CHAPTER 2.

HVAC FUNDAMENTALS

2.1 Human Thermal Comfort

2.2 Basic Physics
2.3 Properties of Moist Air
2.4 Energy Transport in HVAC Systems
2.5 HVAC Load Estimation
2.1 HUMAN THERMAL COMFORT

2.1.1 Variables Affecting Thermal Comfort Level

Personal Variables
• Metabolic Rate (type of activity, age, sex)
• Clothing (clo)
Environmental Variables
• Air Temperature (K, ℃)
• Humidity (%, kg/kgda)
• Air Flow Velocity (m/s)
• Mean Radiant Temperature (K, ℃)
1) Metabolic Rate (activity, age, sex)
Thermal Interaction of Human Body and Environment
Energy Balance Equation

The terms in the energy balance equation have units of power per unit area and refer to the
surface area of the nude body. The most useful measure of nude body surface area, originally
proposed by DuBois and DuBois (1916), is described by:
2) Clothing (clo)
Clothing insulation value may be expressed in clo
units.

1.0 clo is equivalent to 0.155 (m2K/W)

or
R = 0.155 clo (m2K/W)

Because clothing insulation cannot be measured

for most routine engineering applications, tables
of measured values for various clothing
ensembles can be used to select an ensemble
comparable to the one(s) in question.
When a premeasured ensemble cannot be found to match the one in question, the ensemble insulation
may be estimated from the insulation of individual garments commonly worn.

The insulation of an ensemble is estimated from the individual values using a summation formula
(McCullough and Jones 1984):

7
3) Temperature and Relative Humidity

Because people typically change

clothing styles to suit seasonal weather,
ASHRAE Standard 55 specifies
summer and winter comfort zones
appropriate for clothing insulation
levels of 0.5 and 0.9 clo [0.078 and 0.14
(m2K/W), respectively.

Summer comfort operative temperature:

23 – 27 oC

Winter comfort operative temperature:

21 – 25 oC

Comfort relative humidity:

30 – 60%
Operative temperature (to) is defined as a uniform temperature of a
radiantly black enclosure in which an occupant would exchange the same
amount of heat by radiation plus convection as in the actual nonuniform
environment.

Where,

hc = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) (kcal/m2h oC)

hr = radiative heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) (kcal/m2hoC)
ta = air temperature (K) (oC)
tmr = mean radiant temperature (K) (oC)
4) Air Flow Velocity
Air flow speed affects the rates of convective heat loss and evaporation from human body skin.

A study of the effect of air velocity over the whole body found thermal comfort level unaffected in
neutral environment by air speed of 0.25 m/s or less (Berglund and Fobelets 1987).

Draft is an undesired local cooling of the human body caused by high speed air movement. Draft has
been identified as one of the most annoying factors in offices. When people sense draft, they often
demand higher air temperatures in the room or that ventilation systems be stopped.
5) Mean Radiant Temperature
6) ASHRAE Thermal Sensation Scale
2.2 BASIC PHYSICS

Mass/Weight

Density/Specific Gravity/Specific Weight

Power/Force

Work/Energy/Heat

Specific Heat

Sensible/Latent Heat/Enthalpy

Pressure

Fluid Flow

Components of a large HVAC

system (Based on hot-chilled
water system)
2.2.1 Mass versus Weight (질량:중량)

The mass, m, of an object is a fundamental property of the object; a numerical

measure of its inertia; a fundamental measure of the amount of matter in the object.
Its SI unit is kilogram(kg, or kgm).

The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object and may be defined as
the mass times the acceleration of gravity, G = mg. Since the weight is a force, its
SI unit is the newton(N) or kgf.

