and YBS can be illus-
trated mathematically as,
JAWRA
for YBS:
Yt = Min(Dt , St-1) (1)
St = Min(St-1 + Qt - Yt , Ca) (2)
for YAS:
Yt = Min(Dt , St-1) (3)
St = Min(St-1 + Qt, Ca) - Yt (4)
where Dt is water demand at time t; St-1 is storage at
the beginning of the t-1th time period; St is storage at
the beginning of the tth time period; Qt is inflow dur-
ing the tth time period; Yt is release during the tth
time period; and Ca is storage capacity.
The performance of RRWHSs is generally described
in terms of reliability. It can be expressed as either
the total actual rain water supply over demand (volu-
metric reliability, Rv) or the fraction of time that the
demand is fully met (Re). The Rv and Re can be illus-
trated mathematically as
Rv = actual supply/demand (5)
Re = 1 - n/N (6)
where n is the number of time units when demand
exceeds storage; and N is the total number of time
units in the rainfall sequence.
Optimal Sizing
The development of RRWHSs is a process of pro-
duction. In planning a production process, many valu-
able insights can be gained by analyzing how
economic factors affect the process under ideal condi-
tions. Production theory seeks to explain the process
and the way in which inputs are combined to produce
a specific output. The roof area and the storage capac-
ity are two key inputs to RRWHSs, whose output is
the amount of water supplied. Many combinations of
roof area and storage capacity can meet a water sup-
ply objective. The combinations of these inputs that
can be used to generate a given output level are sum-
marized by a water supply reliability isoquant. If Ar
represents the roof area of RRWHSs, respectively,
then the water supply reliability isoquant (U) is given
by
U = f (Ca, Ar) (7)
902 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION
 OPTIMUM STORAGE VOLUME OF ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC USE
The gradient of the tangent at any point on an iso-
quant is the marginal rate of substitution (MRS) at
which the storage capacity can be substituted for the
roof area to yield the same reliability (James and Lee,
1971; Liaw et al., 1997). If B represents the isocost
curve, which represents combinations of inputs that
may be used to yield a specific total cost, and P1 and
P2 are the unit costs of Ca and Ar,, respectively, then
B can be expressed as
B = P1 Ca + P2 Ar (8)
The point at which the reliability isoquant is tan-
gential to the isocost is the least cost mix of inputs
required to achieve a particular output. This con-
strained maximization problem can be solved using a
Lagrangian Multiplier method
∂A r P1
= (9)
∂Ca P2
Accordingly, when the maximum condition is
reached, the MRS must equal the ratio of input
prices. The locus of tangent points defines the optimal
combinations of inputs for various outputs.
EFFECTS OF MAJOR PARAMETERS
Rooftop rain water harvesting systems (RRWHSs)
should be carefully designed to make rain water
available at the lowest cost. An analysis of the param-
eters can better ensure that a tank of optimal size is
constructed. The major parameters that influence
RRWHSs include: (1) release rule and reliability, (2)
interval used in simulation, (3) record length of rain-
fall data, and (4) runoff coefficient. These factors are
examined based on rainfall data at the Chudung (1)
rain gage station (record length: 1907 to 2000) located
in Hsinchu County.
The domestic use of rain water has been limited to
domestic flushing toilets. The mean daily amount of
water used for flushing toilets is estimated to be
about 37.75 liters/person/day in Hsinchu County in
Taiwan (ABRI, 2000a; WRB, 2001). According to
statistics, the average numbers of dwellers per house-
hold is four, and the average area per household is
100 m2 (ABRI, 2000b). Accordingly, these values were
used to estimate the water demand. The runoff coeffi-
cient (C) in the estimation of runoff was assumed to
be 0.85 (Akan, 1993). The results of the analysis are
discussed below.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION
Release Rule and Reliability
First, the feasibility of the release rule was objec-
tively tested using two storage capacities of 5 m3 and
10 m3. Figure 1 reveals that Re values determined
using the YBS algorithm exceed those determined by
the YAS algorithm for a day or a 10-day interval. Re
values determined by YAS algorithm drop to zero
when the ratio of demand to storage capacity exceeds
0.5, implying that more attention must be paid to this
problem for RRWHSs, because the storage capacity is
usually smaller than the water demand.
Table 1 lists values of Rv and Re for different stor-
age capacities and water demand, based on a time
interval of 10 days and the YBS rule. It states that in
cases of large storage capacity and low water demand,
Re does not differ from Rv and reliabilities exceed 99.5
percent. However, in other cases, Rv values always
exceed Re. Notably, an Re value exists only when the
storage capacity exceeds a certain value, otherwise it
is zero. For example, given the water demand for four
or five persons, Re for the storage capacity exceeds
1 m3, and for six or seven persons, it exceeds 2 m3.
Therefore, for small storage capacity and high water
demand, Re cannot be used to determine the reliabili-
ty of a water supply. In contrast, Rv values are avail-
able under all circumstances.
Consequently, the YBS algorithm is recommended
as a release rule for simulation of RRWCS, and Rv, in
various ways, is preferred over Re. Therefore, Rv is
used hereinafter, unless otherwise stated.
Interval Used in Simulation
Daily and 10-day intervals are normally used in
simulations of operations of reservoirs in Taiwan.
Five different time intervals (one, three, five, seven
and 10 days) were examined, and the results are
shown in Figure 2 to elucidate thoroughly the effect of
the time interval on the relationship between storage
capacity and Rv.
The daily interval yields the highest Rv, while the
10-day interval underestimates substantially the per-
formance of the system. However, the difference
diminishes as the storage capacity increases. Conse-
quently, a shorted time interval is recommended in
designing RRWHSs with a low storage capacity. The
daily time interval is used throughout the rest of this
article.
903 JAWRA
 LIAW AND TSAI

