The Asian Man DOI: 10.5958/j.0975-6884.7.1X.

016
Vol. 7, Issue 1&2, January - December 2013 : 124-129

ARTICLE

A Study of the Impact of Education and Mass Media on Rural Women, Family-
Planning Attitude and Practices in Himachal Pradesh
Tejinder Kaur*, B.G. Banerjee and A.K. Sinha

ABSTRACT
Population education is an important component of family-planning programmes. Women’s perception towards family planning
can influence the socioeconomic development of a community. This study examines the extent of attitude among women regarding
population education and various socioeconomic factors affecting them. The results indicate that there is a significant association
between various socioeconomic factors and perceptions of women towards population education. This study also analyses the
effect that mass media can have on social behaviour and examines the effectiveness of the broadcast media, specifically radio and
televisions, in creating and disseminating family-planning information on matters of number and spacing of children.
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Keywords: Impact of education, Mass-media, Family-planning and rural women

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Introduction the social aspects and benefits of the different programmes.

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Rapid population growth and the concomitant
problems of poverty, lack of adequate health and
educational facilities, malnutrition, no basic needs, even
the basic needs of a vast majority of the population, paucity
of employment opportunities, natural resources and
consequent environmental degradation constitute critical
dimensions of the population and development
phenomena. Although the size, growth, composition and
distribution of population have a close bearing on
socioeconomic development, population-related issues
also bring forth concerns for the “carrying capacity” of
the biological and ecological system and for the future of
mankind.
It is essential to have an education regarding
population and small family. Women should be aware
regarding different population checks. We are living in the
age of science and technology, due to which there is terrific
pace in both material and non-materiel aspects of life.
Hence, in order to bridge the gap between different aspects
of life, there is a need of both population education and
small family norm. Education of an individual along with
awareness, through various media of communication
makes him/ her aware of various schemes available to him/
her. In the selected village, Mehnja, health workers made
home-to-home visits and motivated the population about
Creation of this awareness is integral to the process
of social development. The power of communication is to
liberate the minds and to direct the potential of people to
critical awareness, and the development process begins
with awareness, input of information, level of education
and communication.
The term ‘mass media’ operationally refers to
newspapers, magazines, radio, movies, television, music
recording, books and the Internet. Behavioural change
theories have provided a useful framework for various
health campaigns in the country as is the case everywhere
else in the world. It is generally accepted today that in the
process of accepting or adopting a new behaviour,
an individual passes through several stages of exposure,
attention and attraction for message, comprehension,
knowledge, favourable attitudes, retention, motivation
decision and skill acquisitions to the new idea. Once the
behaviour is decided, then the new behaviour needs
reinforcement and consolidation (Nigerian Institute of
Journalism & Johns Hopkins University, IHPC Manual,
2000: 47–49).
The three most popular mass media are newspapers
and posters/billboards, radio and television. News papers
as well as posters and billboards have an enduring nature,
which neither the radio nor the television has. Radio tends

Ms. Tejinder Kaur, U.G.C. JRF, Department of Anthropology, Punjab University, Chandigarh, Email: tejinderanthropologist@gmail.com.
Dr. B.G. Banerjee and Dr. A.K. Sinha are Professors, Department of Anthropology, Punjab University, Chandigarh
*Corresponding author

124
 A Study of the Impact of Education and Mass Media on Rural Women, Family-Planning Attitude and Practices in Himachal Pradesh
to be the most pervasive, especially in rural areas, and can
overcome illiteracy barriers. It is a populist medium and
also has some kind of a personal touch to message content
and delivery, even though the message is rather transient.
Television has a versatility based on the communication
of sounds and images, but has not achieved the wide reach
of the radio. Moreover, television is largely urban based
and may not be widely available for the lower working class
and for the rural poor.
Kamal (1996) conducted a study in Bangladesh
regarding the probability of using modern contraception
by eligible family members of a household and mentioned
that it increases significantly if the household head himself
is a user. Multinomial logistic regression showed that
contraceptive use was also significantly related to maternal
age, parity, education, socioeconomic status and experience
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of child mortality.