G = m(kg) × g (m/s2) = N (newton)

Note the picture at right. All the girl’s weight

(force due to gravity) is being supported by the
swing set. If one were to stand behind her at the
bottom of the arc and try to stop her, one would
be acting against her inertia, which arises
purely from mass, not weight
Technically, whenever someone stands on a
balance-beam-type scale at a doctor’s office,
they are truly having their mass measured. This
is because balances (“dual-pan” mass
comparators) compare the weight of the mass
on the platform with that of the sliding
counterweights on the beams

Conversely, whenever someone steps onto

spring-based or digital load cell-based scales
(single-pan devices), they are technically
having their weight (force due to strength of
gravity) measured.
e.g.) Find the mass and weight of the air in a room at 20 oC with a 4.0m x 5.0m floor
and a ceiling 3.0m high.

mair = ρair V = (1.2 kg/m3) x (60 m3) = 72 kgm

Gair = mairg = (72kgm) x (9.8 m/s2) = 700 N or 700 kgf

Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume

2.2.2 Density, Specific Gravity, Specific Weight (밀도:비중:비중량)

Density(ρ) is defined as mass divided by volume:

m
 (kg m /m 3 ) where, m = mass (kgm), V = volume (m3)
V
Specific gravity (or relative density) of a material is the ratio of its density to the
density of water at 4.0 oC, 1000 kg/m3.

 material
SG 
 water

Specific Weight (γ ) is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.

It is expressed as:

 g where, γ = specific weight (N/m3)

ρ =density (kgm/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
Density of Air (dry air versus moist air)

Often people erroneously believe that moist air is denser than dry air because very
moist air is more difficult to breathe than dry air.

Density of air will vary as the temperature and moisture content in the air varies. When the temperature increases,
the higher molecular motion results in an expansion of volume and thus a decrease in density.

The amount of water vapor in the air also effects the density. Water vapor is a relatively light gas when compared to
diatomic Oxygen and diatomic Nitrogen. Thus, when water vapor increases, the amount of Oxygen and Nitrogen
decrease per unit volume and thus density decreases because mass is decreasing.

The two most abundant elements in the troposphere are Oxygen and Nitrogen. Oxygen has an 16 atomic unit mass
while Nitrogen has a 14 atomic units mass. Since both these elements are diatomic in the troposphere (O2 and N2),
the atomic mass of diatomic Oxygen is 32 and the diatomic mass of Nitrogen is 28.

Water vapor (H2O) is composed of one Oxygen atom and two Hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen is the lightest element at 1
atomic unit while Oxygen is 16 atomic units. Thus the water vapor atom has an atomic mass of 1 + 1 + 16 = 18
atomic units. At 18 atomic units, water vapor is lighter than diatomic Oxygen (32 units) and diatomic Nitrogen (28
units). Thus at a constant temperature, the more water vapor that displaces the other gases, the less dense that air will
become.

You may be familiar with the concept that moist air is less dense than dry air. This is true when both have the same
temperature or when the moist air is warmer. Said in another way, air with a greater percentage of water vapor will
be less dense than air with a lesser percentage of water vapor at the same temperature.
2.2.3 Power versus Force (능력 : 가해진 힘)

Power is the rate at which work is performed or energy is converted.

Its unit is W (watt). 1W = 1 J/s = 0.86 kcal/h.

Force is a push or pull that can cause an object to accelerate. Force has both
magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Its unit is N (newton).

F (N)= m(kgm) x a(m/s2). 1 N= 1 kg m/s2

Pulling force

Pulling force due to mass and gravity

Pushing force due to magnetism

A lineman is both
STRONG(applies a big force)
and FAST(displaces objects in
small times, powerful)

Linemen of Steelers, Pittsburgh, PA.

James Watt(1736-1819), Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer
2.2.4 Work

Work (mechanical): The amount of energy transferred by a force and its SI unit is J
(joule).

W (J)= F(N) x d (m), 1 J = 1 Nm

Work (thermodynamic): The quantity of energy (or heat) transferred from one
system to another. Its SI unit is J (joule).

