Chapter 1

Introduction to multivariable
functions and vectors

1.5 The cross product

Problem 1. Given two vectors ~u and ~v in R3 find a vector w ~ that is orthog-
onal to both ~u and ~v .
Actually this problem is really easy to solve: take the zero vector ~0. That
being said, first note that in R2 , given two vectors, it is not always possible to
find a third non-zero vector orthogonal to them both. In R3 you’ll notice that
this third vector must have a certain direction. In R4 and higher dimensions,
such a vector could be in infinitely many directions. It turns out that using
the dot product and some algebra we can already solve this problem.
Example 1.5.1. Let ~u = h1, 2, 3i and ~v = h−1, 2, −1i. Find a non-zero
vector w~ that is orthogonal to both.
Solution. We write w ~ = hx, y, zi and we have the following equations
 
~u · w
~ =0 x + 2y + 3z = 0
⇔
~v · w~ =0 −x + 2y − z = 0

So hx, y, zi = h0, 0, 0i does the trick, but we could, for example set z = 1 and
solving for x, y gives x = −2 and y = −1/2 so that w ~ = h−2, −1/2, 1i does
the trick:

h−2, −1/2, 1i · h1, 2, 3i = −2 · (1) − 1/2 · (2) + 3 = 0

h−2, −1/2, 1i · h−1, 2, −1i = −2 · (−1) − 1/2 · (2) − 1 = 0

1
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 2

As to why we would want to do this, consider the following:

Problem 2. Given points P, Q, R, find the plane Π containing all three
points.
Example 1.5.2. Find the plane Π containing the origin O = (0, 0, 0) and
points P = (1, 2, 3), Q = (−1, 2, −1).
Solution. First note that OP~ = h1, 2, 3i and OQ~ = h−1, 2, −1i. In the pre-
vious example we found that w ~ = h−2, −1/2, 1i is simultaneously orthogonal
to both of these. Consider the illustration below:
w
~

Q
O~Q
~
OP P
O

We see that w
~ is normal to the plane containing all three points. We therefore
conclude that

~ · hx, y, zi = w
Π:w ~ · h0, 0, 0i
1
−2x − y + z = 0
2
The solution shown above is somewhat ad-hoc. It turns out however that
there is an operation that does exactly what we need: the cross product.
Definition 1.5.1. A triple of vectors (~u, ~v , w)
~ is right handed if, when you
right hand palm-up along ~u, then curl your fingers toward ~v , the vector w
~ is
in the direction of your thumb. Or equivalently,
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 3

Definition 1.5.2 (Geometric defintion of the cross product). Given two

vectors ~u and ~v , the cross product ~u × ~v is a vector such that satisfies the
following

• ~u × ~v is orthogonal both to ~u and ~v ,

• the ordered triple (~u, ~v , ~u × ~v ) is a right-hand triple of vectors,

• |~u × ~v | = |~u| · |~v | · sin θ, where θ is the angle between ~u and ~v .

~u × ~v

~v
θ
~u

Observe that the vector which satisfies the above conditions is uniquely
defined. Indeed, the first condition states that ~u ×~v is directed along the line
orthogonal to the plane spanned by ~u and ~v . The second condition fixes only
one direction along this line. The third condition defines the length of ~u × ~v .
Hence, the length and direction of ~u × ~v are uniquely defined. In particular
we have the following properties, which are in a sense opposite to the dot
product.
Proposition 1.5.3. If one of the vectors ~u, ~v is ~0 then we define ~u × ~v = ~0.
If ~u and ~v are parallel, that is, θ = 0 or θ = 2π then sin θ = 0 and
~u × ~v = ~0. If ~u and ~v are orthogonal then ~u × ~v = |~u| · |~v |.
Ok great, so there is this cross product, but now we have a new problem:
Problem 3. How do we actually calculate this cross product?
Note that the standard basis of R3 viewed as an ordered triple (~i, ~j, ~k) is
a right-hand triple of vectors. Hence, using the definition of the cross product
we get
~i × ~j = ~k
Similarly, using the definition we get
~i × ~i = ~0, ~i × ~k = −~j,