Hypotheses for this Study
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I. Mass-communication and media activities help create
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awareness about a small family norm and increase the
practice of using family-planning and birth-control
methods.
II. Education depicts a positive impact on demand for
contraceptives. It gives knowledge and changes the
perception of individuals.
III. Small family size increases the standard of living.
The Universe and Unit of Study
The universe of study for this study was conducted
in two villages, namely Mehnja and Ghuggar of Palampur
block, District Kangra of Himachal Pradesh. This study
was undertaken in seven wards of Mehnja village and in
one ward of Ghuggar village. A total of thirty respondents
were taken into account for this study. The unit of study
included individual married women of the families of the
two villages Mehnja and Ghuggar. For this study, only
married women of the reproductive age group were
interviewed. Only one married woman per household was
considered. Most of the respondents chosen were
between the age group of 20and 30years. Both primary
and secondary sources of data collection were used by
the researchers.
Analysis of Data
Hypothesis I: Mass-communication and media activities
help create awareness and increase the practice of using
family-planning methods and birth-control measures.
The Asian Man
Communication is a universal phenomenon among
living beings. Newman and Summer (1961) have viewed
communication as an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or
emotions by two or more persons. Effective communi-
cation/decision-making allows people to seek what is best
for their own health and to exercise their right to good
quality healthcare (Rimal et al., 2002). In the same vein, it
has been argued that the mass media, especially radio and
television, have been quite effective in creating family-
planning awareness. In family-planning organisation,
external communication is very important in the
implementation of its programmes, as information about
the utility and means of planned parenthood through
appropriate choices and correct use of contraceptives by
eligible married couples is important.
Mass communication in itself is strongly ideological:
its messages are highly centralised, largely impersonal,
machine mediated, lacking in opportunity for user feedback
and participation, as well as restricted by technological
characteristics. On the other hand, media shape social
understanding and expression by virtue of their nature
and organisation. Mass media can affect the way we think
about issues around us. Television and newspapers are
two very important aspects for creating awareness.
Especially in rural areas, the television has created an
impact on the population educating them about the uses
and benefits of contraceptives. Newspapers have the same
function, but are less important in rural areas since
newspaper reading is not so much like among urban
centres. News papers have also been taking an increasing
interest in publishing views of family-planning
significance; in addition, leaflets, circulars and work
newspapers can develop into an excellent medium of telling
the story pictorially and in a direct manner to villagers. On
the other hand, television with the motion picture film, as
a means of informing the people is greater than any other
means of mass-communication. Radio can also reach a
large number of people at one time with little expense,
exerting a persuasive and personal influence on people to
adopt new practices. In rural areas, it has become a popular
medium. The data show that 71.4% respondents have
coloured television sets and 25.7% have black and white
sets, and only 2.85% do not have a television set. In all,
48.57% own radios, 57.14% subscribe to Hindi newspapers
(such as Amar Ujala, PanjabKesri, Divya Himachal, The
Tribune, etc.) and only 2.85% subscribe to both English
and Hindi newspapers.
125
 Tejinder Kaur, B.G. Banerjee and A.K. Sinha
Sterilisation is a permanent method of birth control in
which the vas deferens of a man or in the case of a woman,
the fallopian tube, is surgically severed to prevent future
conception. Copper-T is also very popular among
contraceptive use (females) of spacing methods. Condoms
are also a very popular male contraceptive. During data
collection, it was observed that oral pills are a very popular
and common means of contraceptives (even all over the
world, it is used by over 60 million women). The anganwari
workers distribute these free of cost and these suit most
of the women.
The level of awareness of the respondents is reflected
in their curiosity and knowledge about various
contraceptives. In all, 11.4% knew about oral pills and
condoms and only 2.85% had heard of Copper-T. Among
97.14% respondents who had heard of family-planning
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methods,82.85% had information regarding all types of
birth-control contraceptives. In the northern district of Goa,
Kulkarni (2003) analysed the impact of women’s exposure
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to television, radio and newspapers and their influence on
their use of family-planning methods. The study revealed
that the current use of family-planning practice by women
was 48.4%. The use of family-planning methods was found
to be positively correlated with women’s exposure to
information on family-planning methods in television, radio
or newspapers. The multivariate logistic regression
analysis subsequently established that this association
was independent of women’s education, place of residence
and number of living children.
