Biogeography Soils (Part 2)

 Soils and how they affect plant growth (diagram):

Sandy soil (making connections between the soil, water and the plants):
- Coarse-textured -> Big interstitial spaces (spaces in between) -> Rapid
movement of water -> Water rapidly moves beyond reach of shallow rooted
plants -> Plants wither
Biogeography Soils (Part 2)

Stratified soil (sandy soil, clayey soil) – One type of soil on top and another type of soil
below:
- Stratified soil -> Water moves in fast through the sandy layer (more water
coming in)-> Very slow movement resists percolation (less water going through
clayey soil). This leads to waterlogging. -> Soil above gets saturated: This leads
to Perched Water table: Saturation Overland flow: Erosion
*Perched water table: Above a location/region in soil where all the pore spaces in the
soil is filled up with water. Higher percentage of clay then leads to greater possibility
on the development of a perched water table.
* Saturation Overland flow: Runoff occurs when the soil gets saturated.
Sandy soil is located on top while clayey soil is located at the bottom: Water goes
through the sandy soil which has some clay and silt as well and washes down the finer
particles and they get deposited at a lower layer. -> Therefore, higher % of clay at the
lower levels.
 Munsell Colour Chart
- Soil colour suggests the composition of the soil.
- May vary from hues of red, yellow, black, white. But can be deceptive: high
humus content (organic matter) – dark
- Red: A lot of iron oxide -> A lot of oxidation going on in warm and humid climate
(not characteristic of arctic region).
- Warm temperate soils with less than 3% organic matter– some of the blackest
soils. E.g. Volcanic areas. Due to mineral content of soil.

 Soil Acidity or Alkalinity

- Important as organisms do not favour too acidic or alkaline soil. Neutral pH is
preferred.
- If it contains lot of Hydrogen ions: acidic soil
- If it contains lot of base cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium):
basic or alkaline soil
- Soils produced from Granite can be acidic
- Soils in Mangroves are also acidic
- Soils in arid regions are usually basic in nature: Range of pH for arid-region
soils (7-9)
- Soils in humid regions are acidic in nature: Range of pH common for humid-
region soils (5-7)
- Range in pH for most inorganic soils: 3.5-10.5

 Soil Profile
- Soil changes from the surface downwards. E.g. Amount of organic matter
decreases as we go down (due to less air), lighter soil on top and more
compacted soil below. This is the Soil Profile, called a Pedon. (diagram) It is a
hexagonal column of soil with 1 – 10m2 top surface. At the side, the various
layers of soil are visible.
Biogeography Soils (Part 2)

- Each layer in a pedon is a soil horizon. Each horizon is distinctive in

characteristic (colour, texture, structure, chemical characteristics, bulk density
etc.)

- Significant changes take place as soils develop from the parent materials.
- Four major processes => For soil profile development:
- Transformation: weathering and organic matter breakdown
- Translocation: movement of inorganic and organic materials from one horizon
up or down to another, mostly by water, but also by organisms (e.g.
earthworms). Earthworms regenerate the soil when they ingest soil materials
and excrete.
- Additions: of materials to the soil profile from outside: organic matter from
leaves, dust, soluble salts from groundwater. E.g. Leaves decompose and get
incorporated.
- Losses: of materials from the soil profile by leaching (washing out of some
materials from the top layer to the bottom layer), erosion of surface materials or
removal.
- Soil Profile (diagram):
Biogeography Soils (Part 2)

Bedrock
O Horizon: Leaf litter (e.g. dead roots). Named for its organic matter (Humus),
usually dark in colour. Organic layer, derived from plant and animal litter, humus,
dark coloured, rich in microorganisms, retains water.
*What is there in the top surface of the soil?
Humus: At the top of the soil profile in the ‘O’ Horizon. Derived from plant and
animal remains, litter deposited on the surface and then transformed into Humus.
It is sticky and dark-coloured, can retain moisture, is rich in nutrients, and
microorganisms.
*Inhabitants of the ‘O’ Horizon:
A- Termites (Termite Mound - Inside a Termite Mound: a network of underground
passageways. Termites are major contributors in breakdown of organic materials.
Most active in grasslands. Eat rotten woody materials, plant residues.)
B- Earthworms. Earthworms are the most important macroanimals of the soil. They
eat detritus, organic matter, microorganisms, but do not eat living plants. They
enhance the soil conditions, by aerating them, making them rich in available
nutrient, making passageways for roots and water, and also releasing the nutrients
locked in their bodies to the soil when they die.
Biogeography Soils (Part 2)

Ideal conditions for earthworms:

- Prarie grass cover (a lot of air is provided), Not compacted soil, very well-
drained (there is moisture but not waterlogged), dark coloured soil (rich in
organic matter – source of food), well defined soil horizons (undisturbed soil for
a long period of time. Thus, making it easier for them to live).

A Horizon: Plough zone where farmers plough (till the soil). Lots of organic matter
incorporated from the O horizon. Made of humus and clay, provide essential
nutrients to plants. Horizon rich in organic content, dark in colour.
*E Horizon, a transition zone, lighter in colour than A horizon, made up of coarse
sand, silt, resistant minerals. Clays, aluminium, and iron are washed down
(leached) to the lower horizons as water percolates through the soil: ZONE OF
ELUVIATION (Exit – things are washing down)
B Horizon: All the water that is washed down brings materials down here.
Accumulated clay, oxides. B Horizon, a zone of accumulation of clay, aluminium,
and iron; reddish or yellowish in colour than A horizon. Clays, aluminium, iron,
organic oxides are washed down (leached) to this horizon as water percolates
through the soil: ZONE OF IlLUVIATION (In – Washed into the lower layers)
C Horizon: Deep down where there is not much organic matter (lack of air).
Weathered bedrock, also known as regolith; not much affected by soil operations,
lies outside the biological influences experienced in the upper layers (not really a
part of the growing soil), lacks clay concentration.
*The C Horizon is the layer of weathered bedrock, also called the regolith. It is not
much affected by soil processes.
R Horizon: Rock
*The combination of A, E, and B Horizons is called the SOLUM. This is where most
soil processes take place.
These processes take time for the soil to be productive.
Biogeography Soils (Part 2)

- Light coloured soil (lumps): Characteristic of places which develop on rocks

where we note sudden concentrations of clay. E.g. Rocks with a lot of feldspar
and mica -> They can be weathered into clay (kaoline). This can happen in B
Biogeography Soils (Part 2)

horizon where some rock particles are present. They become weathered with
little pockets of air.
- Tropical Rainforest soils: Holes seen (macropores) created by soil organisms.
Water goes through.
- Mangrove soils -> white coloured soil: Usually very dark coloured, partially and
undecomposed organic matter is present. However, deep down during low tide,
there are some clots of white soil as the soil is totally devoid of all oxygen. White
cloured soils can be present in deserts and mangroves.
- Basis of Soil formation: Stimulated by CLIMATE (determines what type of soil
develops) and LIVING ORGANISMS acting on the PARENT MATERIALS over
periods of TIME under the influence of TOPOGRAPHY (e.g. Soils cannot
develop well in mountains slopes as water always flows VS flat ground
(waterlogging) VS slight gradients -> Gives better drainage.

- So the five important factors are: CLIMATE, LIVING ORGANISMS, PARENT

MATERIALS, TIME, TOPOGRAPHY.
- All these affect the type of soil found in any one place.