PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 51

However, it has been proved by Rosenqvist (1946) that Norwegian clays contain a con-
siderable amount of true clay minerals, such as illite. The explanation of their low plasticity
as a result of inactive minerals is thus only partly true.
A satisfactory explanation of the special properties of the Norwegian clays was first
established when the effect of the content of salt in the pore water was realized. As opposed
to most foreign clays, the Norwegian marine clay deposits have been subjected to leaching,
resulting in a more or less reduced salt concentration in the pore water. As pointed out by
Holmsen (1936) and Rosenqvist (1946) a change in salt content is accompanied by an appre-
ciable change in plasticity and in such a way that the liquid limit and plasticity index arc
lowered for decreasing salt concentration in the pore water.
In order to obtain a quantitative impression of the effect of the two above-mentioned
factors-the inactivity of the minerals and the reduced salt content-which control the plasti-
city of Norwegian clays it has proved very useful to establish the “ activity ” of the clays as
proposed by Skempton in 1950.* The activity is defined as the ratio of the plasticity index of
a clay and the clay fraction content (finer than two microns). It is in any particular clay.
stratum approximately constant. Fig. 1 shows a graphical determination of the activity for
several Norwegian clay deposits. For a number of samples the plasticity index is plotted
against the clay content and through the points a straight line is drawn from the origin. The
inclination of this line gives the average activity. In the diagram, moreover, the classification
of the activity as proposed by Skempton is shown, and it is seen that all Norwegian clays fall
in the “ inactive ” group, as they range in activity from 0.15 to 0.64.
The slope of the lines would, if the salt contents of all the clay samples plotted in Fig. 1 were
equal, give a quantitative measure of the colloidal activity of the minerals of the various clay
deposits. This is, however, not the case, as it is known that the concentration of salt in the
pore water varies from clay to clay depending on the degree of leaching to which the clay has
been subjected since its sedimentation. Some average values of the salt concentration in the
pore water are given in Fig. 1 and if these values are compared with the original 3.5 grammes
* SKEMPTON, A. W., 1950. Soil Mechanics in Relation to Geology. Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Sot. 29 : 33-62.
For a further discussion of ” activity,” see Skempton (1953).

Supsborg o
AcrIvlty.0.64

Studenterlunden. Oslo .
Activity - 0.54, salt co”centr~tlon-27gm per llfre
Oslo harbour -a
Activity-0.47. salt concentratlan-l2gm. per litre
Horten---
Activity - 044
Enrjovelen.,Orlo. strata above quick clay 0
Activity - 0.38

Toyen.orlo, rcnriti~e clay strata X

Actlvlty -0.30. salt concentration-5-9 (m. per
~_Ll._I_~_. I htrt

_I ~;~~“=----’ Activity. c
0.241 salt mncentratlon. I bm. per litre

n.Oslo.qulck clay rtraa ::

icy-0.15. salt co”ccatratlo”-3g”. per litre

I I I I I I
20 30 40 SO M) 70
CONTENT OF CLAY FRACTION w 2) 1 in 7.

Fig. 1. Activity of some Norwegian clays

52 BJERRUM

salt per litre of water-which is believed to be the average salt concentration of the deepest
water of the sea in which the clays were laid down-it is seen that a considerable reduction
has occurred since then. As mentioned above, a reduction in salt concentration is always
followed by a decrease in plasticity index. This is, broadly speaking, confirmed by the values
given in Fig. 1, which state’ that the clays with the lowest salt concentration also show the
lowest activity.
The effect of the salt concentration was discovered immediately by plotting the points in
Fig. 1. Tt proved that the samples from the same clay deposits did not in all cases fall on the
same straight line. For several borings it was necessary to subdivide the clay in layers with
different activity even if from the geological history it is known that the strata show similar
mineralogical composition. In Fig. 1 an example is shown of such a division of a clay
deposit, the samples from a number of borings at Toyen in Oslo being divided into two groups,
one with activity 030 and the other taken from a thin, entirely embedded, quick clay stratum,
with the activity 0.15. A study of the two groups showed immediately that they differed
mainly because of their different salt concentration in the pore water, as indicated by different
sensitivities (see below).
A quantitative measure of the effect of the salt content on the activity is obtained by a
determination of the Atterberglimits of a salt-free clay after the addition of various amounts of
salt. This has been made for several clays and in Fig. 2 are shown the results of tests carried
out with four typical Norwegian clays. The activity is plotted as a function of the salt con-
centration of the pore water ; resulting in a curve for each clay which demonstrates that the
activity increases rapidly with increasing salt concentrations up to a concentration of about
15 grammes of salt per litre. For salt concentrations above this value the activity remains
constant, independent of the salt concentration.
The diagram shown in Fig. 2 may also be used with advantage for evaluating the activity
of natural clay deposits. This is shown in Fig. 3. On a number of samples, from 8 different
clay deposits, clay content, Atterberg limits, and natural salt concentration in the pore water
were determined. For each sample the activity was calculated and, in Fig. 3, plotted against
the salt concentration expressed in grammes of salt per litre of pore water. For each clay
deposit shown in Fig. 3 an average curve is drawn, running parallel to the dotted curves
which were determined by artificially increased salt concentrations (Fig. 2).
The diagram in Fig. 3 is meant to give in the clearest way an impression of the fundamental
properties of Norwegian clays. Firstly, the curves show how the low activity of the Norwegian
clays is a result of a reduced salt concentration. The pattern of the curves allows, moreover,
a quantitative evaluation of the effect of a change in salt content. Secondly, the diagram
allows an assessment to be made of the degree to which the fundamental properties of the
various clay deposits are controlled by mineralogical composition. The relative position of
the curves must, certainly, be due to different mineralogical composition of the clays, thus
explaining how two clays with the Same salt concentration can show different activities.
It seems likely that the clays from Kemmendalen and Sarpsborg are more colloidally active
than the clay from Bekkelaget, as their curves are more highly situated.
Fig. 3 demonstrates also that it is possible to compare directly the mineralogical activity
of different clays only if the salt concentration in the pore water of the clays is the same.
However, the regular shape of the curves in Fig. 3 makes it possible to estimate the minera-
logical activity of the various clay deposits for a certain salt content. It would obviously
be most logical to select a high salt concentration as, for example, 35 grammes per litre, which
all activities should be referred to. This estimate of a corrected activity corresponding to
35 grammes of salt per litre pore water ha’s been made for the clays plotted in Fig. 3. The
values are listed in Table 1 which, moreover, gives the average values of Atterberg limits,
clay content, etc., of the various clays.
In order to compare the corrected activities with the mineralogical composition of the clays,
 SALT CONCENTRATION IN GMMMES PER LITRE

