CH 2001 Fluid Mechanics Lecture Notes

Instructor: Dr. Sreenivasula Reddy Ramireddy

Module: 17. Incompressible flow in pipes: Minor head losses

Objectives:
Minor Losses: Effect of Entrance, exit, sudden expansion/contraction, bends, valves
and fittings, pumps/blowers/fans

Minor losses: The changes in velocity either in direction or in magnitude result in friction in
addition to the skin friction generated in straight pipes. This friction can include form
friction because of wakes and vertices arising out of disturbances in stream line flow and
also because of boundary layer separation.

In general, the friction losses are calculated in two ways

a)
2
V ; K is the loss coefficient and is to be determined experimentally for each
hm = K
2
scenario

b)
2
LV
hm = f e , Le is the equivalent length of straight pipe
D 2
1. Inlets and exits:
Inlet losses:

These are calculated by the equation of the form

2
V
hm = K
2
The minor loss coefficient K is given the following table for different types of
inlets/entrances

As noted from the above table, head loss due to entrance or inlet can be significantly
reduced by rounding the corners at the inlet. Head loss is calculated using loss coefficient
equation.

Exit losses: This scenario would be very similar to that of sudden expansion if the fluid is
entering from pipe/duct into large reservoir.

1. Sudden expansions and contractions: In either case area ratio is the critical
parameter
When there is sudden increase in cross section area of the pipe through which fluid
flows, fluid stream separation from the wall occurs. Initially the fluid stream issues as a
jet of almost the same cross sectional area as the initial pipe and then expands and
fills the entire enlarged area of cross section as shown in the figure. The space within
the expanding jet and the conduit experiences a phenomenon involving boundary
layer separation, vortex formation generating significant amounts of friction.

Figure 17.1. Flow at sudden enlargement of cross section

In both the cases, the loss coefficients depend on larger V2/2.

Incase of sudden expansion, the velocity V1 is higher than V2, thus

2
V
hme = K e 1 ; Ke= expansion-loss coefficient
2
A1
AR =
A2
2
⎛ A ⎞
Ke = ⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠

(For details on how to arrive at the above expression, Refer to Example 2.8-4, page No.
80 of Transport Processes and separation process principles, 4th edition, by Christie
John Geankoplis).

K e = ( 1 − AR )
2
Sudden Contraction:

Figure 17.2. Flow at sudden contraction of cross section

Sudden decrease in area of cross section in the fluid path, may involve sharp corners and
fluid stream loses contact with the walls. A jet is formed which contracts down the stream
first, and then expands to fill the conduit. The minimal cross section at which the jet changes
from contraction to expansion is known as vena contracta. Vortices appear as shown in the
above figure during the contraction and until the flow fully expands to fill the gap.

Incase of sudden contraction, the velocity V2 ( down stream) is higher than V1 (up stream),
thus

2
V
hmc = K c 2 ; Kc= Contraction loss co-efficient
2
A2
AR =
A1
Kc for laminar flow is in general < 0.1 and the contraction loss hmc is negligible.
For turbulent flow it is given by

K c = 0.4 ( 1 − AR )

The above empirical correlation in some text books, is given as

K c = 0.55 ( 1 − AR )

How to reduce losses due to sudden expansions and contractions?

This can be done by installing a nozzle or a diffuser.
Nozzle: used to increase the velocity by reducing the cross section gradually.
Diffuser is used to decrease the velocity by increasing the cross section are gradually,
gradual expansion.

Losses in fittings and valves:

Valve: This basically stops or controls flow. This is done by placing an obstruction in the
path of the fluid. The various types of valves, fittings and pumps will be discussed in detail
in the last unit under transportation and metering of fluids.
Examples: Gate valve, globe valve, pneumatic valve, straight fitting, elbow, T-junction
Since the valves are used for both compressible and incompressible fluids, it makes more
sense to study them at the end.

Valves and fittings disturb the normal flow lines and cause friction. In a short pipe with
several fittings, frictional loss from these fittings could be greater than in straight pipe.
Friction loss because of valves and fittings is given by
2
V
hf = K f 1 ;
2
Kf is the loss co-efficient and V1 is the average velocity leading to the fitting or valve.

Table 17.1. Friction lass co-efficient for flow through fittings and valves

Fitting Kf
Elbow, standard,
450 0.35
900 0.75
Tee
Straight through 0.4
Used as elbow 1.0
Return bend, 1800 1.5
Gate valve, Half Open 4.5
Gate valve, wide open 0.17
Angle valve, wide open 2.0
Globe valve, wide open 6.0
Globe valve, half open 9.5
Check valve, Ball 70.0
Check valve, Swing 2.0
Water meter, disk 7.0
Coupling 0.04
Union 0.04

Alternatively, head loss can be calculated by equivalent length approach.

2
LV
hm = f e , Le is the equivalent length of straight pipe
D 2
The equivalents for standard fittings and valves are given below

Friction lasses in pumps, fans and blowers:

Pump adds energy to the flow in the form of gain in the pressure mainly, but can also
increase velocity or increase the elevation. Assuming the pipes are horizontal and straight
with constant area of cross section, the head gain because of the pump is given by

∆Ppump
∆hpump =
ρ
Pump efficiency is given by

W pump
η=
W in
W pump is the power reaching the fluid and W in is the electrical power input.
Non-circular Ducts & Hydraulic Diameter:

If the height to width ratio of rectangular or square cross section is less than about 3 or 4,
the correlations for the turbulent flow can be used for such ducts by hydraulic diameter

4A
Dh ≅
P
Where A is the cross sectional area
P is the wetted perimeter, length of the wall that is in contact the fluid flow.
For a circular cross section

4(π D 2 / 4)
Dh ≅ =1
πD
For rectangular cross section:

4bh
Dh ≅
2(b + h)
For square cross-section:

4l 2
Dh ≅ = l ; l is the length of the side of the square
2( l + l )
Hydraulic Diameter or equivalent diameter is 4 times the hydraulic radius rH.

In class exercise to be solved by students: Friction losses with pump in mechanical

energy balance
Water at 200C is being pumped from a tank to an elevated tank at the rate of 5.0x10-3
m3/s. All of the piping in the figure is 4-in schedule 40 pipe. The pump has an efficiency
of 65%. Calculate the kW power needed for the pump.

(Source: Example 2.10-6. page: 100-103, Transport Processes and separation process
principles, 4th edition, by Christie John Geankoplis)