Figure 1. Relationship Between Re and Ratio of Demand and Storage Capacity

for Two Different Time Intervals, Storage Capacities, and Release Rules.

TABLE 1. Comparison of Reliability Values for Various Specific Storage

Capacity and Water Demand Using Simulation Method.

No. of Persons in a Family

Storage 2 3 4 5 6 7
Capacity Rv Re Rv Re Rv Re Rv Re Rv Re Rv Re
(m3) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

1 76.50 67.29 58.12 – 39.78 – 29.26 – 22.61 – 18.09 –

2 91.86 86.95 78.70 66.76 66.57 56.00 57.29 47.98 46.47 – 36.80 –
3 96.74 95.43 87.16 81.44 77.15 70.97 67.01 54.53 58.49 46.64 51.31 40.44
4 98.69 97.95 91.96 88.81 82.86 76.52 74.21 67.55 65.83 53.16 57.88 45.14
5 – 99.22 94.82 92.89 87.07 82.91 78.63 71.98 70.92 63.41 63.66 51.66
6 – – 96.89 95.69 90.16 87.31 81.88 77.04 74.66 67.35 67.52 59.43
7 – – 98.16 97.49 92.57 89.95 84.77 80.07 77.51 72.24 70.75 63.37
8 – – 98.99 98.56 94.55 92.73 87.29 83.40 79.87 74.89 73.22 67.45
9 – – 99.45 99.22 96.13 94.72 89.45 86.20 82.06 77.36 75.28 69.63
10 – – – – 97.38 96.31 91.49 88.52 84.04 79.84 77.19 71.79
11 – – – – 98.29 97.65 93.31 90.87 85.98 81.70 79.01 73.81
12 – – – – 98.84 98.34 94.74 92.92 87.68 83.99 80.66 75.99
13 – – – – 99.23 98.86 96.07 94.23 89.29 85.81 82.26 77.69
14 – – – – – 99.32 97.19 95.83 91.01 87.54 83.84 79.39
15 – – – – – – 97.96 97.13 92.64 89.60 85.29 81.05
16 – – – – – – 98.48 97.81 93.96 91.65 86.69 82.62
17 – – – – – – 98.88 98.40 95.16 92.92 88.15 84.28
18 – – – – – – 99.19 98.79 96.23 94.52 89.74 86.07
19 – – – – – – 99.43 99.12 97.12 95.79 91.20 87.87
20 – – – – – – – 99.45 97.78 96.58 92.50 89.76

Note: "–" represents reliability ≥ 99.5 percent.

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 OPTIMUM STORAGE VOLUME OF ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC USE

Figure 2. Relationship Between Rv and Storage Capacity for Various Time Intervals.

Record Length of Rainfall Data
The validity of the performance of the system for
various periods of rainfall data was examined by
using actual rainfall data in a simulation. Figure 3
plots the variation of Rv with the period of the records
for a household with a storage capacity of 5 m 3 .
It shows that as the record length increases, the
variation of Rv becomes more stable. The difference
between maximum and minimum value of Rv at 95
percent and 90 percent confidence levels declines to
approximately 3 percent if data over 50 years are
used. This value is considered to be satisfactory, but
longer records are required to improve the accuracy of
the performance of the system. Similar conclusions
have also been reached under different storage capac-
ities and at other rainfall stations.