1 J = 0.24 cal, 1 cal = 4.186 J

 kg  m  kg  m 2
1J  1 N  m   2   m  2
 Pa  m 3
 1 Ws
 s  s
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889), British physicist

1J=1Nm
paddle

weight

Joule's apparatus for measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat

Joule’s Heat Apparatus 1845, Science Museum, London

2.2.5 Energy

kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, elastic, electromagnetic energy

• Kinetic Energy

KE = ½ mv2 Unit: (kg)(m/s)2 = J

• Potential Energy (gravitational)

PEgrav = mgh Unit: (kg)(m/s2)m = (kg)(m/s) 2=J

• Thermal Energy ≈ Heat

2.2.6 Heat

In physics and thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from one body or

thermodynamic system to another due to thermal contact when the systems are at
different temperatures. Therefore, heat is thermal energy in transit.
2.2.7 Specific Heat

Specific heat is defined as the amount of energy that has to be transferred to or

from one unit of mass or mole of a substance to change its temperature by one
degree.

• Specific heat capacity of dry air: 1 cal = 4.186 J

Cpda = 1.006 kJ/kg K = 0.24 kcal/kg oC

• Specific heat of water:

Cpwater = 4.186 kJ/kg K = 1 kcal/kg oC

• Specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure:

Cpwv = 1.84 kJ/kg K = 0.44 kcal/kg oC

Specific heat of water as a function of temperature. The value of c varies by less
than 1% between 0 oC and 100 oC.
2.2.8 Sensible Heat / Latent Heat / Enthalpy

Sensible heat is the amount of energy released or absorbed by a chemical substance

during a change of temperature.

Qs = m cp ∆T

where,
m = mass of the substance (kg)
cp = specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kgK, kcal/kg oC)
∆T = the change in temperature of the substance (K, oC)

Latent heat is the amount of energy released or absorbed during a phase change,
such as the condensation of water vapor.

QL = m L

where,
m = mass of the substance (kgm)
L = specific latent heat for the substance (kJ/kgm)
• Latent heat of fusion (ice to water):

QLf = 333.55 kJ/kg = 79.68 kcal/kg 1 cal = 4.186 J

• Latent heat of vaporization (100 oC water to steam):

QLv = 2256 kJ/kg (at 100 oC ) = 539 kcal/kg

• Evaporation heat of water at 0 oC:

Qwe = 2501 kJ/kg = 597 kcal/kg

Enthalpy is the sum of sensible heat and latent heat. The unit is kJ/kg, or kcal/kg).
Sensible and latent heats of water at different phases

A = Latent heat of fusion of ice

B = Sensible heat of water
C = Latent heat of vaporization
of water at 100 ° C

The surrounding air is at room temperature, but this ice-water

mixture remains at 0 °C until all of the ice has melted and the
phase change is complete.
2.2.9 Pressure

Pressure is an effect which occurs when a force is applied on a surface. Pressure is the
amount of force acting on a unit area. The symbol of pressure is P.

The SI unit for pressure is the Pa (pascal). 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

F
P
A
where,
F = normal force (N)
A = area (m2)
1) Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is usually measured with

a barometer ("bar" o "meter" - an instrument
that measures "bars“).

Standard atmospheric pressure at average sea

level:

760 mmHg = 1013.25 mb = 1013.25 hPa

(1 hPa=100 Pa)

The mercury barometer was first discovered by the

Italian Evangelist Torricelli in 1643 and has been
since then known as the Torricelli barometer.
2) Pressure of Water Head (Column)

In fluid dynamics, head is a concept that relates the energy in an incompressible fluid
to the height of an equivalent static column of that fluid. Head is expressed in units of
height such as meters or feet.

Water head (mAq, “Aq =Aqua”)

1 mmAq = 1 kg/m2
1 mAq = 1000 kg/m2
2.2.10 Fluid Flow

1) The Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)

The mass of a moving fluid doesn’t change as
it flows.
Consider a portion of a flow tube between two stationary
cross sections with areas A1 and A2. The fluid speeds at these
sections are v1 and v2, respectively.

During a small time interval dt, the fluid at A1 moves a

distance v1dt, so a cylinder of fluid with height v1dt and
volume dV1=A1v1dt flows into the tube across A1. During this
same interval, a cylinder of volume dV2=A2v2dt flows out of
the tube across A2.