Ffg. 2. Activity of four difhent clay* for VsrJing 8alt Fie. 3. Activity and salt oonaentration of me
ctoncentrationintheporawator - - nitural day deposits 0

Table 1. -Attmrbarg limits. activity and illita oontant of monm Norar~ian clay strata %
--- _- :
Atterberg limits i Activity Content of illite ;
T- TContent of I
Water Salt con-
:lay fraction
Locality content centration at natu l-al; tt 35 pm. :per c-t)
per cent) LL PL PI <21( Im. per litre salt co n- salt per %z:) of clay
(per cent) litre sample fraction
:entrat ion
-- --
Remmendalen ._ .. 55.9 31.9 19.3 12.6 36 0.2 036 0.73 30 :. loo
Sarpsborg .. .. 47.4 62.5 24.2 36.3 60 20.7 0.64 064 40 65

Asrumvannet .. .. 62.5 35.4 22.0 13.4 65 c. 0 0.21 0.61 40 60

Bekkelaget .. .. 42.5 27.4 16.8 10.6 44 1.4 0.24 0.58 30 70

Ensjkeien. Oslo .. 33.0 35.8 20.4 15.4 46 3.8 0.33 0.56 25 55

Studenterlunden. Oslo 39.5 47.7 23.2 24.5 51 19.9 0.46 0.53 25 50

Tayen, Oslo .. .. 42.0 33.4 21.6 11.8 56 2.8 0.21 0.52 25 45

Oslo harbour .. .. 43.2 48.0 23.6 24.4 52 12.6 0.47 0.51 c. 25 SO

-- 8
54 BJERRUM

a number of differential thermal analyses were carried out on characteristic samples.* These
analyses showed that the clays contained an appreciable amount of illite (hydro mica).
Various inactive minerals, such as quartz and felspar, were also found. Taking into con-
sideration that the activity of illite is so very much higher than that of the other minerals, it
might be expected that the content of illite would mainly control the plasticity of a clay.
In an attempt to demonstrate this, the content of illite is given in Table 1, together with the
principal data of the clays. The content of illite is expressed as a percentage of the total dry
weight of the samples, and also as a percentage of the clay fraction (< 2~).
If, for the clays in Table 1, the content of illite in the clay fraction is compared with the
corrected activities (referred to 35 grammes per litre salt concentration), it is immediately
found that a close correlation exists between these figures. The clavs with the highest activitv
show the highest content of ill&e, and the Illite content
decreases from clay to clay in accordance with the activity.
On the other hand, Table 1 demonstrates that no correla-
tion exists between mineralogical composition and activity
at the natural salt concentration.
The correlation between illite content in the clay
fraction and the corrected activity is demonstrated in
Fig. 4 by a graphical plot of the values in Table 1. As
mentioned above, mineralogical investigations have proved
that illite is almost the only mineral in Norwegian clays
which is responsible for plasticity. Under this assumption,
CONTENi OF ILWE IN
it is possible to estimate the activity of illite from the
CLAY FRACTION (%)
diagram in Fig. 4. A straight line is drawn as a mean
Fig. 4. Relation between cor- through the 8 plotted points and from this line it is found
rected activity and illite
content for eight Norwegian that a clay with 100 per cent illite would show an activity
clays of 0.95. Now the activity of pure illite has been deter-
mined experimentally (Skempton, 1953) and was found to
be O-90. Assuming that the activity was determined on a sodium illite t-which is a necessary
condition for a comparison as the activities are referred to 35 grammes salt per litre pore
water-the agreement between the above computed and the directly measured activities is
surprisingly satisfactory.

SAMPLING DIFFICULTIES
It would not give a true picture of the special geotechnical properties of Norwegian clays
if this Paper did not include a short description of the difficulties of taking undisturbed
samples in the sensitive clays. As some progress has been reached in this respect, resulting in
reliable shear strengths determined on undisturbed samples from great depths even in extra
quick clays, it may be of interest to mention some recent developments in sampling and
testing techniques.
The appearance of the vane apparatus for in-situ determination of the shear strength
(Cadling, Odenstad, 1950) demonstrated that a number of normally consolidated clays in
Sweden showed an increase in shear strength with depth which, below a certain depth, could
not be observed by unconfined compression tests on “ undisturbed ” samples. As an analysis
of a number of slides confirmed the reliability of the shear strength determined by the vane,
the discrepancies between in-situ and laboratory determinations of the shear strength
were explained by the difficulties in obtaining undisturbed samples from depths below 10
metres.