Figure 3. Relationship Between Rv and Various Rainfall Data Record Lengths for Selected Statistical Parameters.

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION 905 JAWRA

 LIAW AND TSAI

Runoff Coefficient

The results of the analysis indicate that the perfor-

mance of the system is sensitive to the C value when
the storage capacity is small. Therefore, the selection
of C is more important for a system with smaller stor-
age capacities (Liaw et al., 1997). A field experiment
was conducted on the campus of the National Taiwan
Ocean University to determine C more precisely for
various types of roofs.
The roofs commonly used in Taiwan include the
inverted-V (iron sheet and frame), the level cement,
the parabolic, and the saw tooth. The typical con-
struction area of a household is approximately 40
pings (ping is the common unit for measuring areas of
buildings in Taiwan – 1 ping is 3.3056 m2). Due to
budget constraints, 40-ping inverted-V and level
cement rooftops were constructed separately. Three
1-ping iron rooftop models with inverted-V, parabolic
and saw tooth shapes were built for comparison, as
illustrated in Figure 4. Also, a rain gauge station was
installed near the experimental site. Runoff was
caught and stored in two steel storage tanks with a
capacity of 10 m3. A flow meter recorded spillage from
the tanks. Accordingly, the runoff coefficient could be
estimated for each rainfall event.
Data from a total of approximately 100 storms
between March and December 2000 were collected
and analyzed. Table 2 lists the statistical characteris-
tics of the runoff coefficients. The table shows that the
mean runoff coefficient is slightly higher for the iron Figure 4. The Different Roof Shapes of the Models.
roof than that of cement because cement is porous.
The C value of the model inverted-V roof slightly
exceeds that of the 40-ping inverted-V roof. However,
DEVELOPMENT OF A REFERENCE MAP FOR
the difference is small and insignificant. Accordingly,
THE SIZE OF STORAGE TANKS IN TAIWAN
the results from the model roofs can be taken as
results for real roofs. Also, all types of roofs have very
similar average C values, so a single value of C can be For RRWHS design, it is sometimes impossible or
used. This average value of C was 0.82 and used here- impractical when rainfall data or a computation
inafter. model is not available. This study develops a refer-
ence map for use in Taiwan to overcome this issue.
Two rain stations that had been recording rainfall

TABLE 2. Variation of C Value for Different Types of Rooftops.

Rooftop Types
Inverted-V Level Cement Parabolic Inverted-V Saw Tooth

Roof Area (ping) 40 40 1 1 1

No. of Samples 84 90 87 93 79

Average C Value 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.84 0.83

Standard Deviation of C Value 0.076 0.068 0.066 0.064 0.095

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 OPTIMUM STORAGE VOLUME OF ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC USE

data for over 50 years in each county were selected to
calculate the storage capacity under specific roof
areas and Rv. The daily toilet flushing requirement is
estimated to be approximately about 10.4 percent of
daily water consumption in Taiwan (ABRI, 2000a;
WRB, 2001). Therefore, a series of storage sizing ref-
erence maps in Taiwan are generated for roofs of spe-
cific areas (50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 m 2 ) and
volumetric reliabilities (70, 80, and 90 percent). Fig-
ure 5 presents an example of such a map for the case
of roof area of 100 m2 and an Rv value of 90 percent.
The map reveals that for a given set of design crite-
ria, storage capacity increases from the northeast to
the southwest of Taiwan. Generally speaking, 10
times more storage capacity is required in southwest-
ern Taiwan than in northeastern Taiwan, mainly
because of spatial and temporal variations of rainfall.
Economically, RRWHSs are more efficient in northern
Taiwan than in southern Taiwan, but further analysis
is required. These sizing maps are a quick reference
for designing RRWHSs.
OPTIMIZING THE SIZE OF ROOFTOP RAIN
WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS
Designers can determine adequate storage capaci-
ties even without rainfall data, using the reference
maps in the preceding section. However, an infinite
number of combinations of roof areas and storage
capacities yield a particular reliability. How can the
optimal combination of roof area and storage capacity
be determined? Production theory will be employed
below to demonstrate procedures for determining the
most cost-effective combination of roof area and stor-
age capacity for a given volumetric reliability.

