Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
DOI 10.1007/s12517-011-0513-2
ORIGINAL PAPER
Impact of intense exploitation on the groundwater balance
and flow within Mullusi aquifer (arid zone, west Iraq)
Bayan Muhie Hussien & Abed Salih Fayyadh
Received: 2 November 2011 / Accepted: 13 December 2011 / Published online: 30 December 2011
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2011
Abstract The main results that derived from this study is
the quantitative determination of subsurface water balance
and the water loses along flow line during drought decade
(before 2000–2009), with intense exploitation of groundwa-
ter from water wells. The hydrogeological data are presented
as spatial distribution maps and three dimensional models.
The results are correlated with the main hydrogeologic
control points including (storage and transmissivity coeffi-
cients, groundwater depths, aquifers thickness, lateral exten-
sions, well productivity) to determine the preferable
hydrogeologic districts for development and exploitations,
avoiding groundwater depletion as captured zone flow.
Based on the isotope analysis of deuterium, oxygen-18,
tritium, carbon-13, and carbon-14, the recharge of the aqui-
fer is originated to direct infiltration of atmospheric water
through exposure outcrops within Hauran catchments area.
The isotope compositions also show that the groundwater is
a mixture of an old groundwater with modern recharge in
the areas adjacent to Rutba. The fact that the Mullusi aquifer
is of major importance as the water supply of people in
Rutba region, particularly, for increasing demand of water
resources and sustainability assessment in the future, this
study developed a reliable strategic suggested plan in
groundwater supply, based on groundwater exploitation
and amount of safe yield within Dhabaa basin.
Keywords Groundwater flow . Hydrogeology .
Groundwater balance . Wells . Intense exploitation . West Iraq
B. M. Hussien (*) : A. S. Fayyadh
Center of Desert Studies, Anbar University,
Ramadi, Anbar Governorate, Iraq
e-mail: bayan1959@yahoo.com
Introduction
Location and purpose
Phisographically, the study area located in the western part of
Upper Wedian province and may be classified as transitional
part between Hamad and Upper Wedian provinces. This area
is crossed by the national highway and the old road of east–
west direction joining Rumadi and Rutba cities. The hydro-
geologic facts are examined by regional hydrogeological
study bounded by longitudes of (40°13′00″–40°43′00″) and
latitudes of (32°45′30″–33°17′00″) (Fig. 1).
The total area is of about 756 km2 with an elevation of
540–740 m above sea level (asl) (Fig. 2). The aims of this
research are to determine the impact of intense exploitation
on the groundwater balance and its effectiveness in ground-
water flow as captured zone within the regional geologic
and hydrogeologic boundaries of Mullusi aquifer in Rutba
region, explained by2D maps for two decades periods; and
also, to determine the impact of drought and intense exploi-
tation throughout variation of specific capacity values of
wells in different periods.
The study area is located in the southern part of the moder-
ate northern (subtropical) zone of the earth, linked with Sham
and Arabia peninsula deserts, mainly affected by desertic arid
climate according to the classification of the Union Nation
Environmental Program (UNEP 1991) (Table 1), where the
long-term (1941–2008) mean annual amount of P/PE is
(0.0656), which reflects drought case affects negatively the
recharge of groundwater in Horan catchment area. Ultimately,
it leads to moisture loss in a vast area and contributes to
drought condition in the arid region west Iraq. The amount of
mean annual of rainfall, evapotranspiration, temperature, air
velocity, and relative humidity in the study area recorded at
Rutba station are shown in Table 2. Safe yield in groundwater
2462 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482

Fig. 1 Location map of the study area

basin is defined as water that can be annually withdrawn from limestone, sandstone, and claystones. Hence, and according to
the basin without undesired results (Fetter 1988; Freeze and relief ratios and bifurcation valleys ratios (Hamza (1990),
Cherry 1987; Sophocleous 1987). The estimation of unpublished report. Project-999. Geological Activity), the
groundwater balance is required to determine the safe area may be classified into three geomorphic provinces.
yield of the aquifer system and their rational exploitation,
– First province: The province is represented by Horan
which represents the sustainable management (William et al.
valley within elevation of about 580–620 m asl, which
1999; Sharp 1998; Bredehoeft et al. 1982; Bacchus 1998;
incised its gully on the surface of Zorhoran Formation
Morgan and Jones 1999; Luckey et al. 1986). Similar ground-
and its contact with newest Formations.
water balance studies and their relations with the intense
– Second province: The province extends SW trending
exploitation can be found in Dottridge and Jaber (1999) and
from Horan valley, including the area of elevation rang-
Tizro et al. (2007) studies.
ing between 600 and 640 m asl, which covered half of
total area with low relief topography (slope01.8 m/km).
Geomorphologic boundaries
– Third province: The province trending extends toward
the South from second province, characterized by high
The study area characterized by undulated plateau, with an
relief with an average slope of about 4.3 m/km towards
elevation gradually increased from Horan valley in the NE
NE. The land surface covered by sandstones and carbo-
portion (550 m asl) trending SW part, where the elevation
nates of Rutba and Msad Formations, respectively,
reached (740 m asl) as shown in Fig. 2. The average land
which formed Mesas and plateaus of various areas.
surface slope is 2.15 m/km ranging between 0.007 and
Many geomorphic forms have been developed in those
18 m/km, crossed by intermittent valleys formed plateau
provinces like units resulting from differential weather-
surfaces with pediment sediments on their edges. The area
ing and erosion affected by stratigraphical, structural
is also characterized by horizontal stratified system or
factors and sedimentological actions.
low dip strata that may reach 2° toward the southeast.
The sediments are not homogenous in vertical and horizontal 1. Units resulted by weathering and erosion affected by
sections throughout the diversity of geologic formations and stratigraphic and structural factors: The study area is
their spatial distribution including carbonates, dolomite, marly characterized by plateaus of multi elevations extending
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482 2463

Fig. 2 Topographic map of the

study area

east–northeast (ENE) presently in the area south–southeast erosion of surface runoff covered by residual rocks
of Ga’ara depression. These plateaus are: (cobbles and gravels) of Tayarat Formation with a
low thickness of soil.
– Plateau occurred on a level more than 720 m asl,
– Plateau occurred on a level between 660 and
where Dhalaa, Dhabaa, and Amij valleys initiated.
720 m asl, incised by Dhalaa, Dhabaa and Msad
Its surface is a badland of jagged edges due to back
el-Rutba valleys with different intermittent dis-
charge formed small-scale plateaus and Mesas
in badland texture. The plateau edge from the
Table 1 Climate
Zone Precipitation/ south contacted with Tayarat plateau, while the
zone classification
UNEP-1991 evapotranspiration northern back edge contacts with Msad plateau by
(P/PE) scree slope features.
– Plateau of elevation ranged between 620 and 660 m
Hyper-arid <0.05
asl and is of bad texture in the expanse of Msad
Arid 0.05–0.2
Formation and simply undulated in the expanse of
Semi-arid 0.2–0.5
Rutba Formation which is characterized by wide
Dry sub-humid 0.51–0.65
valleys. Some Mesas developed into isolated hills
Moist sub-humid >0.65
with slope sediments of 10–25 m thickness relative
and humid
to adjacent land.
2464 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482

