Basics of Induction Heating

and
Applications
PREFACE

This handbook on “Basics of Induction Heating” was first introduced by “EFD

Induction GmbH”, Freiburg, Germany, and it was a source of information for
people who wanted to know, what is induction heating? and what are its
applications? It also served as a good reference material for engineers who work
with induction heating technology.

EFD, India has opened a knowledge-centre, dedicated to enhance knowledge of

its own members and its patrons. As a part of this initiative, EFD India has re-
introduced this book “Basics of Induction Heating and its Applications” with more
updated information and colorful images. This book is intended for use by all
those concerned with induction heating, such as, designers, induction heat
treatment engineers, production planners, shop floor supervisors, operators,
students, teachers and researchers. This handbook places a strong emphasis on
the connection between theory and practice.

The book’s production has been administered by “EFD Induction Private Ltd”.
This book is for reference only, compiled using text, images and graphs from
various sources. We declare that relevant information in this book remains as
property of its source. This book will not be commercially sold and for private
circulation only.

We would like to express our gratitude to all those who have contributed to this
work.

Hubert Reilard, Nagadeva K Singh & Mahesh Gupta

January 2015

1
 Contents Page

01 Principles of Induction Heating 3

02 Energy needed to heat material to required temperature 6
03 Electrical penetration depth and formula for calculation 7
04 Applications of induction heating 11
05 Induction hardening parameters 20
06 Definition of effective depth of hardening 21
07 Calculation of cut-off value 22
08 Hardening Depth 23
09 Means to change the hardening depth 23
10 Hardenability of metals 24
11 Hardenability and carbon content 24
12 Hardenability and alloying elements 25
13 Brazing 26
14 Power sources 30
15 Impedance Matching 33
16 Coil design 35
17 Electrical Efficiency of Inductor 39
18 Inductor Coupling Distance 40

2
Principle of induction heating

Introduction:
In 1831 Michael Faraday discovered Electromagnetic induction. The basic
principle of induction heating is an applied form of Faraday’s discovery. The fact
is that, AC current flowing through a circuit affects the magnetic movement of a
secondary circuit located near it. The fluctuation of current inside the primary
circuit provided the answer as to how the mysterious current is generated in the
neighboring secondary circuit. Faraday’s discovery led to the development of
electric motors, generators, transformers, and wireless communications devices.
Its application, however, has not been flawless. Heat loss, which occurs during
the induction heating process, was a major headache undermining the overall
functionality of a system. Researchers sought to minimize heat loss by laminating
the magnetic frames placed inside the motor or transformer.

Heat loss, occurring in the process of electromagnetic induction, could be turned

into productive heat energy in an electric heating system by applying this law.
Many industries have benefited from this new breakthrough by implementing
induction heating.

Basics:

Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3

An electrical current The magnetic field A alternating current through
through a conductive inside a multiturn coil is the coil induces eddy current
material induces a magnified in the component.
magnetic field.

Fig.4

The direction of the field can be determined with

the help of the „right hand“ or „Screw Rule“.
3
When an alternating current flows through a coil a magnetic field is generated.

Coil

Fig.5

This field is concentrated on the inside of the coil and its magnitude depends on
the strength of the current and the number of turns in the coil.

If a metal object is placed in the coil, eddy currents will be induced in the object,
due to the resistance of the material heat is developed in the region through
which the eddy currents flow.

Eddy Current Losses (Joule Effect, I² R)

Ö ferro-, dia- and paramagnetic materials

Fig.6

Hysteresis Losses

Ö ferromagnetic materials
below curie point
(Neukurve = Initial curve)

Fig.7

4
 Curie-Temperature (TC)

The Curie point of a ferromagnetic material is the

temperature above which it loses its characteristic
ferromagnetic ability

TC depends on material.

TC for Steel: 730° - 760°C

Fig.8
Iron Carbon Diagram
Types of Electric Heating Processes
Prior to describing induction heating, some types of electric process heating are
explained below to help you understand normally used heat sources.

The types of electric heating are as follows:

. • Induction Heating
. • Conduction Heating
. • Infrared Radiation Heating
. • Resistance Heating
. • Dielectric Hysteresis Heating
. • Electric Arc Heating
. • Plasma Heating
. • Electron Beam Heating
. • Laser Heating

Since we are concerned more about induction heating we are not discussing
other methods of heating in this book.

Induction heating is a combination of electromagnetic induction, skin effect, and

the principle of thermal transfer. Induction heating refers to the generation of heat
energy by the current and eddy current created on the surface of a conductive
object (according to Faraday’s Law and the skin effect) when it is placed in the
magnetic field, formed around a coil, where the AC current flows through.

Because several electromagnetic factors affect induction heating, due to which

the current distribution within an inductor and work-piece is not uniform. This
non-uniformity causes a non-uniform temperature in the work-piece. The non-
uniform distribution of heat can be caused by many factors like, Skin effect,
Proximity effect, Ring effect, End & edge effect.

5
Energy needed to heat material to required temperature
Material will absorb certain amount of energy to reach certain temperature, this
can be calculated by multiplying the temperature with its specific heat and the
mass to be heated per hour, or you can use fig 1 to get the kWh/kg and divide it
from the efficiency of the power source and multiply it with actual production
(kg/hr) to determine the required power for this you first need to knnow:

• The type of material (steel, copper, brass, etc.)

• Work-piece dimensions
• Desired hourly production
• Desired final temperature
To Calculate Energy Requirements

Step 1 First determine the material’s energy absorption rate. Fig.9 shows rates
for some common materials.

Step 2 Multiply the energy absorption rate by your desired hourly production
(kg/hour). The result is your specific power requirement.