Figure 5. Storage Sizing Reference Map for Roof Area =100 m2 and Rv = 90 Percent.
Both x-axis and y-axis are in TM2˚ coordinates. Numbers are in m3.

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 LIAW AND TSAI

Roof Area, Storage Capacity, Reliability Curves initial construction cost of remodeling existing build-
ings. The storage system is taken to be a round steel
tank, as is widely used in Taiwan. The costs of the
A RRWHSs requires two major inputs, which are
round steel tank and modification to the rooftop of the
roof area and storage capacity. Consequently, the rela-
existing building were determined for northern Tai-
tionship between the roof area and the storage capaci-
wan using the Judgment Sampling Technique (Zik-
ty for some selected reliability curves for a
mund, 1997). A survey of market prices offered by
four-person household at the Chudung (1) Station was
retail plumbers and builders was conducted over the
calculated using the simulation model and the param-
telephone. Information about associated costs was
eters determined before.
then used to determine the cost function of RRWHSs.
Figure 6(b) plots the relationship among roof area,
The cost of the tank (COSTtank) is given by:
storage capacity, and Rv. The reliability increases as
the curves move toward the upper right-hand corner.
COSTtank (NT$) = 13707.74 + 494.82 Ca2
The roof area increases as the storage capacity
decreases for a given reliability of the water supply. In
Ca >
=1 r2 = 0.997 (11)
the upper left-hand corner, the reliability curves
become vertical, implying that a small change in stor-
where Ca is the storage capacity (m3) and NT$ repre-
age capacity requires a significant change in the roof
sents New Taiwan Dollars (US$1 = NT$34).
area to maintain the reliability. The curves become
The cost of modifying a roof (COSTroof) is
horizontal in the lower right-hand corner, and the
region can also be treated as infeasible. Therefore, (12)
COSTroof (NT$) = 907.5 Ar
establishing a system in both the upper left-hand and
lower right-hand corners is economically infeasible.
where Ar is the roof area (m3).
The isoreliability curves in Figure 6(b) are expressed
The annual cost function (Tc) (assuming lifespans
as
of a roof and a tank of 15 and five years, respectively,
and an interest rate of 5 percent, which are the stan-
Rv = 95%: Ar0.5 = 6.097 + 153.351/Ca2 r2 = 0.991
dard values used for evaluating public infrastructure
(10a) projects) is expressed by the following equation
Rv = 90%: Ar0.5 = 6.052 + 71.234/Ca2 r2 = 0.993
Tc (NT$) = 3428.14 + 125.74 Ca2 + 96.17 Ar (13)
(10b)
Rv = 85%: Ar0.5 = 5.836 + 39.958/Ca2 r2 = 0.994 This equation shows that the annual cost is more
(10c) sensitive to the storage capacity than to the area of
the roof.
Rv = 80%: Ar0.5 = 5.656 + 25.036/Ca2 r2 = 0.992
(10d)
Rv = 75%: Ar0.5 = 5.389 + 16.084/Ca2 r2 = 0.995 Optimal Area of Roof and Storage Capacity
(10e)
Isopleths of equal volumetric reliability were plot-
Rv = 70%: Ar0.5 = 5.214 + 10.685/Ca2 r2 = 0.994
ted against the values of cost functions. Therefore, an
(10f) optimal point is obtained with the least cost combina-
tion of roof and storage capacity where the isocost line
These equations state that an infinite number of
is tangential to the isoquant of the specific reliability
combinations of roof areas and storage capacities
curve. Figure 6(b) shows the optimal combination of
exist for a given reliability. The cost function of the
selected reliabilities for RRWHSs at the Chudung (1)
inputs is required to determine the optimal combina-
Station. For Rv equals 95 percent, the optimal point is
tion of inputs for any particular reliability of the
where the storage capacity is 6.8 m3; the roof area is
water supply.
88.6 m 2 , and the corresponding total annual cost
equals NT$17,764. The line joining optimal points is
Cost Function called the expansion path and is the locus of the least
cost combinations of roof areas and storage capacities
for various volumetric reliabilities.
The typical RRWHS comprises three basic subsys- The annual cost function at other rain stations in
tems, as defined in the previous section. The costs of different areas can be obtained by applying the con-
the delivery system and the catchment system are sumer price index (DOB, 2001). This study involved
usually combined in a single term to estimate the the Keelung and Tainan Stations, in the northern and

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 OPTIMUM STORAGE VOLUME OF ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC USE

Figure 6. Optimal Sizing of Roof Area and Storage Capacity.