* The analyses were made at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute by Dr I. Th. Rosenqvist.
t Thisis not quoted by the authors, but it is likely to be the case.
 PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 55
A comparison of published data indicated (Skempton, 1953) that the sampling difficulties
were limited to clays with a high sensitivity or to clays with a low activity (e.g. less than 0.75).
Remembering that the majority of Norwegian clays show an activity of less than 0.75
and that the sensitivity of several clays is very high, it will be understood that development
and improvement of sampling equipment and testing techniques has been a work of major
importance for the newly established Institute. In this work much advantage has been
derived from a study of Hvorslev’s investigations on sampling technique (1949).
A first result of this work was the construction of a new sampler for routine investigations.
The sampler is a thin-wall, stationary piston sampler, intended for displacement borings in
soft to stiff clay.* The characteristics are given in Table 2. The sample tubes are made from
18 gauge (1.25 mm.) seamless stainless steel tubing, and are polished inside.

Table 2. -Characteristics of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute’s 54 mm. sampler

Inside diameter of sample tube .. .. 545 mm.

Cutting edge (entrance) diameter .. .. 54 mm.

Length of sample .. .. .. .. SO-100cm.

Area ratio .. .. .. .. .. c. 11 per cent
Inside clearance .. .. . .. c. 1 per cent
Outside ,, .. .. .. .. none

With this sampler it proved possible to obtain undisturbed samples from depths as great
as 25 metres, even in the most sensitive clays, Taken as a criterion for undisturbed samples is
the agreement between shear strength determined by vane tests in-situ and by unconfined
compression tests on the samples.
From data collected during two years it is shown that the main conditions conducive to the
obtaining of undisturbed samples which give reliable shear strength determinations are :

(a) that, during sampling, upward or downward movements of the piston are absolutely
prevented. This is especially important in very sensitive clays, which exert a
great upward pressure on the piston ;
(b) that the sample tube is thin-walled and that the length of the sample is so great that
the disturbed upper and lower ends can be disregarded ;
(c) that the samples are treated very carefully by skilled staff in the field as well as in
the laboratory ; and
(d) that only the central core of the samples is used for the compression tests.

With regard to the two last mentioned points the quick clays have raised particular
difficulties. As only the slightest touch of the sample with the fingers would cause a serious
disturbance, it has been necessary to develop a special technique even for the simple task of
placing a specimen in the compression apparatus.

* A paper by Mr R. C. Vold dealing with the sampling techniques and equipment used at the Nor-
wegian Geotechnical Institute will be published in the near future.
56 BJERRUM

In order to simplify the testing procedure, the samples are cut to a square section for com-
pression tests. As a criterion for the reliability of the shear strength determinations by un-
confined compression tests, the strain at failure is used. It appears from a comparison ivith
vane tests that, if the strain at failure in a compression test on a normally consolidated clay
exceeas 5 or 6 per cent, the sample is probably disturbed and shows reduced strength.* In
the best samples of sensitive aud quick clays the strain at faihue is only 13 per cent. A
consideration of the failure strains allows, therefore, an evaluation of the reliability of the
strength values.
As examples of the results obtained with the above mentioned sampler, Fig. 5 shows the
results of two borings, one in a clay with low sensitivity and one in an extra quick clay. The
l The afore-mentioned r&a are only valid for normalIy con&id&d clays. Satisfactory samplea of
clays with organic content have shown strain at failure above the values mentioned above.

. F&.5. RuultsofboriqpatDramnun
mhoarmtren@udotemhdb~vmmte8tmaad-
onuadimturbodmunplom
 PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 57
activities of the clays are 0.30 and 0.15 respectively. The direct results of the shear strength
by vane tests and by unconfined compression tests are given in the figures and it is seen that
the agreement is satisfactory. Similar results are given in Figs 6 and 7.
From the results obtained, the conclusion may be drawn that reliable shear strength
determinations on undisturbed samples can be obtained even on deep samples of very quick or
inactive clays, provided the best sampler and an especially careful technique are used.
I As will be shown in the next section, the lowest shear strength is very often found in clays
with high sensitivity. An obvious explanation would be that the shear strengths which are
found by vane and unconfined compression tests are too low due to progressive failure. As
this would be a serious objection against the conclusions drawn in the following sections it
will be pointed out here that such seems not to be the case. First, the stress-strain curves
found by compression tests on sensitive clays show that a considerable strain is required before
an essential reduction in shear strength takes place. Secondly, an analysis of a number of
slides of extra sensitive clays has demonstrated that the shear strength found by vane tests is
in fairly close agreement with the strengths calculated from the slides (see alsoSk. Haug, 1931).
A similar agreement was found by a number of loading tests on a quick clay with the sensi-
tivity 30. The results of four loading tests with a 36 cm. circular plate, carried out at the
surface and at two different depths, are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. --Loading testa with B = 36 cm. diameter circular plate on a quick clay
-
Results of loading tests Shear strength
Test
No.
Dipth -
Depth
I I
Width Failure Net failure
load
-7
Strain at
failure
__
Calculated
from tests
Determined
on samples
(t./m.*) (per cent of B) (tJm.3 (t.lm.3
-_-- _-
1 42.0 2.5 6.8 6.2

2 42.2 3.4 5.5 5.4

3 41.2 3.1 5.4 5.3

4 0.72 2 48.0 2.9 5.7 5.4

-
Data of clay : W = 27 per cent, LL = 24 per cent, PL = 16 per cent, y = 1.97 t./m.’
Sensitivity = 30.