Table 2 Mean annual of rainfall, evapotranspiration, temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity

Period Mean annual

Temperature, °C Relative Air velocity, m/s Rainfall, mm/year Evaporation, mm/year P/PE Climate zone
humidity, % (Thornthwaite method)

1941–2000 18.8 45 2.99 121.3 1721.5 0.0704 Arid

2001–2008 21.4 46 3.2 94.6 1551 0.0609 Arid
1941–2008 20.1 45.5 3.1 107.9 1636.2 0.0656 Arid

– Plateau occurred on a level of 590–620 m asl, incised
by Dhalaa, Dhabaa and Msad el-Rutba valleys in N
and north–northeast (NNE) directions. Some hills
appeared due to differential erosion on various rocks,
especially in the area of Maudod and Naher Umer
exposures, which includes short valleys of high bi-
furcation ratios, directly pouring in Horan valley.
Calcrete and soils of low thickness cover this plateau.
2. Units resulted by differential weathering and erosion:
Horan valley and its tributaries are the obvious land-
forms in the study area (Fig. 3), which cuts the area
from the west passing Rutba city in a direction of N45°
E and valley length of about 45 km, changing flow
direction in four sectors. The first sector extends from
meeting point of Msad tributary with Horan to the
meeting point of Rumayla tributary in a direction of