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 LIAW AND TSAI

the southern parts of Taiwan, respectively for compar-
ison. Figures 6(a) and 6(c), respectively, present the
results.
The average annual rainfall for the Tainan Station
is approximately 1,755 mm, 2,026 mm at Chudung
(1), and 3,350 mm at Keelung. The monthly rainfall
differs in both quantity and distribution at these sta-
tions. The Tainan Station has the highest COV (coeffi-
cient of variation) and Keelung has the lowest.
Therefore, for a given Rv, RRWHSs at the Tainan Sta-
tion would require a larger storage capacity and roof
area than the other two stations. The Keelung Station
needs the least storage capacity and roof area, and so
is associated with the lowest construction costs.
Clearly, even in such a tiny island as Taiwan,
RRWHSs must be carefully designed. Moreover, the
quantity and distribution of rainfall strongly influ-
ence the design of RRWHSs.
Figure 6 also reveals that the expansion paths of
these three stations differ markedly. The gradient of
the expansion curve increases larger toward the south
of Taiwan, primarily because of temporal and spatial
variations in rainfall. Besides, under the principle of
cost minimization, the roof area is more likely than
the storage capacity to be increased to maintain a
particular construction cost because the cost function
is more sensitive to the storage capacity than to the
roof area.
Table 3 presents the average annual rain water
usage and spillage percentage at the Chudung (1)
Station, under three conditions. Table 3(a) pertains to
constant runoff, and the rain water use rate increases
with R v , but spillage declines. Although storage
capacity increases by a factor of four as Rv increases
from 70 percent to 95 percent, the usage rate of rain
water increased by only about 7 percent. Increasing
the reliability under such conditions appears to make
rain water use uneconomical because the volume has
increased 35 percent. Also, relatively little rain water
is used compared to the amount of runoff from the
roof. The case in Table 3(b) pertains to a much larger
roof area, which greatly increases the runoff collected
as Rv increases. Runoff increases by a factor of five as
Rv increases from 70 percent to 95 percent but the
volume of water used increases by only 1.35 times.
Thus, the rain water use rate is reduced. Also for a
constant Rv in Table 3, volumes of rain water used are
equal. Under these conditions, smaller roof areas or
larger storage capacities correspond to higher rain
water use rates and lower spillage rates. The optimal
effective rain water uses along the expansion path
given in Table 3(c) seem not to be economical. A high-
er required rain water use rate and a lower required
spillage rate correspond to a move to the right hand of
the optimal point in Figure 6(b). Such an interpreta-
tion looks unreasonable. This result may be explained
by an underestimate of the cost function. In this
study, the cost function was based on the initial cost
of construction, without considering operation and
maintenance or other costs over the long run. If such

TABLE 3. Annual Average Variation of Rain Water Usage and Spillage for Different Rv.

Rv
95 90 85 80 75 70
Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent

(a) Roof Area = 100 m2

Storage Capacity (m3) 6.3 4.2 3.2 2.4 1.9 1.5

RW Use Rate (percent) 29.7 28.0 26.6 25.0 23.6 22.1
Spillage Rate (percent) 70.1 71.6 72.8 74.1 75.3 76.6

(b) Storage Capacity = 5 m3

Roof Area (m2) 155 80 55 45 37 31

RW Use Rate (percent) 19.2 35.0 48.3 55.6 63.9 71.3
Spillage Rate (percent) 80.7 64.8 52.0 43.8 35.1 26.9

(c) Along the Expansion Path

Storage Capacity (m3) 6.8 5.5 4.7 4.1 3.6 3.2

Roof Area (m2) 88.6 70.7 58.5 51.5 43.9 39.2
RW Use Rate (percent) 33.0 38.8 44.1 47.8 51.9 54.5
Spillage Rate (percent) 66.7 60.4 54.6 50.4 45.5 42.0

Notes: Rainfall Data at the Chudung (1) Rain Station – Record Length: 1907 to 2000).
RW Use Rate (percent): The percentage for rain water usage of runoff volume from the roof.
Spillage Rate (percent): The percentage for spillage of runoff volume from the roof.