~j × ~i = −~k, ~j × ~j = ~0, ~j × ~k = ~i,

CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 4

~k × ~i = ~j, ~k × ~j = −~i, ~k × ~k = ~0
From the geometric definition it is possible, but not immediate, to show
the following:
Proposition 1.5.4. For any vectors ~u, ~v and w~ we have

1. ~u × ~v = −(~v × ~u),
2. ~u × (~v + w)
~ = ~u × ~v + ~u × w,
~
3. (~u + ~v ) × w
~ = ~u × w
~ + ~v × w,
~
4. ~u × ~v = 0 if and only if ~u and ~v are parallel,
5. (c~u) × ~v = c(~u × ~v ) = ~u × (c~v ) for any real number c,

The power of this proposition is that it gives a mechanical method to

compute the cross product.
Example 1.5.3. Compute ~u × ~v if ~u = ~i − 2~j + 3~k and ~v = −~j + ~k.
Solution. Using the properties of the cross product we get
~u × ~v = (~i − 2~j + 3~k) × (−~j + ~k)

= ~i × (−~j) + ~i × ~k + (−2~j) × (−~j) + (−2~j) × ~k + (3~k) × (−~j) + (3~k) × ~k

= −(~i × ~j) + ~i × ~k + 2(~j × ~j) − 2(~j × ~k) − 3(~k × ~j) + 3(~k × ~k)
= −~k + (−~j) − 2 · ~0 − 2~i − 3(−~i) + 3 · ~0 = ~i − ~j − ~k
Example 1.5.4. The process shown in the previous example works in gen-
eral too. That is, if the vectors ~u and ~v are given by their coordinate repre-
sentations ~u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and ~v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i then we have

~u × ~v = (u1~i + u2~j + u3~k) × (v1~i + v2~j + v3~k)

= (u1 v1 )·(~i×~i)+(u1 v2 )·(~i×~j)+(u1 v3 )·(~i× ~k)+(u2 v1 )·(~j ×~i)+(u2 v2 )·(~j ×~j)

+(u2 v3 ) · (~j × ~k) + (u3 v1 ) · (~k × ~i) + (u3 v2 ) · (~k × ~j) + (u3 v3 ) · (~k × ~k)
= (u1 v1 ) · ~0 + (u1 v2 ) · ~k + (u1 v3 ) · (−~j) + (u2 v1 ) · (−~k) + (u2 v2 ) · ~0 + (u2 v3 ) · ~i
+(u3 v1 ) · ~j + (u3 v2 ) · (−~i) + (u3 v3 ) · ~0
= (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) · ~i + (u3 v1 − u1 v3 ) · ~j + (u1 v2 − u2 v1 ) · ~k
or, eventually
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 5

Definition 1.5.5 (Algebraic defintion of the cross product). If ~u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i

and ~v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i then

~u × ~v = (u2 v3 − v2 u3 ) · ~i + (v1 u3 − u1 v3 ) · ~j + (u1 v2 − v1 u2 ) · ~k

1.5.1 The formula with determinants

The formula for the cross product above has  a simple
 form written in terms
a b
of determinants. For a 2 × 2-matrix A = the determinant of A is
c d
defined by the formula
 
 a b 
det A =   = ad − bc
c d 
 
a0 b0 c0
Now, if we have a 3 × 3-matrix M =  u1 u2 u3  then its determinant
v1 v2 v3
is defined as follows
     
 u2 u3   u1 u3   u1 u2 
det M =  ·a − ·b + ·c
v2 v3  0  v1 v3  0  v1 v2  0
    

Eventually, for the vectors ~u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and ~v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i we have