Step 3 You can now ascertain the overall efficiency level of the induction
equipment. Some typical induction heater efficiency levels for common materials
are listed in table. 1. Divide the calculated specific power need by the equipment
efficiency rate. This gives you the total power requirement.

Final
Temperature
Material °C Efficiency
Carbon steel 1250 0.65
Carbon steel 700 0.80
Stainless steel 1250 0.60
Brass 800 0.50
Copper 900 0.40
Aluminum 500 0.40

Table.1 Typical efficiency values of an Induction Heater

6
 Fig.9 Energy absorbed by different materials

Electrical penetration depth and formula for calculation

The induced current also generates its own magnetic field, which is in opposition
to the field generated by the coil and which prevents the latter field from
penetrating to the center of the metal object.
Heated Coil
Work-piece Penetration Field surface
depth

Fig.10

7
The distance from the surface to the depth where current density has dropped to
37% is referred to as the PENETRATION DEPTH. The depth of penetration
increases with decreasing frequency

The point where the surface current density in the material reduces to 37% of the
surface current density is the value for the “electrical penetration depth”. It is a
calculated value.

μ r ⋅f
- x ⋅2 Π
ρ ⋅10 7
−
x
i
ix = i0 ⋅ e = i0 ⋅ e δ

1
1 e
≈ 0,37
e

ρ
δ ≈ 503 ⋅
μr ⋅ f δ
x

Where: Relative permeability µr (without units)

Frequency f in hertz
Standard depth of penetration δ
Electrical resistivity ρ ( µΩ/cm)

Fig. 11
Electrical Penetration depth

Electrical penetration depth

The electrical penetration depth of the eddy current is different for different
materials since their magnetic properties and electrical resistance is different in
addition, the electrical penetration depth changes with the temperature, since
electrical resistance and the magnetic properties change with the temperature.

8
For example: The electrical penetration depth of carbon steel can be typically 10
times higher at 900 Degree Celsius compared to room temperature. The
electrical resistance increases and therefore the electrical penetration depth
increases further.
The main reason is that the relative permeability changes from values as high as
100 down to 1 for temperatures above the Curie point of particular steel. Based
on the formula for calculation of the electrical penetration depth we have to take
the square root of the variation of resistivity time’s relative permeability which
gives a value of typically 10 in this case.

Frequency and Electrical Penetration Depth

Carbon, ρ = 40...200
Graphit 200...1000 °C, ρ =10

Steel 1000 °C, µr=1, ρ =1,2

aust. Steel 900 °C, µr=1, ρ =1,2
aust. Steel 20 °C, µr=1, ρ =0,8

Aluminum 100 °C, ρ =0,038

Copper 40 °C, ρ =0,019
Steel 400 °C, µr=30, ρ =0,45
Steel 20 °C, µr=100, ρ =0,13

Ω mm2
ρ in
Fig.12 m

From the formula it is evident that the penetration depth is inversely proportional
to the frequency. Hence as the frequency increases the penetration depth comes
down.

9
Fig.13

Fig.14

10
Applications:

Induction heating is mainly used to heat metals and electrically conducting

materials, non-conducting materials like plastics and glass can be heated
effectively by using a conducting material susceptor. The susceptor used to
transfer heat to the target part through conduction or by radiation. Hence it can
be used for wherever heating is needed, for the applications like Hardening,
Tempering, Annealing, Brazing, Adhesive curing, Preheating, etc. The
applications are discussed in detail in this chapter.

Melting:

When we think of melting first comes to our mind is steel, and it is quite natural
also because this is what normally melted. In this book we discuss about steel
melting with induction heating. Advantages of induction melting over other types
of melting are many like:

1. Eco friendly: Since the process does not require any fossil fuels, and does
not emit any smoke.
2. Floor area required is very small.
3. No startup time.
4. Precise process control.

As explained earlier as the crucible becomes bigger the frequency has to reduce
and power should increase.

Fig.15a EFD 500kg steel melting Fig.15b EFD 300kg steel melting furnace
furnace

11
Stirring: This is a phenomenon that occurs in a melting crucible. This is caused
magnetic forces acting on the molten metal due to the electrical current in the
induction coil and currents flowing in the bath itself. These forces are very strong
at the middle of the coil. The metal is forced towards the centre from where it is
diverted upwards or downwards. As frequency decreases or power increases or
the crucible size decreases the stirring effect increases and decreases with
increase in frequency, decrease in power and increase in crucible size.

Billet heating:

Induction’s speed, precision, repeatability and energy-efficiency make it

the natural choice for heating billets.

Fig.16

A billet exiting an EFD Induction billet

heating system.
Heated billets are read by a pyrometer
and sorted according to temperature.

Using induction to heat billets prior to forging delivers numerous commercial and
technical benefits. Main benefits are:

• Low operating costs: Induction generates heat directly within each billet. No
energy is wasted as in indirect heating. This, together with precise power
controllability, makes induction extremely energy efficient.
• High productivity: Induction heating is fast, capable of heating even large
billets to high temperatures in seconds. Throughput is enhanced by the use of
automated loaders, feeders and extractors.
• Improved quality: Induction ensures uniform through-heating for each
individual billet. This contributes to excellent grain flow characteristics in each
forged billet. Also, induction’s extremely rapid temperature increases result in
minimal scaling and surface defects, which in turn contribute to longer die life.

12
• Compact footprint: Induction heating saves valuable floor space. The power
source, capacitor bank, induction coils, feeding station, heat exchanger and PLC
cabinet can all be contained on one frame.
• Flexibility: Modern induction heating systems feature quick and easy coil
changeovers. With EFD Induction’s multi-coil systems, for example, changeover
is fully automatic. The operator only has to select the desired coil in the PLC, and
the system automatically changes to the correct water and power connections.
Induction also offers the possibility of heating billets in protective atmospheres.