JAWRA 910 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION

 OPTIMUM STORAGE VOLUME OF ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC USE
costs are included, cost function will move to the right
in Figure 6(b) and an optimal point with a smaller
roof and a larger storage capacity will be obtained.
Selecting Rational Reliability of Water Supply
For a given cost function, planners can determine
the optimal combination of roof area and storage
capacity for a particular reliability of the water sup-
ply. However, quantities and distributions of rainfall,
and cost functions, vary among regions. The water
resources available and the extent of water shortage
also vary among regions. What level of reliability of
the water supply for RRWHSs should be selected? A
higher reliability, while preferred by some, costs
more.
This work presents a simple method for determin-
ing the reliability of water supply based on the
marginal rate of substitution between total annual
cost and reliability. Figure 7 plots the Rv values ver-
sus total annual construction cost at the optimal
points along the expansion path at the Chudung (1),
Keelung, and Tainan Stations. At the Tainan Station,
a small increase in total annual construction cost sig-
nificantly increases Rv initially. This correlation is
maintained until the gradient of the curve equals the
average gradient of the curve. Beyond this point, a
large increase leads to a less significant increase in
R v . Consequently, the region beyond this point is
Figure 7. Relationship Between Rv and Total Annual Cost Along the Expansion Path.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION
treated as infeasible on the basis of the costs to design
the RRWHSs. Accordingly, the point on the curve at
which the gradient equals the average gradient is
selected as the rational reliability of water supply.
Consider the Tainan Station as an example: the Rv is
approximately 70 percent and the annual construc-
tion cost is around NT$17,730; the maximum storage
capacity and roof area can thus be obtained. Rv can
also be determined for the Chudung (1) and Keelung
Stations as 76 percent and 83 percent, respectively.
Although the procedure for determining the rational
reliability of water supply is relatively simple, it
constitutes a useful tool for preliminarily estimating
Rv.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The installation of RRWHSs will be obligatory in
all “Green Buildings” in Taiwan with construction
areas that exceed a specific threshold. Action must be
taken to develop design procedures. This work eluci-
dates a general framework for obtaining the optimal
storage requirement of a system. The method first
identifies and quantifies the effect of major parame-
ters on the hydrologic design of RRWHSs, using a
simulation model, and then applies production theory
to determine the optimal combination of roof area and
storage capacity for a water supply with a selected
911 JAWRA
 LIAW AND TSAI
reliability. An advantage of this study is that it
applies systematic procedures to design RRWHSs.
A case study at the Chudung (1) Station in the
Hsinchu area indicates how simulation can be used to
quantify the effects of major parameters on the hydro-
logic design of RRWHSs. R v has been found to be
more appropriate than R e , which has zero values
when storage capacity is small and water demand is
high. The performance of RRWHSs is very sensitive to
both runoff coefficient and rainfall distribution. Four
different rooftops, which are common in Taiwan, are
constructed and tested to provide insights into the
determination of a proper runoff coefficient. The coef-
ficient varies with the intensity of the rainfall but the
average values are the same for all types of roofs. The
YBS release rule is more effective than YAS under
various conditions. A short interval in the simulation
is required in case of small storage capacity, but at
least 50 years of rainfall data should be used to
ensure the accuracy of the design. Reference maps for
estimating the storage capacities of RRWHSs show
that RRWHSs are more cost effective in the northern
part of Taiwan than in the southern part because of
the spatial and temporal variations of the quantity
and distribution of rainfall.
The case study of the Chudung (1) Station also
demonstrates the challenges in using production theo-
ry to derive the optimal combination of roof area and
storage capacity for a given reliability of the water
supply, using the parameters selected. The annual
initial construction cost function for remodeling an
existing building is determined based on a market
survey, to determine the optimal combination in
RRWHSs design. The optimal point of the given water
supply reliability can be determined from the rooftop
area – storage capacity/reliability curve and the cost
function. The expansion curve that connects the opti-
mal points of isoreliability varies substantially from
northern to southern Taiwan. Therefore, RRWHSs
should be carefully designed to meet hydrologic and
economic conditions. This study also presents a sim-
ple method based on the marginal concept to deter-
mine the rational reliability of a water supply for
RRWHSs. The point at which the marginal rate of
substitution between total annual cost and reliability
equals the average value determines the reliability of
the water supply.
The results of this study can be references for
RRWHS design in Taiwan. Most of the assumptions
used in this study are in line with official statistics.
Others are based on pertinent research findings in
Taiwan. For other areas, all the assumptions should
be adjusted accordingly.
JAWRA
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of
the Republic of China for financially supporting this research under
Contract No. NSC 85-2211-E-019-010.
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