In the Table are given the direct results of the loading tests. From the failure load of each
test is calculated the average shear strength of the clay below the plate. This is made by aid
of the bearing capacity formulae published by Skempton (1930). These values are compared
with the shear strengths determined by unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples.
The values given in the Table are the average strengths found by anumber of tests and they are
corrected for the rate of loading used in the plate tests. As will be seen, a good agreement
exists between the directly measured shear strengths and the values calculated from loading
tests. This means that the loading tests confirm the reliability of the laboratory determina-
tion of the shear strength of undisturbed samples. This can be the case only if the shear
strength is mobilised simultaneously in the whole sliding surface or, in other words, if the failure
does not occur progressively.
\
SHEAR STRENGTH

For an evaluation of the undrained shear strength of Norwegian clays more than 40
eomplete soil profiles are available, mainly collected from investigations of different sites and
58 B JERRUM

Water content in

w-35.8% Y-I.BZt/m’
LL-37.8% PL-21.6 E

w-43.5% y- I.73 t/m)

LL_30.0% PL-22.0 %

W-33.6 s

Fig. 6. Results of a boring at Tiiyen in Oslo

especially from comprehensive borings for a new subway in Oslo. All profiles include vane
tests and undisturbed sampling with the above-mentioned 54 mm. thin-walled sampler. The
results of field and laboratory work are plotted in Figs 6 and 7.
Even if many of these borings show an apparently irregular variation in shear strength
with depth, it can without difficulty be observed that within the single layers with homogeneous
clay a linear increase in shear strength with depth exists. Fig. 7 shows a typical example on
a boring with homogeneous layers within which the shear strength increases linearly with
depth.
A unique example of a linear increase in shear strength with depth was found by some
borings in Drammen. Below a 2.5 m. thick stiff drying crust a 20 m. thick bed of homo-
geneous clay was found with only small variations in Atterberg limits, and a natural water
content which showed a slight decrease with depth. Vane tests and unconlined compression
tests on undisturbed samples resulted in an almost perfectly straight-line increase in shear
strength with depth. The results of one of the borings are given in Fig. 8 (see also Fig. 5).
It was thus obvious to base the present comparison of the shear strength of different clays
on the observed linear increase in strength with depth. Following this principle the shear
strength of a clay is characterized by the ratio between shear strength and effective overburden
pressure (c/p) as proposed by Skempton (1948a). Here the investigation is limited to normally
consolidated clay. As the Norwegian clays in general are known never to have been subjected
to higher pressures than the present overburden, only very few cases had to be disregarded by
this limitation. These cases were easily excluded either on the basis of available information
 PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 59
about Norway’s geological history or on the basis of a comparison of present overburden and
pre-consolidation loads as determined by oedometer tests.
Even for normally consolidated clays, it is known that the constant increase in strength
with depth does not hold good in the upper crust. This so-called “ drying crust ” is a well
marked feature of Norwegian clay beds, being characterized by a high shear strength and very
often by a system of fissures. However, a detailed study proved that below the proper drying
crust another zone exists in which the linear increase in strength with depth does not hold
good. *
For the calculation of the effective overburden pressure the ground water level was
estimated from observations of the water level in bore holes. In a few cases these observations
have been controlled by direct measurements of the pore water pressures, and in other cases by
preconsolidation loads determined by oedometer tests. The ground water level is shown at the
borings in Figs 5, 7 and 8. At Tijyen (Fig. 6) pore water pressures were measured during a
l&year period, and a stationary decrease in pore water pressures with depth was indicated.
The increase in shear strength with depth is found by drawing a straight line as an average
of the individual measured values plotted against the depth. For all clays the results of vane
tests and unconfined compression tests were available, but the results of the unconfined com-
pression tests were considered only if the strain at failure indicated that the samples were
* The question concerning the properties of the drying crust--which is of great importance to Norwegian
foundation engineering-will be dealt with in a special paper. A detailed study of the fundamental pro-
perties of the upper soil crust has indicated that the increased strenrrth
v is A
orobablv a result of weathering
resulting in an increased activity of the clay minerals.

LL=27.7% PL.19.4k
c/p- 0.120 St-75

+ ’ w-35.2x 7 -I48~m
LLF2l.B “k PL- 17.0 70
I y- 0.125 S~~C.500
t

Fig. 7. Results of a boring at Manglerud in Oslo

60 B JERRUM

tar content lnYo In tf n

IIT-

undisturbed. As all tests were performed with a rate of strain corresponding to occurrence of
failure after 4-5 minutes, the present investigation is limited to this special rate of loading.
Only clay layers with small variations in water content and Atterberg limits were included.
Also only such clay layers were considered as show a regular increase in strength with depth
without too much scattering. In this way the ratio of shear strength to effective overburden
was determined from 35 different clay layers. All values are given in Table 4, together with
average values of water content, Atterberg limits, and sensitivity.
As seen directly from Table 4, the ratio of shear strength to effective overburden pressure
varies between 099 and O-23. A comparison with similar investigations of clays from other
countries (Skempton, 1943.1953) leads to the conclusion that the shear strength of Norwegian
clays is, generahy speaking, considerably lower than that found in normally consolidated
clays in other countries. With a few exceptions, the Norwegian c/p values are smaller than
foreign values published hitherto.
The values collected in Table 4 give a comparison between the c/p values and the index
properties of the different clays. It can be seen immediately that the lowest c/p values are
found in clays with the lowest liquid limits andplasticityindexes. Thisdependence hasah-eady
been stated by Skempton, but the previous investigations did not cover the area within which
the Norwegian clays are lying.
Fig. 9 shows a graphical plot of the c/p v&es as a function of the plasticity index. Even
if there is some scattering of the single values, an average curve may easily be drawn show
0
a close correlation between c/p and plasticity index.
 Water Attar~ limita
Depth
site Boring content Sensitivity
(m.) LL PL PI
@er =w