Heat Treatment:

Earlier alloy steels were used for automobile parts which can be hardened and
made wear resistant, later with the introduction of induction hardening use of
alloy steels reduced and cheaper carbon steels came into use. Any steel requires
heat treatment to obtain enhancement in its properties to increase hardness (for
making it wear resistant) or strength, or to neutralize negative effects resulting
from previous manufacturing processes example remove internal stresses
generated by fabrication processes.

The various heat treatment processes include:

• Normalizing
• Annealing
• Hardening
• Tempering
• Refining
• Sub-critical Annealing

Normalizing:

Normalizing involves heating the steel to about 40oC above its upper critical limit.
The steel is then held at this temperature for a period of time and is then cooled
in air. It is desirable that the temperature of the steel shall be maintained for a
time period more than 2 minutes per mm of section thickness and shall not
exceed the upper critical temperature by more than 50oC.

Fig.17

A detail from an EFD Induction

seam normalizing solution. The
induction coils are the red
horizontal units above the pipe

13
The structure produced by this process is pearlite (eutectoid) or pearlite in a
ferrite matrix (hypoeutectoid) or pearlite in a cementite matrix
(hypereutectoid). Because the steel is cooled in air the process results in a fine
pearlite formation with improved mechanical properties compared to the full
annealing process.

Normalizing is used to

• To refine the grain structure and to create a more homogeneous austenite

when a steel is to be reheated for quench hardening or full annealing
• To encourage reduced grain segregation in castings and forgings and
provide a more uniform structure
• To provide moderate hardening

Annealing:

Annealing is reheating steel followed by slow cooling. It is performed

a) to remove internal stress or to soften

b) to refine the crystalline structure (This involves heating to above the upper
critical temperature ).

The steel is heated to about 25oC above the upper critical temperature, held for a
set time and then cooled slowly in the furnace. This process is used to remove
internal stresses built up as a result of cold working and fabrication
processes. Following annealing the dislocations are rearranged in to a lower
energy configuration, new strain free grains are formed and grain growth is
encouraged.

Hardening:

Fig.18

EFD Horizontal Induction

Hardening Machine from EFD

14
 Fig.19 EFD Tripot hardening
machine and coil

Cut section of cam lobe

Fig.20

EFD Dual spindle cam shaft

hardening machine

15
 Fig.21

EFD Single axis Vertical

Hardening Machine

Fig.22

EFD Slew ring hardening machine

16
Hardening involves heating a steel to its normalizing temperature and cooling
(Quenching) rapidly in a suitable fluid example oil, water or air. Steel is basically
an alloy of iron and carbon, some steels have various other elements in
solution. When steel is heated above the upper critical temperature (about
760oC), the iron crystal structure will change to face centered cubic (FCC), and
the carbon atoms will migrate into the central position formerly occupied by an
iron atom. This form of red-hot steel is called austentite (γ iron). If this steel
form cools slowly, the iron atoms move back into the cube forcing the carbon
atoms back out, resulting in soft steel called pearlite. If the sample was formerly
hard, this softening process is called annealing.

Stress Relieving/Recovery (Process Annealing):

This process involves heating the metal to a temperature in the range 550oC to
650oC and held at this temperature before being cooled at a controlled rate. This
also reduces stresses resulting from cold working and fabrication by allowing
dislocations to rearrange to a lower energy configuration.

This process is used to allow further forming operations and to prevent distortion
of the steel components as a result of subsequent machining operations

Spheroidizing

The process applies more to the hypereutectoid steels (above 0,8% C). The
process involves heating the metal to between 600oC and 650oC and holding it at
the selected temperature for a period of time the cementite changes from a
lamella formation to a formation based on an alpha ferrite matrix with particles of
spheroidal cementite (Fe3C) are embedded. This resulting steel has improved
ductility and toughness compared to the original steel with reduced hardness and
strength.

Tempering:

Tempering is the process of reheating the steel leading to precipitation and

spheroidization of the carbides. The tempering temperature and time are
generally controlled to affect the final properties required of the steel. The
benefits resulting are the increase in the metal toughness and elongation. The
negative effects are the reduction of the martensite (BCT) structure and the
progression towards a spheroidal carbide + ferrite matrix structure.

17
Brazing:

Fig.23

2 Wheeler Petrol Tank neck

Brazing Machine from EFD

Fig.24

EFD Short Circuiting ring

brazing machine

Fig.25a
EFD 12kW High frequency Tool
Tip brazing equipment
18
 Fig. 25b
Stator joint brazing

Fig. 25c
Pole windings brazing

Brazing is the joining of metals through the use of heat and a filler metal which
has a melting temperature above 450˚C but below the melting temperature of the
metals to be joined.

Advantages of induction brazing over flame brazing are:

1. Rapid heating
2. Accurate temperature control
3. Heat can be concentrated at the braze joint
4. Repeatable results
5. Easy to automate the process
6. Higher efficiency
7. Heat is generated in the component
8. No noise pollution

19
 9. Clear view of the joint while brazing
10. No need of skilled labour
11. Easy removal of fumes

INDUCTION HARDENING PARAMETERS

Major Parameters, which are important to achieve the desired hardening depth,
are:
• Output Frequency of the Frequency Converter (Generator)
• Power density, heating time
• Quench parameters (flow, temperature, direction, position, medium)

Output Frequency of the Frequency Converter (Generator)

Besides the electrical resistance and the magnetic properties of the material to
be hardened the frequency of the Frequency Converter is the only parameter for
the electrical penetration depth (not hardening depth). The electrical current
introduced in the material by the magnetic field penetrates deeper if the
frequency is low and vise-a-versa. The frequency range used in Induction
hardening is typically from 3 kHz – 400 kHz.