Fig. 3 Spatial distribution map

of surface hydrologic basins
within the study area
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
N70°E, then exchange flow direction toward the north
in the Ubayla meeting point. Horan valley enters the
second sector in a direction of N80°E till meeting point
of Dhalaa tributary, then turns it’s direction to N60°E the
third sector till Dhabaa meeting point, again changing it’s
direction to N45°E in the forth sector. These deviations in
the direction of Horan, in the meeting points of tributaries,
show evidence of structural and stratigraphical impacts on
Horan valley. The drainage basins in the study area are
Msad el-Rutba, Rumayla, Dhalaa, and Dhabaa (Fig. 4).
All basins are of rectangular shape in NNE direction,
except Rumayla which is in circular shape.
The drainage patterns of basins are parallel,
where the bifurcation ratio of valley order increased
at the elevation of more than 620 m asl, to the
south of latitude (32°57′ 00″).
3. Units resulted by sediment process:
The main units that formed by deposition process
in the study area are valleys and depression fill
sediments in various thicknesses, from fine to coarse
grains which characterized by agricultural qualifica-
tion within and in the extinction of Msad el-Rutba,
Dhalaa, and Dhabaa valleys. The depression fill sedi-
ments are scattered on the plateau and deposited in low-
land depression and karstified rocks, especially on the
surface of the Ubaid Formation. These depressions devel-
oped by weathering and dissolution process, where some
Fig. 4 Three dimension
litho-well logs
2465
phenomena of blind valleys exist in Dhabaa branches,
indicating karstification phenomena within Dhabaa Fault
zone (SW–NE) directions.
Structural boundaries
The study area is a part of western belt of stable shelf
within the Rutba uplift in the southern limb of Horan
Fold (NE–SW) direction. The main structural boundary
of Mullusi aquifer is Horan fold axis, which represents
groundwater divide and the recharge zone, where Horan
valley cuts it’s gully within fold axis zone in same direction
(NE–SW) of fold.
A computer program (Rock ware) is used in completing
the model hydro-structure of the study area depending on
the geological data of lithological sections of the wells
shown in Fig. 4. The results of the model (Fig. 5) show that
the water-bearing horizons of Mullusi aquifer are affected
by Horan fold and form part of its south limb, where the dip
of layers range between 0.2° and 1.2° towards east–south-
east (ESE). Also, the model explained the horizontal and
vertical extensions of Mullusi aquifer. The study area
crossed by Dhabaa Fault belongs to the system of
Horan strike slip faults extending to Dhabaa Valley of
west–southeast in the northern direction, as confirmed
by studies of Al-Mubarak (1996) and through geological
2466
Fig. 5 Three-dimensional hydrogeo-structural model of the study area
and structural studies (Fouad 2007), while the study of
Al-Bassam et al. (2004) classified it within the normal
faults accompanied by horizontal shifting. Dhabaa fault zone
plays an important role in the process of infiltration to the
aquifer through zone of distortion caused by the fault on
limestone layers, which helped to increase the ability of the
infiltration and formation of karst depressions indicated by the
ends of some branches of the valleys, which is known as blind
valleys as a result of the weathering process on limestone
acted on by water infiltration.
Finally, and according to the fact of the horizontal move-
ment of the fault, the hypothesis of a break in aquifer
extension in the east is of low probability, but it exists and
needs evidence for prooof. The technique used for identifi-
cation phenomena of geological and geomorphological lin-
eaments extracted from geologic, geomorphologic, and
topographic maps and field observation for the purpose of
interpretation of the phenomenon geo-structures and their
relationship to the geomorphologic situation and reflected
them in the interpretation of some hydrogeological facts and
on the possibility of determining the areas of groundwater
recharge from the exposure rocks of aquifers. The frequency
of the lineaments in a direction of NNE formed the highest
ratio (39%) of the total lineament phenomena, followed by
lineaments compatible with the trend of bed strike line
towards east of the northeast by 31%, while the total per-
centage of lineaments in general direction of (northeast) is
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
70%. The range of lineament lengths is between 2 and
22 km in a direction which corresponds to the flow direction
of the main valleys and their tributaries and with the direc-
tion of Dhabaa Fault. They also include lineament trends
and deviations of Horan valley with its course running
within the Zorhoran Formation; this indicates that the line-
ament direction of NNE and ENE are not linked with the
lithofacies and stratigraphic layers but is related to structural
settings and impact of Dhabaa Fault with their accompa-
nying fractures. The lengths of lineament in NNW direction
ranged between 2 and 10 km with a frequency of 26% from
the total lineaments of the study area, and most of these
lineaments are related to high edges of rock layers and
streams of the valleys resulting from differential erosion
and weathering, and therefore, these lineaments most likely
related to the situation of stratigraphic settings, kind of
rocks, and the degree of resistance to erosion, which formed
adverse geomorphic barriers acting as natural dams retard-
ing runoff water for a long period to allow them penetrating
into the ground made up of karst depressions in limestone
exposures and providing better conditions for feeding
groundwater by infiltration process.
Geologic boundaries
Based on the following geological studies: Buday and
Hack (1980), Al-Mubarak and Amin (1983), Al-Naqib
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
et al. (1986), Al-Azzawi and Dawood (1996), Hassan K
(1998) (unpub. PhD thesis, Baghdad University), and
Sessikian and Mohamed (2007), the study is area char-
acterized by the following sediments and geological
formations:
– Quaternary sediments include valleys and depression
fill sediments, consisting of sand, silt, clay, gravel, and
their mixture, in addition to the calcareous soils and
calcrete, where its thickness ranges between 0 and 2 m
and occupy various areas within streams gulley, depres-
sions, and slopes.
– Tayarat formation (Late Maestrichtian age) consists of
limestones, yellow calcareous marl, dolomite, calcareous
dolomite, and silicate phosphatic limestone deposited in
shallow marine environment. The thickness of the forma-
tion ranges between 35 and 45 m, exposed on a level
Fig. 6 Geologic map of the
study area, after GS&M
(compiled map)
2467
higher than 710 m asl in the southern part of the study
area, and its surface represents the beginnings of the
valley’s development (Fig. 6). This formation is underlain
by Hartha Formation.
– Hartha formation (Late Campanian–Early Maestrichtian
age) consists of sandy limestone and dolomitic limestone
in the lower part and clayey dolostones interbedded with
marly limestones in its upper part. The environment of
deposition is shallow marines, and it’s thickness ranges
between 37 and 74 m, exposed on a level ranging between
660 and 720 m asl in the southern part of the study area
within rugged terrain area (Fig. 6) with the configuration
system located over the Msad Formation.
– Msad formation (Cenomanian–Turonian age) is composed
of coralline limestone, multi-color sandy dolostones,
sandy marl, and dolomitic limestone of shallow marine
environments; it’s thickness ranges between 11 and 65 m,
2468
exposed on a level ranging between 620 and 660 m asl.
The spatial distribution map of the geological formation
(Fig. 6) in the eastern part shows the impact of Dhabaa
Fault through sudden deviation in the extensions of for-
mation layers. This formation is underlain by Rutba Sand
Formation.
– Rutba sandstone formation (Cenomanian age) con-
sists of sandstones and silty clay sand in the form
of successive alluvial sedimentary cycles. The lower
part consists of coarse sand and basal conglomerate.
The environment of deposition is continental fluvial
or shallow coastal marine. The lower contact of
formation is unconformable surface underlain by
Zorhoran Formation in the western part of the study
area and by Maudood Formation located in other
parts. The thickness of the formation ranges be-
tween 10 and 45 m and increasing thickness to-
wards the south and southwest outside the study
area reaching 60 m in the well KH-5/3. The geo-
logical map (Fig. 6) explained a horizontal shift of
formation with deposits up to 6 km resulting from
the movement of Dhabaa Fault.
– Maudod–Naher Umer formations (Albian–Cenomanian
age): The total thickness of Maudood Formation of fos-
silferous limestone, lime mud, and dolomitic limestone
between 5 and 52 m, where the thickness increased to-
ward the east, and the environment of deposition is ma-
rine, while the thickness of Naher Umer changes between
29 and 44 m and increases toward the east. The environ-
ment of deposition is of beach to shallow marine.
Maudod–Naher Umer Formation positioned unconform-
ably above Ubaid Formation in the eastern parts and
above Zorhoran in the northern parts of the study area.
– Ubaid Formation (Liass age) consists of dolomite,
dolomitic limestone, and marly limestone, deposited
in a lagoon environment, exposed in the northeast-
ern and eastern part of region, within basin of
Dhabaa valley on a level ranging between 560 and
600 m asl. Configuration with a thickness of be-
tween 47 and 65 m decreased and faded toward
Rutba city. This formation overlay unconformably
above Zorhoran Formation of calcareous clay and
green marl. The upper part is karstified including
iron ore belonging to Hussainiyat Formation in
some locations extended with Dhabaa valley (Dha-
baa Fault zone).
– Zorhoran Formation (Rhaetic age): Zorhoran Formation
consists of yellow green marl containing gypsum inter-
bedded with dolomitic limestone and dolomites with
thickness ranges between 35 and 70 m in the wells
beside Horan valley suburbs in Rutba city and increasing
in thickness toward the east in well KH-5/9 (Amij valley),
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
where it’s thickness becomes 80 m. The formation is
deposited in lagoon and marine tidal environment. The
formation is exposed along Horan valley from Rutba city
till the mouth of Dhabaa valley with Horan valley
(Fig. 6). Zorhoran layers overlain by Ubaid, Naher
Umer–Maudod Formations and underlain by Mullusi
Formation, at a depth (400 m) east of the study area
in the well KH-5/9.
– Mullusi Formation (Carnian–Nornian age) composed of
dolomitic limestone, dolomite, sandy, and marly dolo-
mite of lagoonal to neratic environments, overlain by
Zorhoran layers, and Msad and Rutba Formations
(Jassim and Goff 2006). Its thickness is of about
160 m in Amij area (well KH-5/9) and 120 m in Rutba
region, while its thickness ranged between 30 and 80 m in
the north portion of study area.
– Ga’ara Formation (Early–Late Permian age) consists
of sandstones interbedded with claystones of fluvial
deltaic environments, exposed in Ga’ara depression
north study area, appearing at a depth of 579 m
from land surface in the eastern part of study area
and at depth 154 m in well (KH-5/9). Finally, Fig. 7 show
the distribution of geological formations and their
extensions within the study area in the form of a
three-dimensional model.
Methodology
Field work and data processing
The study of groundwater flow and groundwater balance
in two-decade period was examined by using two types
of data bases; the first data base comprised a previous
hydraulic collected data from 31 boreholes (Consortium
Yugoslavia, unpub. study, Ministry of Irrigation, Repub-
lic of Iraq, 1981; Acsad 1983), while the second data
base was achieved by activity of measuring the static
water level and dynamic water levels with water dis-
charges as seasonal regime observation performed in 29
boreholes (fourth records in each borehole) during water
year 2009, approved after desk study and water point
inventory using GPS apparatus (Garmin Summit-e Terex)
(Tables 3 and 4).
The groundwater flow models in two decades which are
based on hydraulic information are used to discuss and
evaluate the groundwater age (Geyh 1980) and recharge
(Mazor and Nativ 1992) and groundwater balance for
exploitation plans and groundwater managements. This
would facilitate and limit the impact of intense exploi-
tation on the flow regime. Static and dynamic water
levels with water discharges were measured in the wells
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
Fig. 7 Three-dimensional
geologic model of the
study area
using electrical sounder for levels and volumetric–time
method for discharge application depending on the pro-
cedures of (U.S.EPA 1989;Thornhill 1989; Plazak 1994;
Nielsen D and Nielsen G 2005; Nielsen 2006; Driscoll 1986;
Barcelona et al. 1985), which related to the monitored varia-
bles in this study. Rock ware-14 software program are used in
finding 2D spatial groundwater flow maps while the ArcGis
9.3 program was used for other maps and on the basis of
available boreholes litho-logs, using Rock ware software,
a 3D hydrogeologic model was achieved, showing the
spatial distribution of the hydrogeologic system and their
hosted geologic formations (extension of the hydrogeologic
units in X, Y, and Z directions).
The specific capacity of the production wells was studied
in a statistical manner for the purpose of good accuracy level
in achieving results. The specific capacity value was sorted
on the basis of drilling and testing periods into three groups:
group I (before 2000), group II (during 2002), and group III
(during 2009) (Table 5).
Study and interpretation results of specific capacity in
three periods were based on available information with-
in the drilling period of wells, which included a period
before 2002 and a period within 2002, where the last
measurements were performed within the field work
period of this study. The specific capacity results were
interpreted according to 1 m of penetration from the
thickness of the aquifer for the three abovementioned
groups, after plotting the values of specific capacity and
frequency percent of wells (Fs%), on a (probability-logarithm)
2469
graph paper (Walton 1970). Fs% ¼ ½M0 =ðNw þ 1Þ  100 ,
where Fs%0frequency of wells; M0 0order number; Nw 0total
number of wells.
Desk study
Hydrogeologic boundaries
Sediments of the Mullusi Aquifer consisting of limestone
and dolomitic limestone are exposed in Rutba uplift zone,
particularly in the southern part of Ga’ara depression, which
represents the recharge zone of direct feeding into aquifer,
and also recharged from the scope of Rutba uplift lands
along Horan valley and it’s branches, which represents the
groundwater divide after water penetration through permeable
layers of formations located above the water-bearing horizons
of Mullusi aquifer. On these bases, the storage in water-
bearing horizons of Mullusi aquifer represent perched condi-
tions, especially when isolated by impermeable layers from
main underground reservoir and represents semi-confined
aquifer in areas permit leaking into the regional aquifer.
Groundwater storage conditions in Mullusi Aquifer based on
the amount of distance and proximity to the groundwater
divide and the amount of recharge water, controlled by the
thickness of the layers and exposure area in addition to the
hydraulic characteristics (porosity and permeability).
Mullusi Aquifer is characterized by wide extensions away
from the study area, where the thickness of the aquifer reaches
120 m to the west in Treybil border city and 50 m towards the
2470 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482