If the fluid is incompressible, so that the density ρ has the

same value at all points, the mass dm1 that flows into tube
across A1 in time dt is dm1= ρ A1v1dt. Similarly, the mass dm2
that flows out across A2 in the same time is dm2 = ρ A2v2dt. In
steady flow the total mass in the tube is constant, so dm1 =dm2
and : ρ A1v1dt = ρ A2v2dt or

A1v1 = A2v2 (continuity equation for incompressible fluid)

The product Av is the volume flow rate dV/dt, the rate at which volume crosses a section of the tube:

dV/ dt = Av (volume flow rate)

Previous equation (A1v1 = A2v2 ) can be generalized for
the case in which the fluid is not incompressible (i.e.,
different density).

If ρ1 and ρ2 are the densities at sections 1 and 2, then:

ρ1 A1v1 = ρ2 A2v2 (continuity eq. for compressible fluid)

The mass flow rate (dm/dt) is the mass flow per unit
time through a cross section. This is equal to the
density ρ times the volume flow rate dV/dt.

dm/dt = ρ(dV/dt) = ρAv (mass flow rate)

In HVAC engineering, water is usually treated as

incompressible fluid, while air is treated as
compressible fluid.
EXAMPLE:

As part of a lubricating system for heavy machinery, oil of density 850 kg/m3 is pumped
through a cylindrical pipe of diameter 8.0 cm at a rate of 9.5 liters per second.

(1 L = 0.001 m3 or 1000L = 1 m3)

(a) What is the speed of the oil? What is the mass flow rate?
(b) If the pipe diameter is reduced to 4.0 cm, what are the new values of the speed and
volume flow rate? Assume that the oil is incompressible.

ANSWERS:

(a) v1 = (dV/dt)/A1 = 1.9 m/s, The mass flow rate is ρ(dV/dt) = 8.1 kg/s
(b) v2= (A1/A2)v1 = 7.6 m/s, The volume flow rate has the same value (9.5 L/s) in both
sections of pipe.
2) Bernoulli’s Equation (Conservation of Energy)

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the

principle of conservation of energy. This states that
in a steady flow of an incompressible fluid the sum
of all forms of mechanical energy in the fluid
along a streamline is the same at all points on that
streamline.

The total energy at a given point in a fluid is the

energy associated with energy from pressure in
the fluid, plus the movement of the fluid, plus
energy from the height of the fluid relative to an
arbitrary elevation.
Deriving Bernoulli’s Equation

1) The net work dW done on the fluid element during dt,

due to the pressure of the surrounding fluid:

The pressure at the two ends are p1 and p2; the force on
the cross section at a is p1A1, and the force at d is p2A2.

The net work dW done on the element by the

surrounding fluid during this displacement is

dW = p1A1ds1 – p2A2ds2

dW = (p1 - p2)dV

Where, dV=A1ds1=A2ds2

Remember,
Pressure = Force / Area
Force = Pressure * Area
Work = Force * displacement
 1
2) The net change in kinetic energy during dt: ( K  mv 2 )
2

At the beginning of dt, the fluid between a and b has

volume A1ds1, mass ρA1ds1, and kinetic energy:

1 1
 ( A1ds1 )v12   (dV )v12
2 2

At the end of dt, the fluid between c and d has volume

A2ds2, mass ρA2ds2, and kinetic energy:

1 1
 ( A2 ds2 )v22   (dV )v22
2 2

The net change in kinetic energy dK during time dt is:

1 1
dK   (dV )v22   (dV )v12
2 2
1
dK   (dV )(v22  v12 )
2
3) The net change in gravitational potential energy: (U  mgh)

At the beginning of dt, the potential energy for the mass

between a and b is dm gy1 = ρ dV gy1.

At the end of dt, the potential energy for the mass between c
and d is dm gy2 = ρ dV gy2

The net change in potential energy dU during dt is

dU   (dV ) g ( y2  y1 )
4) Combining dW, dK and dU

dW = dK + dU

1
( p1  p2 )dV  dV (v22  v12 )   (dV ) g ( y2  y1 )
2
By dividing above equation by dV we obtain:

1
p1  p2   (v22  v12 )  g ( y2  y1 )
2

Above equation states that the work done on a unit volume

of fluid by the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the
changes in kinetic and potential energies per unit volume
that occur during the flow.