T6yen,odo .. .. 01-4 I 83-10.5 35.8 37.8 218 16.2

01-l I 113-13.2 43.5 22.0 8.0 3E
01-4 I 13%18.8 33.6 E 20.3
0 l-4 II 13*2-l&7 25-1 18.7 ;:i ::
0 l-rl III 14.2-19.3 KY 25.3 19.4 5.9 122

Vaterland. Oslo .. 0 l-7 II 11s13.7 43.5 53.8 29.2 24.6 1.73

0 l-7 II 13.7-16.4 46.7 29.0 17.7 1.82 t
0 l-7 XIII 9-O-16.0 !E 44.5 23.0 21.5 1.86 5

Studenterlanden, Oslo 0 l-8 II 12+-18.7 31.8 1.79 4

0 l-8 III ll*O-13.7 26.0 1.78 3
.~_
bfw$t=d, Oslo .. 035 D 7.0-10.8 38.5 30-o 20.2 40 0.125 v,
035 II 46-10.0 40.0 27.7 19.4 75 0.120
035 II 11*5-17.0 35.2 21.8 17.0 0.125 !z
035 II 17.0-21.0 25.5 19.0 E 0490
0 35 II 21xu?8+0 E 21.0 15.8 500 0.135 2
035 c 14.0-23.0 33.3 26.8 18.9
035 IV 4-O-15.4 37.1 24.0 18.1 3E O&116
0.105 2

Gunnerusgate, Oslo .. 0 l-14 I 79-11.8 42.0 19.9 0.175 :

0 1-14 III 5.7-10.6 %:I 55.8 32.5 ::g
::fE ;1
0 l-14 III 150-22.5 19.8 2
0 1-14 IV 9%16.0 g:y E:Z ::: ocw3
0 1-14 IV l&O-21.4 35.2 45.1 El 1.79 0.154
0 1-14 v 154-25.4 35.8 44.5 23.0 1.84
0.170 E
storgatell, Oslo .. 019 I 7@- 9.7 36.8 37.8 24.5 13.3 1.82 0.182 ;
M
Gr(lnland. Oslo .. 0 l-20 IV 10~14.0 39-s 52.1 22.5 0.252
0 l-20 v 15.0-23.8 34.1 43.1 18.4 E ::g 0.182 ;
0 l-20 v 11&15.5 w5 54.8 23.4 31.4 1.89 0.252
?r
Bekkelaget .. .. 0 100 xv I+%- 8.0 38.9 26.2 20.3 5.9 I.82 55 0.090 m

ullevlu .. .. .. 074 v lO*O-14.5 33.1 25.2 19.0 6.2 1.91 32 0.147

Bryn .. .. .. 064 IV 14*0-23.0 34.5 34.4 19.1 15.3 1.89 0.168

Drammen .. .. 049 I 20-23.5 37.7 37.7 174 o-165

3+- 9.0 58.0 59.4 E 31.7 :z ocz45
8Z : 9.0-21.0 35.8 21.7 14.1 0.167
088 I Ml-27 4 E.3 21.4 13.5 ::: 0.159 2
088 II 7.5-26.5 32.1 21.1 12.7 1.90 0*180
 62 B JERRUM

Fig. 9. Relationehip between c/p and

plasticity index

In Fig. 9, moreover, some points found for clays

from other countries are plotted, and the curve
representing the average correlation of these points
is drawn as proposed by Skempton (1953). This curve
is seen to fall exactly on the elongation of the mean
curve valid for Norwegian clays, demonstrating that
for normally consolidated clays there exists a single
correlation between the ratio of shear strength to
effective overburden pressure and the plasticity index.
This means that the relatively low shear strength of
Norwegian clays, compared with foreign clays, is
mainly due to their low plasticity.

SHEAR STRENGTH DURING LEACHING

As mentioned above, systematic investigations of

the salt concentration in Norwegian clays have clearly
proved that a considerable reduction has taken place
since the sedimentation. It is a well-known fact that a
reduced salt content in the pore water is accompanied
by a decrease in Atterbeig limits, which, in turn,
results in increased sensitivity. However, only very
little is known about what happens to the undis-
turbed shear strength during the leaching of a marine
clay. The close correlation of the index properties
and the ratio of shear strength to effective over-
burden pressure seems to open up the possibility of
solving this important problem. *
CONCENTMllON IN CMtlIlES PER LITRE
In order to illustrate this, a typical Oslo clay-
Fig. 10. Chargeeinproperties of a one which has retained its original salt concentration,
normelly consolidatid mariue 35 grammes per litre-may be taken as an example.
clay when subjected to leaching
by fresh water A typical plasticity index of such a clay may be
 PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 63