 ~i ~j ~k  
 
    
  u2 u3   u1 u3   u1 u2 
 · ~i −   ~   ~

~u × ~v =  u1 u2 u3  =   v1 v3  · j +  v1 v2  · k
 v1 v2 v3  v2 v3


Example 1.5.5. Compute ~u × ~v if ~u = ~i − 2~j + 3~k and ~v = −~j + ~k. Using

matrices.
Solution. According to the formula above we have
~j ~k  
 
 ~i     
  −2 3   1 3   1 −2 
~ ~  ~

~u × ~v =  1 −2 3  = 
  
 · i −  0 1  · j +  0 −1  · k
   
 0 −1 1  −1 1

= ((−2) · 1 − 3 · (−1)) · ~i − (1 · 1 − 3 · 0) · ~j + (1 · (−1) − (−2) · 0) · ~k

= ~i − ~j − ~k
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 6

1.5.2 Planes
Recall that a plane α is uniquely defined by a point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) which belongs
to α and a normal vector ~n = ha, b, ci orthogonal to α. In this case the scalar
equation of α is a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0.
Example 1.5.6. Find an equation of the plane which passes through the
points P (1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6), and R(5, 2, 0).
Solution. Since the points P, Q and R belong to the plane, ~n must be or-
−→ −→
thogonal to the vectors P Q = h2, −4, 4i and P R = h4, −1, −2i. Hence, we
can construct ~n using the cross product
~k 
 
 ~i ~j
−→ −→  
~n = P Q × P R =  2 −4 4  = h12, 20, 14i
 4 −1 −2 

−→ −→ −→ −→
since P Q × P R ⊥ P Q, P R. Finally, we use ~n and P (1, 3, 2) in the scalar
equation for the plane, and obtain

12(x − 1) + 20(y − 3) + 14(z − 2) = 0

or
12x + 20y + 14z − 100 = 0

1.5.3 Torque
Torque or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about
an axis. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected
to a bolt produces a torque (turning force) that loosens or tightens the bolt.

Torque is a vector ~τ and its magnitude depends on

• the distance from the axis of the bolt to the point where the force is
applied,
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 7

• the magnitude of the force component in the direction perpendicular

to the line connecting the axis and the point where the force is applied.

Denote the vector connecting the axis to the point where the force is
applied by ~r, the force by F~ , and the force component in the direction per-
pendicular to ~r by F~1 (see the picture below).

Hence, we have |F~1 | = |F~ | · sin θ and we define

|~τ | = |~r| · |F~ | = |~r| · |F~ | · sin θ = |~r × F~ |

The direction of ~τ is along the axis of rotation and coincides with the direction
in which the right-threaded bolt moves. Note that the triple {~r, F~ , ~τ } is a
right-hand triple, so we have

~τ = ~r × F~

Example 1.5.7. A bolt is tightened by applying a 40 N force to a 0.25 m

wrench so that the angle which the force vector forms with the wrench is 75◦ .
Find the magnitude of the torque about the center of the bolt.
Solution. We have

|~τ | = |~r × F~ | = |~r| · |F~ | · sin θ

where |~r| = 0.25, |F~ | = 40 and θ = 75◦ . Hence,

|~τ | = 0.25 · 40 · sin(75◦ ) ≈ 9.66 N · m

CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 8

1.5.4 Exercises
1. Compute the following cross products:

(a) h1, 2, 3i × h4, 5, 6i

(b) h1, 1, 1i × h1, 1, −1i
(c) h−1, 0, 1i × h−3, 4, 5i

2. Find the equation of a plane passing through the following points:

(a) P = (1, −2, 3), Q = (4, 5, −6), R = (7, 8, 9)

(b) P = (1, 1, 1), Q = (3, −3, 3), R = (2, −2, −2)
(c) P = (1, −2, 1), Q = (0, 2, 3), R = (3, 3, −2)

3. If ~u × w
~ = h1, 2, 3i , ~u × ~v = h1, −1, 0i, and ~v × w
~ = h0, 1, 0i, compute
the following.

(a) ~u × (w
~ + ~v )
(b) ~u × (2~v )
~ ×w
(c) (~u + 2w) ~
~ × (3~u)
(d) w
~ + ~v − 2~u) × (3~u − 2~v )
(e) (w
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 9

Answers:

1. (a) h−3, 6, −3i

(b) h−2, 2, 0i
(c) h−4, 2, −4i

2. (a) 132 x − 72 y − 12 z = 240

(b) 18 x + 8 y − 2 z = 24
(c) −22 x + y − 13 z = −37

3. (a) h2, 1, 3i
(b) h2, 4, 6i
(c) h1, 2, 3i
(d) h−3, −6, −9i
(e) h−2, −5, −9i