Change in penetration depth from room temperature to austenitisation

temperature is larger for high frequency than for medium frequency. The effective
permeability increases with the frequency since the field strength is lower at
higher frequencies considering the same power density. The change from a high
permeability down to 1 above Curie point is therefore bigger for higher
frequencies.

Power density, heating time

The power density (kW/cm2 or kW/in2) and the heating time determines the
surface temperature. Lower power density with higher heating time increases the
depth of hardening due to conduction (care should be taken not to melt the
surface), and by increasing the power density and reducing the heating time it is
possible to reduce the hardness depth marginally (if heating time is too small the
process becomes unstable).

Quench parameters (flow, temperature, direction, position, medium)

As shown in the fig.26, the quench should not obstruct heating, that means
enough flow to remove heat but not to obstruct heating. The direction should not
be towards heating area, and should be positioned in such a way that the quench
should not interfere in the heating process. The quench temperature should not

20
be too less nor too high, too lower temperature may create cracks and too high a
temperature may not give the right hardness.

Types of Induction Heating

Fig.26

DEFINITION OF EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF HARDENING

The hardness depth measured with HV 1 (1 kg load) defined as “hardness limit

(in HV)”, is 80% (as per DIN standards)of the minimum surface hardness. It has
to be one value only.
The tolerance is given as a tolerance in the hardening depth and not as a
tolerance in the “cut-off” or “hardness limit” value.
Example: Distance Surface: DS 500 = 3 + 2 (in mm)

The hardness has to drop below 500 HV between 3 – 5 mm from the

surface.

Surface hardness

The surface hardness for hardenable steel is given as a minimum and maximum
hardness value. The tolerance is mainly a function of the carbon content of steel.

Example: A, C45 steel (EN 1045) has carbon content between 0.4% - 0.5%. The
corresponding surface hardness is 56 – 61 HRC.
Based on the minimum surface hardness definition the cut-off value is calculated.
The surface hardness tolerance is a material tolerance and not a tolerance due
to process variations.

21
Calculation of cut-off value

Example: If the surface hardness is 56 – 61 HRC, the cut-off value for the
hardness depth is 80% of the surface value converted into HV.

56 HRC = 615 HV, 80% = 490 HV

The corresponding Vickers hardness is around 490 HV.

The hardness depth measurement takes the surface of the component as start
reference.

The depth where the Vickers hardness reduces to 490 HV is defined as DS

(Distance Surface or case depth).

Example for a measured value:

Effective depth of hardening: DS 490 = 1.6 (in mm, measured value)

Effective Depth of Hardening

2 values are required to specify the effective depth of hardening in a drawing:

a. One hardness value in HV (not a range, only one value)
b. Hardening depth range in mm
Example: DS 440 = 3 + 2 (in mm)

The hardness curve in a plotted diagram should reduce to 440 HV between a

depth of 3 – 5 mm, not before 3mm and not after 5 mm. In case of a dispute
between different parties the above definitions are applicable. India has also
accepted this definition. Reference: ISO 3754-1976 (E)

22
 Fig.27

If the “cut-off” value is different to the above definitions the concerned parties
have to agree on a different value.

Hardening Depth

The hardening depth is higher than the electrical penetration depth since the heat
generated by the electrical current in the material is transferred deeper into the
material.

If we allow more time for the heat transfer the hardening depth increases
provided that we can quench the inner sections of the material fast enough.

Methods to change the hardening depth

Hardening depth depend strongly on austenitisation temperature.

The methods mentioned below are for an increased hardening depth provided a
constant austenitisation temperature is maintained. In case you want to decrease
the hardening depth just do the opposite.

a. Reduce the frequency if possible=higher penetration depth

b. Heat the component slower with less power = longer time for heat penetration.
c. Reduce scanning speed = longer time for heat transfer before quenching

23
d. Change quench angle to quench later = longer time for heat transfer
e. Increase gap between coil and quench-ring=longer time for heat transfer
Remark: Materials with high hardenability allow longer quench delays.
f. Pre-heating without quenching=more time for heat transfer
g. Increase quenching speed by reducing the polymer based quench solution or
reduce the quench delay in cases where hardenability is limiting the hardening
depth.
The measures can be applied provided a constant austenitisation temperature is
reached and maintained (it is prudent to change any one parameter at a time and
observe its effect).

HARDENABILITY OF METALLS

Hardenability defines the ability of a material to be hardened to a certain

depth

Hardenabilty is not a definition of hardness but gives information for the hardness
depth we can expect for certain steel!
The hardening depth depends mainly on the chemical composition, the grain size
and the microstructure as a material property and the cooling speed of quenching
as a process parameter.
Computer programs are available to calculate the hardenability of different steel
based on their chemical composition and a given grain size. You can plot a
hardening curve were you can see the expected hardening depth profile and the
surface hardness. Computer calculations are normally more accurate than a
Jominy end quench test and very easy to do.
The steel supplier has to provide the chemical composition for each heat lot. The
hardening depth calculation can provide vital information for the production. High-
and low hardenability within a given tolerance for steel may require special
attention and changes in the process parameters or the quench concentration.

Hardenability and carbon content

Carbon has a large influence on surface hardness, but also on hardenability.

Example:
A C45 (EN 1045) steel has a carbon content between 0.4 – 0.5%.
Accordingly the surface hardening tolerance is 56 – 61 HRC.
The hardening depth is expected to be in a range of 3 – 5mm.
The limitation in hardness depth for carbon steels is often not the induction
hardening process but the hardenability of the steel! A specification of more than
4mm hardening depth using a C45 would not be realistic. It can be achieved in

24
some cases but with a chemical composition at the lower end it may not be
achievable.
In the example below you can see that the surface hardness remains the same
with the same carbon content but the hardening depth (hardenability) changes
with the alloying elements.
Graph for steel with identical carbon content but different alloying elements

Fig.28
This graph shows the mean End Quench hardenability curves of different steels
all with 0.4% carbon.
The surface hardness remains almost the same (constant carbon content) but
the hardenability increases with the addition of alloying elements (Cr, Mo).