25 per cent. According $0 the curve in Fig. 9, this clay will show the c/p value 0.21 if
normally consolidated.
If the clay is leached by a flow of fresh water through the pores, the salt concentration in
the pore water will decrease and, consequently, the plasticity index also will decrease. A
reduction of the salt concentration down to 3-5.grammes per litre is frequently observed in
Norwegian clays. For the Oslo clay which we are considering this reduction will lead to a
decrease in the plasticity index down to about 10 per cent. According to the curve in Fig. 9,
to this value of the plasticity index there will correspond a ratio of shear strength to effective
overburden pressure of 0.14. If compared with the value 0.21 before the leaching out, it is
found that a reduction in shear strength has taken place which in the case quoted amounts to
as much as 33 per cent-an extremely important reduction.
According to the correlation between shear strength and index properties shown in Fig. 9,
it is thus found that a leaching out of the original salt in marine clays is accompanied by a
reduction in the shear strength of the undisturbed clay.
As this finding may lead to serious consequences in the judgement of the stability of natural
slopes in marine clays, and as it deviates from previous assumptions, a few aspects of the
matter will be pointed out.*
The c/p values which are plotted in Fig. 9 are mainly derived from clays within a rather
narrow area in and around Oslo. From a mineralogical point of view these clays are very
similar and, broadly speaking, all the clays show similar grain size distribution with almost the
same clay content. Originally they were laid down in sea water with a salt concentration of
roughly 35 grammes per litre. Thereafter they were consolidated normally under the present
overburden. The geological history of the clays, therefore, differs only by the different degrees
of ground water flow the deposits have been subjected to, dependent, of course, on the
hydraulic gradients of the different places. This has again lead to different degrees of leaching,
resulting in different salt concentration in the pore water. It is thus found that the clays
which were originally similar are today showing different geotechnical properties. The clays
with a small salt concentration in the pore water show today a plasticity index of 5-9 per cent,
whereas the plasticity index of the clays which have retained the original salt content may vary
between 24 and 34 per cent.
A comprehensive investigation of the shear strength of these clays has shown a close
correlation between plasticity index and ratio of shear strength to effective overburden
pressure. The smallest values of this c/p ratio are found in the relatively salt-free clays with
a low plasticity index. The highest values of c/p occur in clays which today show the same
salt content as after the sedimentation, indicated by a high plasticity index.
From the finding presented in Fig. 9 it would seem reasonable, therefore, to draw the con-
clusion that the shear strength of a marine clay will decrease during a salt leaching of the pore
water and that this decrease occurs corresponding to the curve shown in Fig. 9.
It is important to mention that the reduction in shear strength does not take place in
linear proportion to the reduction in salt concentration. Even a decrease in salt concentra-
tion from the original 35 grammes per litre down to 10-15 grammes per litre will result only in
a negligible reduction in shear strength. On the other hand, a further leaching out-resulting
in salt concentrations below 10 grammes per litre- will cause a considerable decrease in shear
strength.
Fig. 10 shows schematically an attempt to predict the change in properties of a typical
Norwegian marine clay when subjected to leaching by fresh water. The example refers to an
Oslo clay which was consolidated originally under an overburden of about 6 metres, corres-
ponding to an effective pressure of 5 tons per square metre. Under this weight, a water content
somewhat higher than the liquid limit is found and the shear strength is I.05 tons per square
l If the c/p value of a normal Norwegian clay can be reduced to 0~10-0~12by leaching, slides can be
expected with time in natural slopes in marine clay which show an inclination of only 5-7 per cent.

E
64 BJERRUM

metre, corresponding to c/p = O-21. If now the salt is washed out of the clay, the plasticity
index will deerease due to a reduction in activity of the clay minerals. The change in
Atterberg limits is shown in Fig. 10 as a function of the salt content. These curves are recon-
structed from Fig. 2, which allows an evaluation to be made of the change in plasticity index
for various salt concentrations. From Fig. 9 it is known that there corresponds a certain
c/p value to each value of the plasticity index. This allows a derivation of the change in
shear strength during leaching of the clay. The original value, 0.21 c/p, is reduced to 0.12
if all salt is removed, but the decrease takes place only during the last part of the leaching.
The figure shows, moreover, the change in remoulded shear strength and sensitivity which
could be expected during a leaching. The values are derived from the average relationship
between re-moulded shear strength and liquidity index found for Norwegian clays.* Hence,
it may be assumed that the water content remains unchanged during a leaching, an assump-
tion which is supported by experiences from natural clay deposits and leaching experiments
(see below). Even if the prediction shown in Fig. 10 is somewhat hypothetical and the
derivation of the single curves is connected with some uncertainties,t it is believed that the
curves give a good impression of the change in properties which could be expected when a
typical Norwegian marine clay is leached.
An obvious consequence of the above conclusion is that we must take into consideration a
steadily increasing danger of sliding of natural slopes in marine clays. Owing to the low
permeability of the clay and the low gradients which normally exists in natural slopes, this
process, of course, goes on very slowly. Within the geological period since the Norwegian
land elevation, however, a considerable leaching of salt has occurred and the above-mentioned
measurements have clearly shown that the average salt content of the Norwegian marine
clays in slopes subjected to ground water flow is today far below the initial value.
Now, it is a matter of observation that in Norway slides occur now and then in natural
slopes without it being possible to find any external causes. With the above finding in mind,
it seems possible to explain such slides by the decrease in strength following a reduction in salt
concentration. Conversely, it seems possible to confirm the theory about the reduced strength
of leached clay if it can be proved that the ” inexplicable ” slides occur as a rule in clays with
a reduced salt concentration. This is attempted in the analysis of Norwegian slides given
below.
In various geological publications investigations of a great number of actual slides have
been described. But as the salt concentration of the sliding clays has never been determined,
this excludes a direct establishment of the correlation between salt concentration and the
liability to sliding of clay deposits. Instead of the salt concentration, it is, however, possible
to utilise the sensitivity as an indication of the degree of leaching as it has been established
that a leaching out of the salt is always accompanied by increased sensitivity. Bearing this
fact in mind, it is easy to distinguish between slides which have occurred in salt clays and
slides in clays which have been leached out. Slides in sensitive or quick clays are charac-
terized by a typical shape and a special course. A very characteristic feature is, for instance,
the flow of liquid clay re-moulded by the slide.
From the material of published descriptions of Norwegian slides in natural slopes data
from 52 slides was collected (G. Holmsen, P. Hohnsen). Amongst these, 6 submarine flow-
slides in fine sand could be disregarded as they are without interest in this connexion. In 11
cases the slide may be explained as a result of external causes as, for example, fillings, excava-
tions, bombing, etc. Even though these 11 slides are excluded from this investigation it is
worthy of mention that 5 or 6 of them occurred in quick clays.