Table 3 Hydraulic data within Dhabaa basin

Water Depth to Depth to Drawdown (m) Discharge Specific Productive K m/day T (m2/day) Sy. or S. Annual
3
point dynamic static water m /day capacity, thickness (m) fluctuation,
water level (m) level (m) m3/day/m m/year

W-1 136.74 136.74 100.54 36.20 708.48 19.57 126 0.286 36.057 0.0026
W-2 205 101.85 103.15 345.6 3.35 128.8
W-4 149 98.40 50.6 362.88 7.17 132.7
W-6 210 97.18 112.82 259.2 2.3 135.3
W-7 172 96.07 75.93 457.92 6.03 134
W-10 190 115.20 74.8 299.81 4 133
W-12 166 116.00 50 259.2 5.18 132.8
W-13 183.6 96.60 87 345.6 3.97 152.7
W-15 190.2 95.81 94.39 354.24 3.75 100
W-17 190 98.02 91.98 297.2 3.23 153.8
W-19 62 28.63 33.37 466.56 13.98 152
W-20 113 71.88 41.12 172.8 172.8 110.5
KH5/2 39 273 140 0.09 67 0.01
RW-3 45.1 285 115 1.38 2.6 0.01
RW-5 52.7 39 135 0.03 0.8 0.01
5942 160 83.2 76.8 604.8 7.87 78
5943 156 80 76 604.8 7.95 78
5944 130 75 45 777.6 17.28 72
5945 150 78 72 518.4 7.2 78
5946 126 77 49 777.6 15.87 78
5947 119 119 44 691.2 15.71 78
W-21 160 81.70 78.3 518.4 6.62 169.7
W-22 49.3 37.76 11.54 86.4 7.48 52
W-24 110 71 39 259.2 6.65 109
RW-6 69 110 0.3 5.2 0.0002 0.60
RW-7 40 120 0.25 1 0.0005 0.28
RW-8 35 120 0.34 18 0.0005 0.16
5994 83 792 160 0.78 43
5940 180 77 103 864 8.38 78
5941 120 75 45 777.6 17.28 72
5813 94 74 20 162 8.1 54 0.35 19
5836 113 331 209 2.8 161
5841 90 67 23 396 17.21 69 0.8 48
5849 94 73 21 378 18 35 1.23 43
5868 110.5 99.3 11.2 50.112 2.33 80 0.036 2.27 0.0273
5869 98.7 70.7 28 175 15.62 140 0.065 6.38
5875 74 396 150 0.1 17.69
5879 126 80 46 362 7.86 140 0.1 15
5964 74 40
5965 112 72 40 152 3.8 41 0.37 25
H2-1 134 176 4.4

southwest in Alnehayden and 100 m south of Wadi Abu Ga’ara depression at thickness ranging between 30 and
Menttar and 160 m in Amij area (Consortium Yugoslavia, 80 m. The thickness of aquifer in the study area ranges
unpub. study, Ministry of Irrigation, Republic of Iraq, 1981) between 120and 100 m. From the hydrogeological model
while it’s extension ends toward the north at the edge of (Fig. 8). The upper surface of the aquifer extends at a depth
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482 2471

Table 4 Static water level data

(mean values) Borehole no. Depth of water (m) SWL (m asl) Borehole no. Depth of SWL (m asl)
during 2000 water (m) during 2009

5712 30 590 5712 35 585

5744 30 588 5744 26 592
5754 65 575 5754 / /
5813 74 516 5943 83 513
5836 113 534 5836 116 531
5841 67 520 5841 / /
5849 73 520 5879 79 521
5868 70.7 519 5868 71 519
5869 99.3 568 5947 88 509
5875 74 521 5875 75 520
5879 80 520 5849 / /
5964 74 516 5964 77 513
5965 72 519 W-13 98.5 492
5994 83 522 W-14 86 512
5940 77 523 5869 102.3 565
5941 75 525 W-16 71.32 518
5942 83.2 517 RW-3 43 543
5943 80 517 W-18 20.12 596.8
5944 75 518 W-19 18.64 597.3
5945 78 518 W-20 71.88 572.1
5946 77 518 W-21 81.7 498.3
5947 75 522 W-22 37.76 578.2
KH5/2 39 580 W-23 83.82 521.2
DH-6 127 518 W-24 71 533.0
H2-1 134 496 W-25 82.3 514.7
RW-3 45.1 541 W-26 82.08 518.9
RW-5 25.7 596 RW-5 24.5 597
RW-6 35 586 RW-6 47 564
RW-7 40 570 RW-7 37 573
RW-8 35 561 RW-8 / /
RW-9 48 532 RW-9 51 529
5994 93 512
W-9 84.5 514.5