Hardenability and alloying elements

Alloying elements like Mo, Cr,

Mn, Ni and Si increase
hardenability
These elements don’t have an
impact on the surface hardness
but on the hardenability. The
hardness depth increases
significantly.

Fig.29 Graph shows hardenability for different alloyed steels

25
The graph shows the mean hardness curves for alloyed steels versus the
distance from the quenched end also called Jominy End Quench Hardenability
curve.

Brazing

Brazing is the joining of metals through the use of heat and a filler metal which
has a melting temperature above 450˚C but below the melting temperature of the
metals to be joined.

Six steps in correct brazing

1. The gap between the base metals for brazing is a crucial factor in deciding the
strength of the brazed joint .For optimum strength the gap should be 0.038 mm .
2. The surfaces of the metals have to be clean for correct brazing, the surfaces
should be cleaned of oil first, then any chemical or mechanical method should be
employed to clear the surface of any oxide formation
3. Fluxes are used to prevent any oxidation occurring during the course of
heating the base metals .The following steps may be observed during the brazing

Temperature Appearance of the flux

100˚C Water boils off
315˚C Flux becomes white and slightly puffy
425˚C Flux lies against the surface and has a milky appearance
593˚C Flux is completely clear and active, bright metal surface is
visible underneath. Touch the filler metal to the base metal if the
filler metal melts, the temperature is proper for brazing

Table. 2

The use of flux can be avoided if an inert atmosphere (nitrogen etc) is provided
for brazing
4. The jobs must be held properly so that the base metals don’t move while
heating
5. This step is actual accomplishment of the brazed joint .when heating a large
assembly, heat a broad area, while heating a small assembly heat the entire area
6. Cleaning the brazed joint

26
Recommended pickling solutions for post-braze removal of oxides

Application Formulation Comments

Oxide removal 10 - 25% hot sulfuric Pickling can be done at same time flux is
from copper, acid with 5-10% removed, will work on carbon steels but
Brass, bronze, potassium dichromate if pickle is contaminated with copper,
nickel, silver and added copper will plate out on the steel and will
other copper alloys have to be removed mechanically. This
containing high sulfuric pickle will remove copper or
percentage of cuprous oxide stains from copper alloys.
copper It is an oxidizing pickle and will discolor
silver leaving it a dull gray.
Oxide removal A 50% Hydrochloric A mixture of 1 part Hydrochloric acid
from irons and acid solution is used with 2 parts water can be used for Monel
steels cold or warm. More and other high nickel alloys. Pickling
diluted acid can be solutions should be heated to about
used 10 – 20% at 80˚C. Mechanical finishing is necessary
higher temperature for bright finishes. This Hydrochloric acid
pickle is not like bright dips on non-
ferrous metals.
Oxide removal 20% Sulfuric acid, 20% This pickle is followed directly by 10%
from SS and alloys Hydrochloric acid, 60% Nitric acid dip and then clean water
containing water used at a temp of rinsed
chromium 75-80˚C
20% Hydrochloric acid, This pickle is more aggressive than the
10% Nitric acid, 70% mixture stated above, and will etch the
water used at 65˚C steel and the filler material both.

Table.3

Figuring The Proper Length Of Lap

For a butt joint the bonding area is fixed (the cross sectional area of the thinner
member), hence we need not have to calculate the area.

But in the case of lap joints the length varies. But the thumb rule is that the lap
length should be three times as long as the thickness of the thinner joint member.
More specifically if the approximate tensile strengths of the base members are
known then the length required for optimum joint strength can be calculated.

27
Figuring length of lap for flat joint:

X
    Fig.30
 
X = TW 
         CL 
 
X = Length of lap in mm 
T  = Tensile strength of weakest member in MPa 
W= Thickness of the weakest member in mm 
C = Joint integrity factor of 0.8 
L = Shear strength of brazed filler metal in Mpa 
 
Ex: What length of lap do you need to join 1.27mm annealed monel sheet to a metal of 
equal or greater strength? 
 
C = 0.8 
T = 482.63 MPa (annealed monel sheet) 
W = 1.27mm 
L = 172.37 MPa (Typical shear strength for silver brazing filler metals) 
 
X = 482.63 x 1.27  mm 
       0.8 x 172.37  
 
X = 4.5mm  

28
Figuring length of lap for tubular joints

Ex: What length of lap do you need to join 19.05mm OD copper tubing (wall
thickness 1.626mm) to 10.05 ID steel tubing?

D
W

Fig.31

W = 1.626 mm
D = 19.05 mm
C = 0.8
T = 227.53 MPa (annealed copper)
L = 172.37 MPa ( a typical value)
X = 1.626 x (19.05 – 1.626) x 227.53
0.8 x 19.05 x 172.37
X = 2.45mm (lap length)

29
POWER SOURCES

Even though we call them as power sources, in reality they do not source any
power. They convert the line supply of 50 or 60Hz to higher frequency, which is
useful for induction heating, hence they are also called as Frequency Converters.

Earlier Motor Generators (MG Sets) were used for frequencies up-to 10,000Hz
(10kHz). These contained a rectifier, a DC motor and a generator to generate
medium frequency single phase AC. The drawback with this system was that it
needed initial startup time, and when runs idle was drawing almost 40% of the
rated power.