The field data show that 68.57% respondents were for
the display of advertisements on T.V. They were also of
view that all information regarding family-planning
methods should be provided by anganwari workers,
dispensary doctors, etc. Overall, 2.85% respondents gave
no answer since they had no knowledge about any family-
planning method. This is because they thought that their
children would get spoilt. They felt that it was their age to
study, and that watching advertisements of contraceptives
on television would definitely have an ill-effect on their
upbringing. Some even said: “They show them because
they just want to promote their products selling, so why
should we pay for it at the cost of our kids.” Mungai (1996)
has stated that both print and electronic media are vital
reproductive health information dissemination tools.
Exposure of women to family-planning methods through
mass-communication and media activities, which comprise
all types of electronic media, posters, magazines,
brochures, etc., also depicts a positive impact on the need
126
for contraception for spacing and for limiting births or
total demand for family planning.
In addition, in a study conducted by Parr (1998), it
was observed that fertility decline coincided with an
increase in the percentage of women of reproductive age
reporting exposure to family-planning messages through
the media, a rise in the education of women of reproductive
age and a decline in mortality rate, with fewer than five
women. On the other hand, while taking in view the above
question, another question was put regarding the television
broadcast on contraceptives. Data showed that although
advertisements were displayed on T.V., 45.71%
respondents watched them, whereas 48.57% either moved
away or switched it off. Only 5.7% gave no answer. They
regarded themselves to be neutral.
The study shows that mass-communication and
media activities help create awareness and increase the
practice of using family-planning methods and birth-control
measures.
Case 1: According to two respondents, there are several
programmes for the poor and needy provided by the
government. If a family has a single girl child, then at the
age of 18 years she would be given a sum of 25,000, and
if a family consists of two girl children then20,000 is given.
The villagers are even aware of the fact that a pre-natal
diagnostic test is a crime. Prize money of 10,000 is given if
anybody gives information that these tests are being
performed in any hospital or dispensary in the city or in
the village. The same was confirmed by Mr. Rakesh and
Mrs. Kusum, two health workers, of the Mehnja village.
Hypothesis II: Education gives knowledge and it changes
the perception of individuals– how humans think and take
things for granted.
The most common usage of the term ‘education’
denotes bringing up (of the young); intellectual and moral
training; the development of mental powers and character,
especially through the provision of systematic instruction,
for example, in schools and other institutions of full-time
education. It is extended to include similar instruction or
training obtained in adult age, and the educative effect of
all social arrangements (A Dictionary of the Social Sciences,
1965).
Education depicts a positive impact on the demand
for contraceptives, i.e., education has a profound effect
on the acceptance of any family-planning methods. It gives
knowledge and changes how humans think and take things
for granted or accept any facility provided to them by the
Vol. 7, Issue 1&2, January-December 2013
 A Study of the Impact of Education and Mass Media on Rural Women, Family-Planning Attitude and Practices in Himachal Pradesh
government. Education has long-lasting implications for
women’s lives. It serves as a source of knowledge and
cognitive skills that enhances economic opportunities and
social mobility and as a socialisation process that shapes
attitude, values and aspirations (Visaria, 2002).
Education also has an impact on women’s
reproductive desires and behaviour. Reproductive and
maternal healthcare forms a very important aspect of a
woman’s health, and as such it becomes important to pay
attention to a women’s health as soon as she gets pregnant.
Traditionally, it has been argued that women’s
schooling may affect contraceptive use in a number of
ways (Pal and Make Peace, 2000). First, it typically delays
the age of cohabitation. Second, literate women can learn
about the usage of contraceptives more effectively than
can uneducated women, thus reducing the number of
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unanticipated pregnancies. Third, highly educated women
are likely to be more effective in producing healthy children.
The relationship between poorer households and their
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large family size may be accounted for the fact that they
find themselves in a vicious circle of low levels of
education, low income, scarcity of land and lack of
employment opportunities, where a large number of
children represent the only hope of breaking through,
thinking that may be one of them would be successful and
fortunes might change in their favour.