l Similarc~~rvcs showing the relationshipbetweenm-mouldedshear strength and liquidityindex have

been published by Skempton and Nortbey (1952).
t For instance the sensitivities shown in Fig. 10 eeem to be somewhat lower, for small salt concen-
trations than those for natural quick clays.
 PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 65
There thus remain 35 slides which have occurred without it having been possible to point
to appreciable external causes. These slides are also the most extensive, as in the majority
of the cases large areas are involved. Of these 35 slides 26 have occurred in quick clays. The
cause of a further 3 slides is believed to be related to the presence of quick clay, but informa-
tion on this point is not quite complete.
Even if this investigation of Norwegian slides cannot claim to give more than a rough
impression of the conditions it does show that most of the “ inexplicable ” slides in natural
slopes occur in very sensitive clays-according to the above figures more than 60 per cent.
If seen in relation to the occurrence of quick clays in Norway, this figure is exceptionally high,
in fact it is so surprisingly high that it inevitably leads to the conclusion that the “ internal
causes ” which are responsible for the slides are closely related either to the sensitivity itself
or to the same factors which result in the high sensitivity of the clays. Now, it is known that a
high sensitivity is only a result of a leaching out of the original salt in the pore water (see below).
Assuming that increased sensitivity does not affect the stability of a slope,* this leads to the
conclusion that the slides are a result of reduced shear strength due to the leaching out of salt.
The final result of this analysis of slides in natural slopes is thus considered to render
probable the above derived hypothesis that a leaching out of the salt of a marine clay deposit
is not only accompanied by increased sensitivity but also by reduced undisturbed shear
strength. In slopes where the possibilities for leaching are present, this reduction in shear
strength may lead to slides without any external causes.
It may be said in passing that during the study of Norwegian slides the possibilities of
explaining slides by leaching was found mentioned in various parts of G. Holmsen’s papers
(1929, 1934).
A third means of investigating the shear strength during leaching is by experiments in the
laboratory. A few tests have been made by Rosenqvist (1946) and by Skempton and Nor-they
(1952). These tests did not indicate a decrease in strength by leaching, but in all cases the
reduction in salt concentration was small compared with that found in nature. More com-
prehensive experiments have been started at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute by Dr
Rosenqvist and the Author. A few results will be mentioned here as they assist in the
evaluation of the theories advanced above.
In tLvo glass cylinders filled with salt water a clay sample was deposited by sedimentation.
Through a period of months a small amount of a clay suspension was poured each day into
the cylinders in an attempt to reproduce the sedimentation in nature. After the clay had
settled under its own weight it was covered by a thin layer of silt which was poured into the
cylinder, followed again by a layer of sand. Now porous loading plates could be placed on the
samples and both cylinders were loaded carefully in steps up to a vertical pressure of 0.70
kilograms per square centimetre. After consolidation, the first clay sample was subjected to
a small hydraulic gradient for six months, resulting in a steady leaching by fresh water.
During this time the salt concentration was decreased from the original 35 gramrnes per litre
to 1 gramme per litre. The second clay sample was left with the original salt concentration
in the pore water under the pressure O-95 kilograms per square centimetre, which corresponds
to the consolidation pressure of the first sample, including the effect of the seepage forces.
After six months the cylinders were dismantled and the shear strength, sensitivity, water
content, etc., determined. The results are given in Table 5. If the figures in Table 5 are
compared with the corresponding values of natural clays given in Table 4, it will be seen that
the properties of the two, artificially prepared, normally consolidated, clay sediments are very
similar to those of natural clay deposits : the first sample representi.ng a quick clay and the
second sample a clay with little sensitivity.

l This means that the explanation of the slides as a result of a progressive failure released by increased
sensitivity may be disregarded. This seems justified, as analysis of slides in sensitive clays shows safety
factor9 close to unity.
66 BJERRUM

A comparison of the two clay samples shows that the most important action of the leaching
out of salt is a decrease in liquid limit and, as the water content remained almost unaltered
during the leaching, the shear strength of the re-moulded clay is reduced to a fraction of the