of 30 m in Rutba region and 175 m south and southeast parts
of the study area. The lower surface of aquifer extends at a
depth ranging between 154and 190 m or 410 and 470 m asl.
Source of recharge
The study of (Hussien 2010a, b) explained that the available
regional ground water resources in the area of Al-Hamad were
of ancient origin, and the main recharge occurred in the southern
rain period dating back to more than (30,000 years), followed
by a secondary process of feeding occurring in the northern rain
period, which dated back between 15,000–22,000 years, and
then the rain period in the Neolithic period 1,000–3,000 years
before present (BP). These results were confirmed through the
analysis of isotopes of elements (carbon14C), (tritium 3H),
(carbon 13C), and (oxygen 18O) (Geyh 1980).
The results of the analysis of stable isotopes in the
groundwater of the study area (Table 6) indicate that the
newest age of groundwater has been recorded in Horan
Valley within Urdhuma region, where it is estimated to be
within 2,410 years BP Neolithic period, followed by
groundwater in Msad valley basin, in addition to Wadi
Horan watershed northeast of Rutba city, where the water
dated back to (10,500 years BP) and (9,915 years BP),
respectively, between the Neolithic rain period and the
northern rain period, while the recorded groundwater age
2472 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482

Table 5 Frequency and specific capacity per meter of penetration within study area

Date/before 2000 Date/2002 Date/2009

Well no. Order no. Fs % Sp. ca. per meter Well no. Order no. Fs % Sp. ca. per meter Well no. Order no. Fs % Sp. ca. per meter
of penetration of penetration of penetration
(m3/d /m/m) (m3/d /m/m) (m3/d/m/m)

5849 1 14.2 0.151 6946 1 10 0.116 W-1 1 5.88 0.150

5869 2 28.5 0.111 6944 2 20 0.110 W-22 2 11.76 0.143
5841 3 42.85 0.091 6941 3 30 0.095 W-19 3 17.64 0.092
5813 4 57.14 0.059 6947 4 40 0.090 W-24 4 23.53 0.061
5879 5 71.42 0.055 6942 5 50 0.053 W-4 5 29.41 0.054
5868 6 85.71 0.034 6943 6 60 0.052 W-9 6 35.29 0.05
6940 7 70 0.050 W-7 7 41.17 0.045
6945 8 80 0.047 W-21 8 47.05 0.039
6965 9 90 0.022 W-12 9 52.94 0.039
W-20 10 58.82 0.038
W-10 11 64.7 0.030
W-2 12 70.58 0.026
W-13 13 76.47 0.026
W-15 14 82.35 0.024
W-17 15 88.23 0.021
W-6 16 94.11 0.017

within Dhabaa watershed is older being 31,540 years BP,
depending on the analysis of carbon-14 and the estimation
of it’s percent to traditional carbon (12C) using the degradation
half-life accounts of 5,730 years old0half life of 14C.
The above information proved that the process of feeding of
runoff water occurred from the valleys to the groundwater
through the erosional surface layers within Horan Valley and
its tributaries; it was also found that the age of groundwater
increases with distance from the course of the valley, and this
confirms the depletion of renewable water in Dhabaa basin, and
now it’s produced mainly from regional groundwater sources,
despite the existence of the aquifer in a replenished state, with
renewable water and on which it appears that the amount of
recharge is less than the production of wells in Dhabaa site.

Fig. 8 Three-dimensional
hydrogeo-stratigraphic model
(upper view)
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
Table 6 Analyses of stable isotopes in the groundwater of study area
(Hussien 2010a, b)
Locality Tritium H3 (TU) Age of
TU00.0032pCurie/ml C14 (year)
Dhabaa-5 0.3 31540
KH-5/2 0.2 9915
(Msad al –Rutba) 5874 18 10500
Um Erdhuma 65 2410
Relying on the analysis of tritium, including the half-life
decomposition of 12.5 years, we conclude that the ground-
water at both sites, Msad el-Rutba and Erdhuma, related to
the direct recharge of rainfall, where the age of recharge did
not exceed 25 years before the date of taking samples
(1980), where rainfall, surface water, and groundwater in
parts of the world have recorded radioactivity ranging be-
tween 10 and 20 unit tritium (TU), especially after the
industrial revolution and the nuclear tests which began in
1954. The groundwater in the other two sites within the
study area recorded low activities of 3H, and this also con-
firms the occurrence of feeding water from torrential rains in
the valleys of streams into groundwater. Finally, the study of
(Hussien 2010a, b) addressed the issue of groundwater
recharge in the study area in detail.
Infiltration rate
The percent of infiltration (Rnp) from the mean annual
rainfall (PPT0107.9 mm/year) into the ground in Rutba
region is of about 0.049, calculated from water balance
(Hassan and Zeki 1982), so the infiltration rate is:
Infiltrate Rate ¼ precipitationðPPTÞ  ðRnpÞ
¼ 107:9 mm=year  0:049
¼ 0:0053 m=year
Accordingly, the amount of penetrated water through the
space search area south of Horan valley will be the product
of infiltration rate×area.
amount of infiltration ¼ infiltration rate  area
¼ 0:0053ðm=yearÞ  930  106 m2
¼ 4:9x106 m3 =year
The amount of infiltration water within Dhabaa water-
shed had reached 36.7% of the total water percolation in the
study area, as calculated below:
Amount of infiltration within Dhabaa watershed
¼ 0:0053ðm=yearÞ  340  106 ¼ 1:8  106 m3 =year
2473
The speed of access water to the groundwater depended
on the thickness of unsaturated zone above Mullusi aquifer
Error based on the presence and distribution of geological forma-
(year) tions. The thickness of unsaturated zone increased with the
increasing of number and thickness of overlying formations
±1000
(Tindal et al. 1998) in the southern direction, which ranged
±120
between 140 and 190 m; also, the unsaturated thickness
±200
increased to the northeastern part (Hussainiyat-H2), which
±80
ranged between 120 and 170 m, while it’s thickness ranged
between 35 and 85 m in the area between Rutba and Dhabaa
(Fig. 9).
Hydraulic parameters
The values of transmissivity coefficient of Mullusi aquifer
as mentioned in the hydrogeological studies (Acsad 1983;
Consortium Yugoslavia, unpub. study, Ministry of Irrigation,
Republic of Iraq, 1981) ranged between 1 and 161 m2/day,
with an average of 27.3 m2/ day, and it is classified as an
aquifer of low–medium transmissivity depending on the
classification of Laboutka (1974), while the values of
the storage coefficient of Mullusi aquifer ranged between
<10−2 and >10−4).
The values of the permeability coefficient of Mullusi
aquifer ranged between 0.03 and 1.38 m/day, with an aver-
age of 0.169 m/day, where the aquifer was classified as of
low to medium permeability. The variation in the values of
hydraulic parameters is due to the fact that the aquifer is
composed of limestone and calcareous dolomite which was
affected by intensity and the number of fractures and joints
(Weight 2004) playing a main role in determining the nature
and characteristics of the aquifer (the most important
hydraulic parameters); it has seemed obvious in the
distribution map of permeability (Fig. 10), where the
values of permeability increased in the area between Rutba
city and Dhabaa site.
Results and discussions
Groundwater flow
The groundwater flow was studied through the analysis and
interpretation of monitoring groundwater levels within two
periods including years 2000 and 2009, based on the results
of the field measurements.
Groundwater flow and groundwater balance
(monitored period, 2000)
The groundwater moved between the two levels 550
and 590 m above sea level in three trends, northeast,
east, and southeast (Fig. 11). The groundwater between
2474 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482