After the invention of Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs or Thyristors), solid

state power sources came into existence. Now SCRs are used mostly for
rectification, and for inverters IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) or
MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) are used.
Basically there are two types of Static or Solid State power sources are possible:

a. Current fed type

b. Voltage fed type

Current fed:
In the current fed inverter the power factor correction capacitor bank is connected
parallel to the inductor. The inductor and the capacitor bank is connected
diagonally (refer fig..) in a full bridge. This way the reactive component of the coil
current bypasses the SCRs (any other power device), but the inverter is exposed
to output voltage (voltage across the coil).

Frequency Converter – Parallel Resonant

Controlled Rectifier choke Inverter

Hose Cable

Mains Output circuit Load

Transformer

Fig.32
The inverter voltage need not have to be equal to the rectifier output (can be less
or more). Hence the rectifier and inverter are separated (de-coupled) with series
chokes (reactors). These chokes supply constant DC current to the inverter.

30
Functions of these chokes:

i. Filtering
ii. Act as reservoir.
iii. Protect the inverter at the time of short circuits

The inverter converts DC current into square

quare wave current, which is injected into
the parallel resonant circuit. The output power from a current fed system is
controlled by varying both inverter timing and DC voltage.

Disadvantages: Controllability is poor, Very high voltage on the inverter, Very low
power factor at reduced power.

Voltage fed:
In this type of inverters the DC smoothing choke is replaced by DC filter
capacitors. The DC voltage across the inverter is always constant, current
through the inverter flows through the inverter components and the tuning
capacitors. This type of configuration provides excellent controllability than a
current fed inverter.

Frequency Converter – Series

Rectifier Capacitors Inverter Pulse-
modulated Hose Cable

Mains Output Circuit

Load
Transformer

Fig.33

Advantages: Excellent controllability, Low inverter voltage, Very low line

distortion, Constant power factor.

Output power control:

Every manufacturer has got his, own way of controlling the output power. As
explained in the beginning, in a current fed inverter, output is controlled by

31
varying the DC Voltage. But when it comes to voltage fed inverter, the voltage is
constant (Diodes are used for rectification) we have different ways of controlling
the output power, like Pulse Width Modulation.

Working of series full bridge inverter

S1 L C S3

S4 S2

S1 L C S3

S4 S2

S1 L C S3

S4 S2

Fig.34

32
Impedance Matching

Impedance: The term impedance is a general expression which can be applied

to any electrical entity which impedes the flow of current. Thus this expression
could be used to denote a resistance, a pure reactance, or as is most likely in the
real world, a complex combination of both reactance and resistance.

Inductance : The property of inductance might be described as "when any piece

of wire is wound into a coil it forms an inductance which has the property of
opposing any change in current".

Resonance: Resonance occurs when the reactance of an inductor balances the

reactance of a capacitor at some given frequency. In such a resonant circuit
where it is in series resonance, the current will be maximum and offering
minimum impedance. In parallel resonant circuits the opposite is true.

At resonance:

2 * π * f * L = 1 / (2 * π * f * C)
Which leads us on to:

f = 1 / [2 * π (√ LC)]
Where: 2 * π = 6.2832; f = frequency in hertz L = inductance in Henries and
C = capacitance in Farads

Impedance at resonance:
In a series resonant circuit the impedance is at its lowest for the resonant
frequency whereas in a parallel resonant circuit the impedance is at its greatest
for the resonant frequency.

Fig.35

33
Magnetizing Volt-Amperes (kVAR), known as Wattless, reactive or nonworking
power.

kVAR kVA

kW

kVA=√(kW)2+ (kVAR)2

Rated CkVAR : Ratings of all capacitors hooked into circuit.

CkVAR = Operating E2 X Rated CkVAR

Rated E2

KVAR= Actual CkVAR-meter kVAR

kVA= √ (kW)2 + (kVAR)2

I = VA Amps
E
R = P Ω
I2

Z =E Ω
I

XL = Z2 – R2

Q = kVAR
kW

PF - power factor
kW - Actual power
kVA - apparent power

PF = kW
kVA

34
COIL DESIGN

The design of coils (inductors) is largely based on experience, however there are
some basic rules that should be kept in mind:

Rule No.1
The coil should be as close as possible to the work-piece at the area to be
heated. The increase in distance between the work-piece and the coil will reduce
the flux in the work-piece and consequently the current and heat generation.

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
mm

Relative effeciency %

Fig.36
Rule No.2
The area of the coil against the work-piece determines the heated area. The
widest side of a rectangular coil tube should be against the work-piece to achieve
the highest input.

Fig.37
35
Rule No.3

The coil should be designed so that the “field from the opposite sides of the coil
do not cancel each other”.

BAD GOOD
Cancellation of field
Fig.38
Rule No.4

OD Heating ID Heating Single shot heating

η ≈ 0,6- 0,9 η ≈ 0,3 - 0,5 η ≈ 0,4 -0,5

Efficiencies in different coil configurations

Fig.39

36
Maximum efficiency in induction heating can be achieved by using a ring inductor
for heating Outer Diameter of a ferrous material with high specific resistance.

Type of coil Magnetic Other

steel metals
Helical around work-piece 0,75 0,50
Pancake 0,35 0,25
Hairpin 0,45 0,30
One turn around work-piece 0,60 0,40
Channel 0,65 0,45
Internal 0,40 0,20
Typical efficiencies of different types of coils
Table.4
Rule No.5
Ends and edges are heated more easily than areas where heat can dissipate in
all directions. Differing material thickness may require only the “thick” part to be
heated, where possible allow conduction to heat the thin parts

Flux concentrators
It can be seen that flux concentrators can be used to avoid unwanted heating
effects in adjacent area of material.

