CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Concrete is a stone-like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of

cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden in forms of the shape and

dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse

aggregate. Cement and water interact chemically in a process called hydration to bind the

aggregate particle into solid mass. Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major

compounds in cement form chemical bonds with water molecules and become hydrates or

hydration products. The water needs to be pure in order to prevent side reactions from occurring

which may weaken the concrete or otherwise interfere with the hydration process. The role of

water is important because the water to cement ratio is the most critical factor in the production

of a perfect concrete. Too much water reduces concrete strength, while too little will make the

concrete unworkable. Chemical admixtures can be added before or during mixing to achieve

varied properties. These ingredients may accelerate or slow down the rate at which the concrete

hardens, and impart many other useful properties including increased tensile strength,

entrainment of air and water resistance.

Cements used in construction are usually inorganic in nature and can be characterized as being

hydraulic or non-hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to set in the presence of

water. Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it

dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting.

Hydraulic cements set and become adhesive due to a chemical reaction between the dry

ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-
soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows setting in

wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack.

Cement Compound Weight Percentage

1. Tricalcium silicate 50%
2. Dicalcium silicate 25%
3. Tricalcium aluminate 10%
4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite 10%

5. Gypsum 5%
Cement or Portland Cement commonly consists of five major compounds and a few minor

compounds. The composition of a typical Portland cement is listed by weight percentage in the

table below:

Table 1: Composition of Portland cement with

chemical composition and weight percent

When water is added to cement, each of the compounds undergoes hydration and contributes

to the final concrete product. Only the calcium silicates contribute to strength. Tricalcium

silicate is responsible for most of the early strength (first seven days). Dicalcium silicate, which

reacts more slowly, contributes only to the strength at later times. Upon the addition of water,

tricalcium silicate rapidly reacts to release calcium ions, hydroxide ions, and a large amount of

heat. The pH quickly rises to over 12 because of the release of alkaline hydroxide (OH) ions.

This initial hydrolysis slows down quickly after it starts resulting in a decrease in heat evolved.

The reaction slowly continues producing calcium and hydroxide ions until the system becomes

saturated. Once this occurs, the calcium hydroxide starts to crystallize. Simultaneously,

calcium silicate hydrate begins to form. Ions precipitate out of solution accelerating the reaction

of tricalcium silicate to calcium and hydroxide ions. The evolution of heat is then dramatically

increased. The formation of the calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate crystals provide

"seeds" upon which more calcium silicate hydrate can form. The calcium silicate hydrate
crystals grow thicker making it more difficult for water molecules to reach the unhydrated

tricalcium silicate. The speed of the reaction is now controlled by the rate at which water

molecules diffuse through the calcium silicate hydrate coating. This coating thickens over time

causing the production of calcium silicate hydrate to become slower and slower. The hydration

will continue as long as water is present and there are still unhydrated compounds in the cement

paste.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF CEMENT PRODUCTION

Construction industry is one of the leaders in deterioration of our environment by depleting

resources and consuming energy or creation of waste. Also a considerable amount of emissions

of greenhouse and acidifying gasses has the origin in construction industry. Cement belongs to

the most often used construction materials and its production is increasing over the world. The

main environmental issues associated with cement production are consumption of raw

materials and energy use as well as emission to air. Waste water discharge is usually limited to

surface run off which greatly contributes to water pollution. The storage and handling of fuels

is a potential source of contamination of soil and groundwater. Additionally, the environment

can be affected by noise and odors. The key polluting substances emitted to air are dust, carbon

oxides, nitrogen oxides and Sulphur oxide.

PROGRAMMABLE CEMENT

To reduce the environmental impacts of concrete production, it is necessary to find ways to

reduce the greenhouse emissions emitted during cement production. Researchers from Rice

University, Houston, Texas may have found a way. They have developed a method to improve

the manufacturing process of cement. They can now program the particles of cement into

particular shapes which makes them stronger, less porous and less harmful to the environment.

The cement particles can be manipulated to form different shapes,

such as a cube, which pack together more tightly than the usual,
amorphous shape the particles take on

Rice

University scientists have gone into the nano zone, studying the crystallization process of C-S-

H (calcium silicate hydrate), and using the results of their study, synthesized C-S-H cement

particles of different shapes. The team converted the particles into rectangular prisms, cubes,

dendrites, rhombohedra and core shells, which can pack more densely together.

This research is the first step to control the kinetics of cement particles to create desired shapes.

The rectangular and cube shapes were obtained by adding negative or positive ion surfactants
as well as calcium silicate to the C-S-H mixture, and adding this mixture to ultrasonic sound

and CO2. Within 25 minutes, crystal seeds formed around the surfactant micelles. The increase

in calcium silicate resulted in clumped spheres and interlocking cubes, and decreasing it

resulted in smaller cubes and spherical particles.

This breakthrough can lead to producing concrete particles which are more water and chemical

resistant, thus preventing chemical and water absorption and reducing the damage within

concrete due to water seepage.

The researchers mapped these shapes into a morphological diagram which can be used by

builders and manufacturers to enable them to engineer the new concrete. These new concrete

has been termed ‘Programmable Concrete’ by the research team.

Programmable Concrete is much stronger leading to stronger microstructures. This means that

less quantity of cement would be required. As it is less porous, it will last longer, making

structures more durable over time, needing less repairs and replacement. It would also protect

the steel reinforcement inside buildings which could lead to stronger buildings but using less

cement.