Fig. 9 3D model of saturated and unsaturated zones between 200 and 600 m asl

Fig. 10 Distribution map of

aquifer permeability
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482 2475

Fig. 11 Groundwater flow

within the study area
(before 2000)

these two levels were considered as shallow groundwa-
ter, where the depths ranged between 20 and 60 m from
the land surface present within the scope of Horan
valley. The groundwater moves under the effectiveness
of hydraulic gradient rate of 0.004, rate of groundwater
flux of 0.0027 m/day, and rate of groundwater pore
velocity of 0.27 m/day.
Groundwater flux (V) (IAEA 1984)0KI00.687 m/day×
0.00400.0.0027 m/day, where, K: permeability, I: hydraulic
gradient.
Groundwater pore velocity (U) 0V/s 00.0027/0.01 0
0.27 m/day, where, V: groundwater flux, s: specific yield.
The groundwater that exists between levels of 520
and 550 m asl moves in two directions, east and
southeast area, including the Dhabaa watershed. The
groundwater moves under effort of hydraulic gradient
amount (0.0025), with a rate of groundwater flux of
0.0017 m/day and rate of groundwater pore velocity of
0.17 m/day.
Groundwater FluxðV Þ ¼ KI ¼ 0:687 m=day  0:0025
¼ 0:0:0017 m=day:
Groundwater pore velocityðU Þ ¼ V =s ¼ 0:0017=0:01
¼ 0:17 m=day:
The input and output flow rates to/from Dhabaa drainage
basin were calculated depending on the map groundwater
movement (Fig. 11) and hydraulic parameters of Mullusi
aquifer, using the following equation:
Q 0TIL (Darcy equation in (Walton 1970; Todd and
Mays 2005; Heath 2004), where Q 0Inflow or Outflow
2476 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482

(m3/day) T0Transmissivity (m2/day), I0Hydraulic Gradient
(dimensionless), L0Section length (meters).
The inflow rate was calculated on ground water level
530 m asl, while the outflow rate was calculated on ground
water level 520 m asl, which represent the borders of Dhabaa
basin from the western and eastern sides, respectively, where
the groundwater in Dhabaa basin is affected by intense
exploitation forming a boundary of captured zone.
Outflow rate from Dhabaa SiteðQÞ


¼ TIL¼ 27:3 m2 =day  ð60=20000Þ  12500ðmÞ


¼ 1023 m3 =day ¼ 0:374  106 m3 =year:
The difference between inflow and outflow is:
ΔQ ¼ 0:398  106  0:374  106 ¼ 0:024  106 m3 =year:

– Inflow rateðQÞ ¼ 27:3ðm3 =dayÞ 

50ðmÞ
 40000ðmÞ
– The number of the producing wells in this region is the
12500ðmÞ five wells (5994, 5868, 5875, 5841, and 5813) with a
¼ 4368ðm =dayÞ ¼ 4368  365
3
productive discharge of 792, 60, 396, 396, and 122 m3/
¼ 1:594  106 ðm3 =yearÞ: day, respectively.
– Total daily production01,766 m3/day.
60ðmÞ – Daily production (12-h run)0883 m3/day.
– Out flow rateðQÞ ¼ 27:3   45000ðmÞ – The annual discharge Dhabaa Site 0883 × 365 0
20000ðmÞ
322,295 m3/year.
¼ 3685:5ðm3 =dayÞ ¼ 3685:5  365
The groundwater production from Dhabaa site equivalent
¼ 1:345  106 m3 =year to 13 times the difference between inflow and outflow rates,
The difference between inflow and outflow is: and this means that the depletion of groundwater mainly
occurred from side trends because there are specific conditions
ΔQ ¼ 1:594  106  1:345  106 for the movement of groundwater from the east, represented

by Dhabaa Fault, which impacts in two conditions: First, it
¼ 0:249  106 m3 =year : causes obstruction of the groundwater movement from the
east, and the second, allows for the movement of water
The difference between the rates of groundwater inflow
through its zone in longitudinal extension towards the south-
and outflow (249,000 m3/year) represents the average differ-
west–northeast, and perhaps the effect was obvious through
ence lost in Dhabaa basin; this loss either represents the rate of
the widening distance between equipotential lines of ground-
leakage to the regional groundwater through Dhabaa Fault or
water levels (520 and 530 m asl), from what is found the rest
the discharge of productive wells within Dhabaa basin, or
equipotential lines, where the process of depletion is clear in
both. For the purpose of ascertaining the possibilities above,
the direction of the fault trend.
the following calculations were performed depending on the
available hydrogeological information taken during the year
Groundwater flow and groundwater balance
2000; note that the map (Fig. 11) represents the movement of
(monitored period, 2009)
groundwater by the year 2000 as well.
– The number of productive wells in Dhabaa basin is six
The groundwater as shown in Fig. 12 moves between the two
wells including 5994, 5868, 5879, 5875, 5841, and 5813,
equipotential lines 550 and 590 m asl with the same trends
with a productive discharge of 792, 60, 362, 396, 396,
recorded by groundwater flow map (Fig. 11) toward NE, E,
and 122 m3/day, respectively.
and SW, but the movement occurred under a rate of hydraulic
– Total daily production02,128 m3/day.
gradient of about 0.005, groundwater flux rate of 0.0034 m/
– Daily production (in the 12-h run)01064 m3/day.
day, and rate of groundwater pore velocity of 0.34 m/day.
– Annual discharge0365×10640388 360 m3/year, which
is higher than the difference between the inflow and Groundwater FluxðV Þ ¼ KI ¼ 0:687m=day  0:005
outflow by 139,000 m3/year and represents the value of
basin depletion from north and south sides. These ¼ 0:0:0034 m=day:
results still do not represent the results of high precision
because the producing wells are of uneven distribution,
and so the following calculations are achieved for Groundwater pore velocityðU Þ ¼ V =s ¼ 0:0034=0:01
Dhabaa site exclusively. ¼ 0:34 m=day:
Inflow rate from Dhabaa SiteðQÞ