Fig.40

37
 Flux concentrators: Are normally available in two types

Iron laminations Composite ferrite material

Fig.41

Relative Efficiency with Flux concentrators

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1m m 2m m 3m m 4m m 5m m 6mm 7mm 8mm 9mm 10m m

Coil with flux concentrators Coil without flux concentrators

Fig.42

38
 •IMPEDANCE MATCHING VARIABLES
–Coil Width
–Coil Length
–Tubing Geometry
–The Distance
–Field Concentrators
–Working Material (Magnetic / Non-Magnetic)

Electrical Efficiency of Inductor

Inductor Component
R1 R2

Inductor Component

Fig.43

Power in Component (PC ) R2

η= =
Total Power (PI ) R1 + R2

R1 as small as possible
η→1
R2 as large as possible

P1 = I2 • R1 Pc = I2 • R2 PI = I2 • R1 + I2 • R2

Where: P1 = power loss in the inductor

P2 = Power dissipated by the component s<δ
Pt = Total power

Inductorresistance R1 is small when:

s
- Specific Resistance ρ1 of Inductormaterial is small (Cu, Ag)
- Inductor is properly cooled (ρ increases with Temperature)
- Inductorsquaresection s is big enough (s > δ) s>δ

Component resistance R2 is big if:

- Specific. Resistance ρ2 is big

39 s
Other important considerations:
- Component diameter d0 to electrical
penetration depth should be big(d0/δ > 4)Ö
Selection of Frequency
- Small Coupling Distance Inductor -
Component

Fig.44

Inductor Coupling Distance

As the distance between the
inductor and component
reduces the efficiency of the
process increases. We make
compromise between the
distance to suit other
considerations like profile of the
work-piece, run-out of the
machine, and the alignment of
the axis.

Fig.45

40
DEFORMATION:

When steel is heat treated by any means there will be distortion, this is mainly
due to three reasons:

1- Changes in volume of material.

Fig.47 Thermal Elongation

•The diagram shows volume changes in the material during hardening. This
explains why symmetrical heating and quenching is important.
•Note the reduction in volume during the conversion to austenite. It´s also for the
deformations beneficial that the material is heated high enough in temperature.

2 - Deformation of the shape

Fig.48

41
•Depends of shape, heat pattern, rate of heating, quenching methode/rate
•Make sure that heating and quenching is as symmetrical as possible.
•The martensitic material have a bigger volume, but practical experience often
says that components shrink when hardened. This comes because the cold part
of the component keeps the heated part in place and the heated part is therefore
compressed.

3 - Tensions
•Tensions in the material after machining are released when the workpiece is
heated.
•This can be avoided by relaxation annealing after machining.

Residual stresses
•All deformation mechanisms we have discussed earlier results in Residual
stresses in the component.
•These stresses give the component very much of its performance during the
components active life.
•At surface hardening compressive stresses is normally achieved in the
surface. This gives several advantages, like less risk of cracks and
increased fatigue strength.•Through hardening often gives tensile stresses in
the surface.
•The compressive stresses at surface hardening comes from the volume
increase of martensite.
•At through hardening the martensite in the sur
face is formed first. When the martensite forms in the center, it wants to expand
more than the surface.
• Shape of the component and size are the major factors influencing the
hardness profile and stresses created during the heat-treating process, and
also distortion. By selecting a suitable shape the likelihood of distortion and the
risk of cracking can be minimized and the life of the product can also be
increased. Sudden changes in cross section can influence the hardness profile.

CRACKS
•Cracks can have several causes. They come when there are tensile stresses
somewhere in the material that exceeds the local strength of the material.
•They often start in the transformation zone between hardened and unhardened
material.
•They often come in places where the geometry is more complicated, like in a
radius, where heating and quenching is not as uniform as in other parts of the
component.

When cracks appears, check:

•Quenching:
–Too low temperature of the quench media
–Uneven quenching, concentrated quenching in one spot
–Too low quenchant concentration

42
-Wrong selection of the quenchant
••Tempering:
–If tempered in furnace, temperature might have been too low
–Components have waited too long for tempering (over night)
•••Material:
–New charge with higher carbon content
••••Design:
-Abrupt changes in cross section
-Sharp edges (avoid sharp edges and if possible try to add chamfer)

How to optimize the residual stress profile to avoid cracks:

•Pre heating, a high core temperature of the component is often an advantage.
•Wait a little bit with the quenching by adding a dwell time or lower the spray
quench. Do not speed up the feeding at the top of a scanning process when the
heating is finished if there is a crack problem there.
•Optimize the spray quench to achieve even quenching over the cooled area.
Areas with less heat and more cold material behind the heated zone, like a
radius, might require less quenching.
•Do not over-quench by using too high quench pressure/flow.
•Uniform quenching with higher of polymer quenchant percentage, best will be if
martensite is formed at the same time all through the depth of the hardened
material.
•More uniform quenching of complex geometrys like gears and splines can be
achievd by using a low workpiece rotation speed.

ALLOYS:

Alloying: Alloying is nothing but changing the chemical composition of a metal by

adding other elements to enhance its properties in comparison with pure metal.

Since we are discussing about steel and are concerned about it, the properties
that can be enhaced are as follows:

Increasing the temperature where Austenite exists (stabilizing Austenite):

The elements having the crystal structure Face Centered Cubic (FCC) which is
same as that of Austenite has to be added to rise the temperature of formation of
austenite from lliquid phase (A4) and decrease the temperature where α iron
transforms to γ iron (A3).

Example for these elements Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), Copper
(Cu) etc.,

Decreasing the temperature where Austenite exists (stbilizing Ferrite): The

elements having the crystal structure Body Centered Cubic (BCC) which is same
as that of Ferrite has to be added to decrease the A4 temperature and increase

43
A3. These elements reduce the solubility of carbon which inturn incrreases the
amounts of carbides in steel.

Example for these elements Chromium (Cr), Tungsten (W), Molebdenum (Mo),
Vanadium (V), Aluminium (Al), Silicon (Si).