In almost every setting, regardless of region, culture
and level of development, higher education results in fewer
children. More educated women bear fewer children than
do lesser-educated women. Women’s education has a
direct effect on fertility reduction, autonomy, age at
marriage and improved infant and child survival (Jejeebhoy,
1995).
Education in one way does affect contraceptives use
among couples. While interviewing the respondents, the
researchers had asked how education would affect their
use of contraceptives. From respondents’ point of view,
we can state that the probability of using contraceptives
for limiting births was higher among educated couples.
From the field data, it was observed that 17.14%
respondents had done their schooling up to the eighth
class, 31.4% had done up to the secondary level and 25.7%
up to higher secondary levels. In all, only 20% were
graduates and 5.7% were post-graduates. The educational
level of the spouses showed that 5.7% respondents were
educated up to the middle class, 42.85% up to the
secondary class, 28.57% up to higher secondary class and
The Asian Man
20% were graduates, whereas only 2.85% were post-
graduates.
The field data so analysed showed that only 8 couples,
i.e., who counts for 22.85% were such where both male
and female counterparts were using contraceptives or had
used sometime in the past. In all, 75% females were
educated above or up to the higher secondary level, and
62.5% had education level equal to or below the higher
secondary level. According to Chaterjee (1979), the
movement in respect of illiteracy has been found to be
almost universally associated with fertility, and the
relationship between education and fertility depends on
the type of education. Education that emphasises the
purposive application of formal, logical and scientific
principles decisions is conducive to low fertility.
If the couple is educated, they share a mutual
understanding and both go in for adopting birth-control
measures. Fertility and contraceptive use in developing
countries are associated with various markers of
socioeconomic status, most prominent of which is
women’s education (Castro,1995; Jejeebhoy, 1995); the
well-documented link between female education and use
of contraception plays an important role in the
development of family-planning policies in lower-income
countries. Tehrani et al. (2001) in their study, using a logistic
regression model, found that age, women’s level of
education, their husbands’ level of education and previous
familiarity with contraceptive methods were the most
significant factors influencing contraceptive use.
There is a correlation between the level of literacy
and that of awareness. Overall, 97.14% respondents said
that they were aware of family-planning programmes and
various incentives as well as benefits. In all, 2.85%
respondents said that they were not aware of it, had no
knowledge about contraceptives and so had never used
any. Again, 97.14% respondents had necessary knowledge
regarding family-planning methods, and they had even, if
not used, heard of contraceptives. Out of these 97.14%
respondents, 37.14% said that television was the medium
from which they came to know about family-planning
methods. In all, 28.57% indicated doctors/dispensaries,
20% said that they came to know about contraceptives
from friends and neighbours, 5.7% got information from
the local anganwari and 5.7% from other sources.
The perusal and analysis of the data confirm that
education gives knowledge and it changes the perception
of individuals–how people think and take things for
granted.
127
 Tejinder Kaur, B.G. Banerjee and A.K. Sinha
Hypothesis III: Small family size promotes the standard of
living.
Unwanted high fertility adversely affects the health
of family members, especially in populations below the
poverty line. Women and children are the ones who are
seriously affected by unregulated fertility. Small family size
helps maintain harmony between parents and children.
Small families show better standards of living, which is
due to a dual combination of high female literacy and better
family-planning adoption. Small families have improved
standards of living, less morbidity and less mortality and
are therefore undoubtedly promote a wealthy and healthy
family.
Using contraceptives for limiting births or for spacing
births, one is able to keep the size of the family small.
Women can plan their births to take place at optimal lines
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for childbearing and any risk to health would be less.
Contraception is an important aspect of reproductive
health and plays a major role in the prevention of unwanted
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pregnancy. Therefore, it is a significant factor in the
reduction of induced abortion rates and improvement in
maternal healthcare. Maternal mortality is an indicator to
the quality of maternal health care in every society (Bobzom
et al., 1998).
The sources of income of any individual determine
his economic condition, which is crucial in the modern
world in the matter of having good standards of living or
to acquire the needed material goods and services. The
standards of living of the modern man depend on his
income, which in turn matters more in purchasing material
goods and comforts.