Which is of largest values than values extrapolated from
¼ TIL¼ 27:3 m2 =day  ð50=12500Þ  10000ðmÞ

a flow map (Fig. 11), and this confirms the decline in area-
¼ 1092 m3 =day ¼ 0:398  106 m3 =year: level domain of equipotential lines 550–590 m asl due to
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
Fig. 12 Groundwater flow
within the study area (during
2009)
dewatering process in the groundwater of Dhabaa basin
caused by intense pumping capacity in Dhabaa water supply
station, causing progress-level domain 520–550 m asl toward
a domain level of 550–590 m asl.
A map in (Fig. 12) explained that the groundwater in the
southern part of the hydrogeologic basin moved in south-
easterly direction at a rate of a hydraulic gradient of 0.0018,
groundwater flux rate of 0.0012 m/day, and rate of ground-
water pore velocity of 0.12 m/day.
Groundwater FluxðV Þ ¼ KI ¼ 0:687 m=day  0:0018
¼ 0:0:0012 m=day
Groundwater pore velocityðU Þ ¼ V =s ¼ 0:0012=0:01
¼ 0:12 m=day:
While the groundwater flow in the central part and spe-
cifically in the area of Dhabaa water supply station moves in
2477
three directions (E, SE, and NE), meaning, toward the area
of pumping wells at a rate of hydraulic gradient of 0.006,
groundwater flux rate of 0.0041 m/day, and rate of ground-
water pore velocity of 0.41 m /day, which represents the
highest speed of groundwater in the study area as a natural
result of pumping from wells.
Groundwater FluxðV Þ ¼ KI ¼ 0:687 m=day  0:006
¼ 0:0:0041 m=day:
Groundwater pore velocityðU Þ ¼ V =s ¼ 0:004=0:01
¼ 0:41m=day:
The conclusion that can be deduced from the analysis
of two flow maps (Figs. 11 and 12) is that water is
produced from different underground levels of Mullusi
2478
aquifer compared with regional water level ranged be-
tween 430 and 470 m asl of Ga’ara aquifer that means
the groundwater of Mullusi aquifer is extracted from a
level higher than the regional groundwater level for
about 120 m in areas of Horan valley and about 50 m
in project area. This does not eliminate the possibility
of water leakage from Ga’ara deep aquifer in small
amounts, especially in the project area, because the
hydrodynamic level during the state of pumping be
close to the regional water table. Depending on the data
of groundwater flow map (Fig. 12) and hydraulic
parameters of Mullusi aquifer. The inflow and outflow
rates to/from Dhabaa hydrogeologic basin was calculated,
using Darcy equation, Q 0TIL. The inflow rate was
calculated on the underground water level 530 m asl,
which fell back to a distance of 3 km west of Dhabaa
Site from its location during year 2000, where the groundwater
levels declined to about 10 m in this zone.
Inflow rateðQÞ ¼ TIL at datum 530m asl:

completely stopped pumping from the site is 8 years accord-
¼ 27:3 m2 =day  ð50=10500Þ  35000ðmÞ
¼ 1:66  106 m3 =year:
The inflow rate is divided into two parts:
1. Groundwater flow moving outside Dhabaa project to
the regional groundwater (in southern part of the study
area) calculated on equipotential line of 520 m asl
reached.
Q ¼ 27:3ðm2 =dayÞ  ð0:00476Þ  15000ðmÞ
¼ 1949ðm3 =dayÞ ¼ 0:711  106 m3 =year:
2. Groundwater flow enter the scope of the Dhabaa
project calculated on the level of 520 m above sea level
has been reached:

The value of safe yield of Dhabaa basin has been calculated
Q ¼ 27:3 m2 =day  ð0:004Þ  24500ðmÞ
¼ 2675m3 =day ¼ 0:976  106 m3 =year
Comparing the discharges between Dhabaa project and
productivity of 18 wells of the project’s, which operate with
total discharge of 3,110.4 m3/day (number of hours of
pumping 12 h a day), representing annual discharge of
1.1×106 m3/year, there is an increase of annual productive
wells rather than in imported groundwater entering the
scope of Dhabaa project by 124,000 m3/year, and this
proves that depletion process growing continuously reflects
the facts of the groundwater in the study area, according to
the observation measurements in 2009 (groundwater flow in
continuous change with time).
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
Groundwater depletion and renewal of water
The volume of depleted groundwater (dV) from the area of
Dhabaa project for the period between 2000 and 2009 was
calculated using the following equation:
dV ¼ Sy AðdhÞ . . . :
(Fitts 2002)
and that depending on the specific yield (Sy) of Mullusi
aquifer as well as groundwater movement map (the amount
of the decline in groundwater level (dh) and area of deple-
tion (A)).
dV ¼ 0:01  78:5  106 ðm2 Þ  10ðmÞ ¼ 7:85  106 m3
Knowing that the groundwater inflow rate to the aquifer in
Dhabaa site deduced from map (Fig. 12) is 976,000 m3/year,
the period required to replenish the aquifer in a condition of
ing to the following equation:
t ¼ V =Q ¼ 7:85  106 ðm3 Þ=0:976  106 ðm3 =yearÞ
¼ 8:04 year:
In any case, the period of re-filled Mullusi aquifer in the
case of the natural storage conditions under the same cli-
matic conditions prevailing for a period of 8 years, where
the causes of lowering groundwater level are due to non-
compliance with the pumping controls from the aquifer on
the basis of production does not exceed the value of safe
yield, as well as the impact of drought, brought on by
rainfall ceasing in recent decades.
Safe yield for Dhabaa basin
depending on the hydraulic information, where the values of
annual groundwater fluctuation in wells (RW-7, RW-6, and
RW-8) reached 0.16, 0.28, and 0.60 m, respectively, with
average reaching 0.346 m.