Carbide forming: Chromium (Cr), Tungsten (W), Molibdenum (Mo), Vanadium

(V), Titanium (Ti), Niobium (Nb), Tantalum (Ta), Zirconium (Zr) form hard
carbides increasing steel hardness and steel strength.

ELEMENT PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS

Aluminum - Al Most active de-oxidiser in common use, and controls
inherent grain size
Boron - B In combination with other elemnts acts as an intensifier,
when added in amounts of 0.0005 to 0.003% with other
elemts increases the depth of hardening, improves
deformability and machinability.
Carbon -C When added in small quantity to iron properties of steel
start to appear, when added up to 0.8 to 0.9% metal
becomes harder, increases tensile strength, and becomes
responsive to heat treatment. From 1.7 to 4.5% it becomes
to assume the properties of cast iron
Chromium -Cr Increases response to heat treatment, increases case
depth. Most chromium bearing steels contain 0.5 to 1.5%
chromium. Stainless steels contain 12 to 25% along with
nickel and possess increased resistance to oxidation.
Increases corrosion resistance at concentrations above
12%
Cobalt -Co Improves strength at high temperatures and magnetic
permeability.
Copper –Cu Added in amounts of 0.15 to 0.25%, increases atmospheric
corrosion resistance, increases tensile and yeald strength
but the alloy loses ductility slightly
Manganese –Mn Important de-oxidiser, imparts strength and responsiveness
to heat treatment. Increases hardenability, ductility, and
wear resistance. Eliminates formation of harmful sulfides
and also increases strength at high temperatures. Usually
present in steels from 0.5 to 2%
Molybdenum –Mo Increases depth of hardness and toughness, resists
softening at high temperatures, increases high creep
strength.
Nickel –Ni Increases strength and toughness, but does not play a
major role in increasing hardenability. Increases corrosion
resistance in combination with other elements.
Niobium Makes steel immune to harmful carbide precipitation and

44
(Columbium) –Nb inter granular corrosion. It has similar effect that of titanium.
Is used in the electrodes used for welding titanium alloys,
since titanium would be lost in the weld arc and noibium
replaces it at the joint
Phosphorus –P Normally present in all steels, increases yeald strength but
reduces ductility at low temperature.
Silicon –Si Common de-oxidiser used in steel. Increases tensile
strength and improves hardenability. Improves elasticity
and acid resistance and promotes larger grain size which
increases magnetic permeability.
Sulphur –S Increases machinability but at higher percentage
detrimental to hot forming properties.
Tellurium –Te Increases machinability.
Titanium –Ti Makes steel immune to harmful carbide precipitation,
improves strength and corrosion resistance.
Tungsten –W In small quantities tends produce fine, dense grain and
keen cutting edge. In higher concentration used with other
alloys retains hardness at high temperatures.
Vanadium –V Retards grain growth, tool steel with vanadium resist
shocks. Increases creap and impact resistance better than
tool steels without vanadium.
Zirconium -Zr Increases strength and limits grain sizes.

Austenite stabilizing elements: Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co) and
Copper (Cu).

Ferrite stabilizers: Chromium (Cr), Tungsten (W), Molybdenum (Mo), Vanadium

(V), Aluminium (Al), and Silicon (Si).

Carbide forming elements: Chromium (Cr), Tungsten (W), Molybdenum (Mo),

Vanadium (V), Titanium (Ti), Niobium (Nb), Tantalum (Ta) and Zirconium (Zr).

Graphitizing elements: Silicon (Si), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Aluminium (Al)

Elements that decrease eutectoid concentration: Titanium (Ti), Molybdenum

(Mo), Tungsten (W), Silicon (Si), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni)

Elements that increase corrosion resistance: Aluminium (Al), Silicon (Si),

Chromium (Cr).

45
 Factors Affecting Induction Hardening and Tempering

Transformation Transformation
Heating To To Tempering
Austenite Martensite

Machine • Temperature • Quench • Time

parameters • Heating rate temperature • Temperature
• Frequency • Soaking time • Rate of cooling • Method
• Power • Chemical • Chemical − Furnace
• Equipment composition composition − Induction
condition • Microstructure • Initial − Back
• Coupling • Grain size microstructure tempering
distance • Cold
• Voltage deformation
variation

Results
• Hardness
• Case depth
• Residual
stresses

46
 HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLES
Rockwell C HRC Brinell HB
(120 degree (10 mm Ball,
cone 150 kg) 3000 kg load) Vickers HV1(1 kg) Leeb HLD
65 682 940 812
64 668 905 806
63 652 867 799
62 626 803 787
61 614 775 782
60 601 746 776
59 590 727 770
57 576 694 763
56 552 649 751
55 545 639 748
54 529 606 739
53 514 587 731
52 502 565 724
51 495 551 719
49 477 534 709
48 461 502 699
47 451 489 693
46 444 474 688
45 427 460 677
44 415 435 669
43 401 423 660
42 388 401 650
41 375 390 640
40 370 385 635
39 362 380 630
38 351 361 621
37 346 352 617
36 331 335 605
35 323 320 599
34 311 312 588
33 301 305 579
32 293 291 572
31 285 285 565
30 276 278 557
29 269 272 550
28 261 261 542
27 258 258 539
25 249 250 530
24 245 246 526
23 240 240 521
23 237 235 518
22 229 226 510
21 224 221 505
 EFD Induction Private Limited
Plot 16 C&D, KIADB Industrial Area
Attibele – 562 107
Bangalore District, Karnataka, India
Tel : +91 80 27820404, 66690400
Fax : +91 80 27820405
Mail : sales@in.efdgroup.net

www.efd-induction.com