The list of family-planning methods with which the
respondents were acquainted included traditional or
natural methods, oral pills, sterilisations, Nirodh /
condomsand Copper-T. In all, 82.85% respondents knew
about the different types of contraceptives with which
they were acquainted and which were available from
doctors, chemists or anganwari workers. Overall, only
11.4% respondents knew about oral pills and Nirodh/
condoms, and just 2.85% knew about Copper-T. Adinma
et al. (2011) in her study concluded that the majority (73%)
of the respondents had a high level of contraceptive
awareness, but only 10% had ever used contraceptives
including 6% who used male condoms.
In all, 97.14% respondents had heard of family-
planning methods, whereas 2.85% had never heard of any
family-planning methods for limiting or for spacing births.
Awareness regarding the various incentives and benefits
128
of birth-control methods was found among 97.14%
respondents. Overall, 74.28% respondents were of the view
that they should restrict the number of children and have
a small family.
Almost all married informants said that they have used
some forms of family planning at some time or the other.
On enquiry, it was found that most of them or their
husbands had an operation done since they felt that they
had sufficient number of children of the desired sex. Only
a few women used methods of spacing, which included
pills and condoms. A couple decides whether and when to
use or not use family-planning methods, and there was no
interference from the elders of the tribe. A few women who
had not used any family-planning methods belonged to
the 49+ age group. These women said that there were not
so many facilities available in earlier times and because of
that there was fear associated, which acted as a deterrent.
Out of these respondents who had restricted their
family size, 28.57% couples already had a son and a
daughter, which according to them was an ideal family. In
all, 17.14% couples had two sons, so they had gone for
restricting the family size, and finally, 11.4% couples had
two daughters but still said that irrespective of whether it
is a daughter or a son, good education and a good standard
of living was what mattered and not the sex of the child.
Overall, 5.7% couples had one son and 5.7% had one
daughter only. In all, 2.85% couples had one son after
three daughters, which made them restrict their family size,
and 2.85% had one son after two daughters. In all, 25.71 %
respondents did not want to restrict their family size. Since
most of the couples had a single child or two girls and
because of preference for the male child, they wanted to
avail another chance.
Thus, the statistics clearly shows that the maximum
respondents who had adopted small family were those
who had two children, a boy and a girl, and the
respondents who still did not want to restrict their family
size were those who either had a single child or those who
were awaiting for a male child.
It is also evident that along with small family attitude,
the economic conditions of the family also matters a lot in
family-planning decisions regarding the use of
contraceptives for limiting birth. In all, 37.14% respondents
regarded economic condition as the cause that influences
them for using contraceptives as a birth-control method
and 25.71% regarded small family attitude as the reason
that in fluenced them to use any contraceptive. On the
other hand, both economic condition and small family
Vol. 7, Issue 1&2, January-December 2013
 A Study of the Impact of Education and Mass Media on Rural Women, Family-Planning Attitude and Practices in Himachal Pradesh
attitude can be linked. In a way if a family adopts the small
family norm, it definitely would help to better the economic
condition of that particular family; this was the opinion in
both the villages. Most of the respondents were of the
view that adoption of a small family basically helped in
giving a better quality of life and better standard of life to
their children. If they had two children, what mattered to
them was the quality of upbringing they could give their
children. What did not matter was the sex of the child.
The standard of living is linked to adoption of small
family size. The respondents were for the acceptance of
birth-control methods and to child birth to give better life
to their children in all possible ways. However, there were
some families/couples who have restricted their family size,
but it is so because they already have either two sons or
one son and one daughter, which according to them was a
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complete family. The want of a male child was also a
determining factor in limiting family size. Thus, the stated
hypothesis holds partially validated for the residents of
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the villages.
To conclude, it is stated that mass-communication and
media activities, as revealed by thisstudy, help create
awareness and increase the practice of using family-
planning methods and birth-control measures. Similarly,
education gives knowledge and changes the perception
of individuals– how humans think and take things
forgranted. Finally, it is doubtful whether small family size
promotes the standard of living for the residents of the
villages.
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