Safe yield m3 =year


¼ dV=dt ¼ S A m2 dhðm=yearÞ


¼ 0:01  341:25  106 m2  0:346ðm=yearÞ
¼ 1:18  106 m3 =year
(Fitts 2002)
According to Huisman equation (Huisman 1972), the
discharge, which guarantees a decrease of 0.346 m from
the group of wells distributed around the perimeter of a
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
circular area (circular battery), with it’s radius is of about
2,000 m and its radius of influence reaching 5,000 m is:
Δs ¼ ðQt =2pTÞ ln ð1:123 l=ρÞ0:346ðmÞ


¼ Qt = 2  3:14  27:3m2 =day  365 day=year
lnð1:123  5000m=2000mÞ
Qt ¼ 20960m3 =year
– The number of wells that meet the extraction of water
equivalent to the value of safe yield at drawdown of
0.346 m is:
Number of wells01.18×106 /20960056 wells.
– The discharge of each well from 56 wells is:



Qw m3 =day ¼ 20960 m3 =year =365ðday=yearÞ

The reasons of reducing in specific capacity of the wells
¼ 57:425 m3 =day
Finally, the safe yield of Dhabaa basin of 1.180×106 m3/
year can be produced through 56 wells, by discharge rate of
(57.425 m3/day or 0.664 L/s) for each well distributed on
the area of the basin, by one well in each 6 km 2 and by an
interface distance (2×3 km).
Impact of intense exploitation on the specific
capacities of wells
The discharges of productive wells are ranged between 60 and
864 m3/day with an average of 416.48 m3/day. The wells of
Mullusi aquifer were classified within the wells of medium
productivity depending on Laboutka (1974) classification,
while the values of groundwater drawdown (Δs) are ranged
between 11 and 112.82 m with an average of 56 m. In general,
the specific capacity values of the production wells in the
study area, which reached depths up to 190–250 m ranged
between the 2.3 and 19.57 m3/day/m averaged to 8.93 m3/day/
m. These results confirmed that the specific capacity of wells
are relatively low and may be attributed to the partial penetra-
tion of aquifer thickness in some wells. The specific capacity
values were sorted on the basis of drilling and testing periods
into three groups: group I (before 2000), group II (during
2002), and group III (during 2009) (Table 5).
The results that derived from probability-logarithm graph
paper (Fig. 13) are as follows:
& The first group: Productive wells that can be obtained
have a specific capacity of 0.03 m3/day/m (of draw-
down)/m (of aquifer penetration), and in high probabil-
ity, is estimated at 90%; productive wells can also be
obtained having a specific capacity of 0.07 m3/day/m (of
drawdown)/m (of aquifer penetration) in moderate prob-
ability estimated at 50%, while productive wells with
2479
specific capacity of 0.1 m3/day/m/m in low probability
are estimated at 30%.
& The second group: Productive wells that can be obtained
have a specific capacity of 0.025, 0.06, and 0.09 m3/day/
m/m in a probability of 90%, 50%, and 30%, respectively.
& The third group: Productive wells that can be obtained
have a specific capacity of 0.02, 0.04, and 0.055 m3/day/
m/m) in a probability of 90%, 50%, and 30%, respectively.
Comparing the results of the three groups as illustrated in
Fig. 13 shows that the specific capacity began to decline during
the last two decades, where the outcome decreased as follows:
– In the probability (90%)—0.01 m3/day/m/m, reduced
by 33%.
– In the probability 50%—0.03 m3/day/m/m, reduced by
42.8%.
– In the probability 30%—0.045 m3/day/m/m, reduced by
45%.
are related to decrease in rates of recharge due to drought
and low rainfall offset by an increase in the rates of pumping
from wells (intense exploitation) and drilling new wells.
Conclusion
& In terms of hydrogeology, the study area was characterized
by the presence of Mullusi carbonate shallow aquifer, with
semi-confined conditions.
& The analysis of stable isotopes in the groundwater of the
study area indicates that the newest age of groundwater
has been recorded in Horan Valley within Erdhuma
region, where it was back then at the age of the water
at 2,410 years BP within Neolithic period, followed by
groundwater in Msad and Horan watersheds, where the
water dated back to 10,500 years BP) and (9,915 years
BP), respectively, between the Neolithic rain period and the
northern rain period, while the recorded groundwater age
within Dhabaa watershed is the older at 31,540 years BP.
& The amount of penetrated water through the study area
south of Horan Valley reached (4.9×106 m3/year), while
the amount of the infiltration water within Dhabaa water-
shed is of 1.8×106 m3/year, which had reached 36.7% of
the total water percolation in the study area.
& The analysis of the two groundwater flow maps in
different periods indicate a phenomenon of groundwater
depletion as captured zone flow in Dhabaa area due to
high pumping from Mullusi aquifer, and the groundwater
is extracted from a level of 50 m higher than the level of
regional groundwater in Dhabaa area.
& The production of wells from Dhabaa site during year 2000
is equivalent to 13 times the difference between inflow and
outflow rates, and this means that the depletion of ground-
water mainly occurred from side trends because there are
2480
Fig. 13 Specific capacity
frequency graph for Mullusi
production wells within
Dhabaa basin
specific barrier conditions for the movement of groundwa-
ter from the east, represented by Dhabaa Fault Zone.
& Comparing the groundwater between the hydrogeologic
system of Dhabaa project during year 2009 and produc-
tivity of 18 wells of the project, which operates with
total annual discharge of 1.1×106 m3/year, we find an
increase of annual productive wells rather than in
imported groundwater entering the hydrogeologic scope
of Dhabaa project by 124,000 m3/year, and this proves
that depletion process growing continuously reflects the
reality of the groundwater within the study area, in
accordance with the observation measurements in 2009.
& The period of replenished Mullusi aquifer in case of
natural storage conditions under same climatic condi-
tions prevailing for a period of 8 years, where the rea-
sons of groundwater drawdown are due to non-
compliance with the pumping controls from the aquifer
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
based on basis of production does not exceed the
value of safe yield, as well as the impact of drought
through rainfall ceasing in recent decades.
& The safe yield of Dhabaa basin is of 1.180×106 m3/year
can be produced through 56 wells by discharge rate of
57.425 m3/day or 0.664 L/s) for each well distributed on
the area of the basin, by one well in each 6 km2, and by
an interface distance of 2×3 km.
& The transmissivity coefficient of Mullusi aquifer is ranged
between 1 and 161 m2/day, with an average of 27.3 m2/day,
and it is classified as aquifer of low-medium transmissivity.
While the values of storage coefficient ranged between 10−4
and 10−2. The permeability coefficient ranged between 0.03
and 1.38 m/day, with an average of 0.169 m/day, where the
aquifer classified as of low to medium permeability.
& The specific capacity of the production wells are rela-
tively low-ranged between the 2.3 and 19.57 m3/day/m
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:2461–2482
averaged to 8.93 m3/day/m. The specific capacity began
to decline during the last two decades, where the out-
come decrease was as follows:
– In the probability (90%)—0.01 m3/day/m/m, reduced
by 33%.
– In the probability 50%—0.03 m3/day/m/m, reduced by
42.8%.
– In the probability 30%—0.045 m3/day/m/m, reduced by
45%.
The reasons of reducing in specific capacity of the wells
are related to decrease in rates of recharge due to drought
and low rainfall offset by an increase in the rates of pumping
from wells and drilling new wells.
References
Acsad (1983) Groundwater resources of Al-Hamad Basin, no.13, final
report, Annex-4 Al-Hamad Basin Studies, Damascus
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