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Projectile's charge: z Projectile's energy: E (MeV)
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Contents
A particle entering a tube ionizes a single atom of the filling gas of the tube. this single
Radiation Measurements
particle initiates an avalanche of ionization in the tube. This avalanche consists of
Radiation detectors
many secondary ionizations which causes the extracted electrons, since they are
Geiger Muller counter
accelerated, to move towards the anode (positive lectrode).
Black body radiation Each ionizing particle corresponds to an avalanche, then to a current outside the tube,
Abstract called a pulse of voltage.
Introduction
StefanBoltzman law During a fixed interval of time, many particles can enter the tube, then many pulses
Wien formula can occur. If the scaler records x pulses, then we had x ionizing particles. The
RayleighJeans formula amplitude of such pulse is the order of a volt or so.
Planck law
Planck constant
The GM Counter is used for counting alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays
BoseEinstein distribution
with. This device does not define the nature of these particles. It just count them.
StatisticalMechanics The electrons travel to the anode very quickly. However, it takes a certain time
MaxBolt distribution called the dead time (or down time)to the positive ions to reach the cathode (negative
β = 1/kT electrode). During this dead time, the tube remains insensitive; and even an ionizing
BoseEinstein distribution particle arrives inside the tube, it will not ionize the atoms of the filling gas, and
FermiDirac distribution therefore, it will not be counted. To give the true counting rate, we must take account
Bosons and Fermions of this gap.This dead time (or recovery time) is about 100 400 microseconds. During
this dead time, one or more other ionizing particles come in the tube. This
phenomenon is known as coincidence and the correction applied is known as the
Radiation and scattering
coincidence correction.
Rutherford scattering
Thompson scattering
Rayleigh scattering
Compton scattering 2. Resolving time
Pair production
1. Definition:
Resolving time is defined as the smallest time interval which elapse between the
Related topics occurrence of two consecutive ionizing events or signal pulses, in order that the
Attenuation coefficients measuring device could be capable of fulfilling its function for each of the two
Radiations & Therapy occurrences separately.
Main processes
Katz's Model 2. The coincidence correction formula: If the counter were perfect, it would measure N
The NMR counts in the time interval t; then the rate R = N/t. But during the dead time td (or
down time), the counter was inoperative and missed R x td counts. It follows then that
Related links the true count is:
xray2000 True = missed + mesured
N = R x td + M
R x t R x td = M
© The scientific sentence. 2010
R = r/(1 td/t)
with r = M/t, the measured rate.
If we assume that the dead time td is constant for a filling gas, we can understand that it will
be proportional to the counting time t and the true collected number of counts N. Let's
write then:
td = constant x N, or with constant = T:
td = T x N
T is called the resolving time
The relationship above becomes:
R = r/(1 TR), that gives:
R2T + r R = 0
At low count rates N &asym; N and the realtionship
becomes:
R = r/(1 rT)
3. Background radiation
Other radiation called background radiation is always present. Gamma rays
emitted by certain radioisotopes in the ground, the air, various building materials,
and cosmic radiation from outer space can all provide counts in a detector in addition
to those from a sample being measured. This background counting rate should always
be subtracted from a sample counting rate in order to obtain the rate from the sample
alone.
Having a small quantity of radioactive material (split source), split in two parts, we
measure the rate r1 for the first part and r2 for the second part and r12 for the two
combined parts.
If we neglect the background for the three measurements, we can set the equality for
the related true rates:
R1 + R2 = R12
That is:
r1/(1 r1T) + r2/(1 r2T) = = r12/(1 r12T)
Solving for T, we have:
T = 2r1r2 [4r12r22 4r1r2r12 (r1 + r 2 r12)]1/2/
2r1r2r12
We can write it as: T = 2r1r2 2r1r2[1 r12(r1 + r2 r12)/r1r2]1/2 / 2r1r2r12 Using the
MacLaurin series:
(1 + x)n = 1 + n x + n(n1)x2/2! + n(n1)(n2) x3/3! + ...
for n = 1/2, that is: (1 x)1/2 = 1 x/2 + ...; we find:
T = 2r1r2 2r1r2[1 r12(r1 + r2 r12)/2r1r2 + ... ]/ 2r1r2r12
T = r12(r1 + r2 r12)/ 2r1r2r12 = (r1 + r2 r12)/ 2r1r2
T = (r1 + r2 r12)/ 2r1r2
The observed or measured m mean is a good approximation of the true mean. It is
set by a finite (and large) number of observations. It is expressed by its arithmetic
average:
m = ∑ ni/N
where ni is the ith measurement and is the total number of measurements. The index i
vary from 1 to N.
The difference between a measurement and its mean is called deviation = ni m (
observed) or ni μ (theoritical).
The variance, denoted σ2, is the average of the squared deviations. σ2 = &sum (ni
μ)/N, or for a sample: σ2 = &sum (ni m)/N
The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. More precisely, the root
meansquare: rms.
The radioactive decays occur commonly with a large number N(t) for a fixed time "t".
N(t) is a random variable described by a Poisson distribution; with a Standard
Deviation is the square root of the true mean. Fore more details, see Probability &
Statistics section.
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