Table 5. -Leaching experiment with clays laid down in salt water

Consoli- Water Salt Atterberg Liqui- Shear strength

Sensi-
dation content concen- limits dity (kg./cm.2)
Sample

~~~~~~f’_.:__:::..

original value, which is the same as found in the salt clay. This means that the first clay
sample by a leaching out of the salt is transformed into a very quick clay, the sensitivity being
increased from 6.4 to 90.
It also appears from Table 5 that the clay which was leached after consolidation shows a
much smaller undisturbed shear strength than the clay which did not undergo leaching. As
the salt clay is believed to represent the conditions before leaching of the first sample it means
that the reduction in salt concentration has been accompanied by a decrease in undisturbed
shear strength. This decrease may best be expressed by the reduction of the ratio of shear
strength to consolidation pressure, c/p. From the original value of 0.32, the c/p was reduced
to 0.11 : i.e. a reduction of 65 per cent.

Cl.ASSlFlCATlON LIQUIDIIY INDEX

loI

very Kn$itive
8
sllghdy quidc
I6
tkdrum qukk c

g”
very quick
w
64

*qulJl
115
-,-
250
-a-
\
so0
-.-
l.000

Fig. il. Relation between sensitivity and liquidity index

 PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 67
The conclusion which can be drawn from the experiments is, therefore, that a leaching out
of the salt of a marine clay is accompanied not only by increased sensitivity, but also by a
reduction of the undisturbed shear strength. The test results are, therefore, considered to
confirm the above advanced theory.
Summarizing the above discussion : it has been shown in three different ways that an
important action of the leaching out of salt in the pore water of marine clays is a reduction in
shear strength. The reduction in shear strength does not occur in linear proportion to the
decrease in salt concentration but is concentrated over the last part of the leaching process.
The course of the strength reduction may be estimated on the basis of the diagrams shown in
Fig. 3-giving the decrease in plasticity index for reduced salt concentration-and Fig. 9,
which shows the correlation between shear strength and plasticity index.

SENSITIVITY
The outstanding characteristic of the Norwegian clays is, without doubt, their high
sensitivity (defined as the ratio of their undisturbed and re-moulded shear strength). For
Norwegian clays it is a readily observed fact that a high sensitivity is accompanied by a
relatively high water content seen in relation to the Atterberg limits. The high sensitivities
are thus always related to a low shear strength of the re-moulded clay. This finding can best
be demonstrated by a comparison of the sensitivity and the liquidity index, defined as :
w-PL
L1=LL-PL
in which W = natural water content
PL = plastic limit
LL = liquid limit.
In Fig. 11 typical values of sensitivity and liquidity index are given, the samples being
divided into groups according to sensitivity. Each point thus represents an average of a
great number of samples. The figure shows a logarithmic correlation between sensitivity and
liquidity index.
The explanation of the high sensitivity of marine clays as a result of leaching out of the salt
has been given by Rosenqvist (1946) and his theories have been supported by Skempton and
Northey’s investigations (1952). According to these theories a reduced salt concentration
in the pore water results in a decrease in liquid limit and in re-moulded shear strength. The
original considerations assume no change in undisturbed shear strength during leaching.
Even if it is likely, as stated above, that a reduced salt concentration is followed by a decrease
in undisturbed shear strength this fact will not affect the original explanation of the sensitivity.
As clearly illustrated by the experiments described above the prevailing action of the leaching
is the very great reduction in re-moulded shear strength compared with which the reduction in
undisturbed shear strength is small.
As only relatively little is known about the correlation between the sensitivity and salt
content of natural clays some data will be given for some Norwegian clays. In Fig. 12 is
shown the correlation as found at different sites. At each site salt concentration and sensi-
tivity were determined on a number of samples. The values were plotted in a diagram, and
from the resulting curves shown in Fig, 12 it appears that the sensitivity is almost constant
during the first part of the leaching. If, however, the salt concentration is reduced below
16-15 grammes per litre, a rapid increase in sensitivity is observed. In quick clays-i.e.
clays with sensitivity above 32-only salt concentrations below 7 per cent are found.
The present investigation of salt content and sensitivity of natural clay deposits, as well
as the leaching experiments mentioned above, may thus be said to support the original leach-
ing theory.
 BJERRUM

Fig. 12. Relation between sensitivity and malt concentration for

some Nomwgiaa clay deposits

CONCLUSIONS

A study of some natural Norwegian clay deposits has shown that their peculiar geotech-
nical properties are mainly a result of a reduced salt concentration in the pore water. Some
conclusions which are believed to be of general interest may be drawn from the available
information :
(1) The activity of a clay is reduced appreciably with decreasing salt concentration.
This leads to a lowering of the Atterberg limits. A diagram which shows the
activity as a function of the salt content may be used to distinguish between the
effect of the salt content and the effect of the mineralogical composition on the
fundamental properties of a clay. For Norwegian clays a close correlation is
found between the content of illite minerals in the clay fraction and the activity.
(2) By careful sampling with a thin-wall, stationary piston sampler, undisturbed samples
can be taken even from deep beds of sensitive and inactive clays. A number of
loading tests have indicated that the failure does not occur progressively even in a
very sensitive clay.
(3) In homogeneous deposits of normally consolidated clays a linear increase in un-
drained shear strength with depth is found. A close correlation is found between
plasticity index and ratio of shear strength to effective overburden pressure.
(4) The computed correlation between plasticity index and shear strength indicates
that a leaching out of salt in the pore water of marine clays is accompanied by a
reduction in shear strength. This finding is confirmed by an analysis of Nor-
wegian slides in natural slopes. Furthermore, laboratory experiments show a
reduced shear strength after the salt has been leached out.
(5) Determination of the salt concentration in natural clay deposits confirms in prin-
ciple that a high sensitivity of marine clays is a result of leaching out of the salt
 PROPERTIES OF NORWEGIAN MARINE CLAYS 69

in the pore water. The leaching theory has been corrected for the reduction
found in undisturbed shear strength-which was not considered hithertc+and
the effect on the sensitivity was found to be small.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Author is indebted to his colleagues at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute who have
carried out the extensive work which forms the fbundation on which the present Paper is
ksd.

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I *