Then, above equation can be changed to a more convenient

form as:

1 2 1
p1  v1  gy1  p2  v22  gy2
2 2
The subscripts 1 and 2 in the previous equation refer to any two points along the flow tube, so we can
also write the following equation which states that the total energy per unit volume at a point in the
fluid flow is:

1
p  v 2   g y  constant (N/m 2 or Pa )
2

By dividing above equation by ρg (or specific weight γ) we obtain:

p v2
  y  constant (m)
g 2 g

where, 1st term = Pressure head (due to static pressure)

2nd term = Velocity head (due to bulk motion of a fluid, kinetic energy)
3rd term = Elevation head (due to the fluid weight and height)

In fluid dynamics, head is a concept that relates the energy in an incompressible fluid
to the height of an equivalent static column of that fluid.
Venturi Meter

The venturi meter or manometer (shown on the

right) is a common type of flow meter which
can be used in many liquid applications to
convert differential pressure heads into
volumetric flow rate, linear fluid speed, or mass
flow rate using Bernoulli's principle.

The reading of these meters (in inches of water,

for example) can be converted into a
differential, or gauge pressure.
The venturi meter in the diagram on the right
shows two columns of a measurement fluid at
different heights. The height of each column of
fluid is proportional to the pressure of the fluid.
1 2 1
p1  v1  p2  v22
2 2
1 1
p1  p2  v22  v12
2 2

From continuity equation: v1A1=v2A2 and

A1
v2  v1
A2
Therefore, Also,
p1  p2  gh
1 A1 2 1 2 1 A1 2
p1  p2   ( v1 )  v1 gh  v12 {( )  1}
2 A2 2 2 A2
1 2 A1 2 2 gh
 v1 {( )  1} v1 
2 A2 A
( 1 )2  1
A2
Daniel Bernoulli

(Groningen, 8 February 1700 – Basel, 8 March

1782)

He was a Dutch-Swiss mathematician and was one

of the many prominent mathematicians in the
Bernoulli family.

He is particularly remembered for his applications

of mathematics to mechanics, especially fluid
mechanics, and for his pioneering work in
probability and statistics.

Bernoulli's work is still studied at length by many

schools of science throughout the world.
2.3 PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR
2.3.1 Psychrometry

Moist Air = (dry air molecules) + (water vapor)

Psychrometry or psychrometrics are terms used to describe the field of engineering

concerned with the determination of physical and thermodynamic properties of
gas-vapor mixtures. The term derives from the Greek psuchron (ψυχρόν) meaning
"cold"[1] and metron (μέτρον) meaning "means of measurement“.

A psychrometric chart is a graph of the thermodynamic properties of moist air at a

constant pressure (often equated to an elevation relative to sea level). The
ASHRAE-style psychrometric chart was pioneered by Willis Carrier in 1904.

It depicts these properties and is thus a graphical equation of state. The properties
are:
Dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is that of an air sample, as determined by an ordinary thermometer, the thermometer's
bulb being dry. The SI units for temperature are kelvins(K) or degrees Celsius(°C).

Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is the reading of a thermometer whose sensing bulb is covered with a wet sock
evaporating into a rapid stream of the sample air (see Hygrometer). When the air sample is saturated with water, the
WBT will read the same as the DBT.

Dew point temperature (DPT) is that temperature at which a moist air sample at the same pressure would reach water
vapor “saturation.” At this point further removal of heat would result in water vapor condensing into liquid water fog or
(if below freezing) solid hoarfrost

Humidity ratio (also known as moisture content or mixing ratio) is the proportion of mass of water vapor per unit mass
of dry air at the given conditions (DBT, WBT, DPT, RH, etc.). Humidity ratio is expressed as grams (or kilograms) of
water per kilogram of dry air.

Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor to the mole fraction of saturated moist air at the
same temperature and pressure. RH is dimensionless, and is usually expressed as a percentage. Note: the notion that air
"holds" moisture, or that moisture “dissolves” in dry air and saturates the solution at some proportion, is an erroneous
concept (see relative humidity for further details).

Specific enthalpy symbolized by h, also called heat content per unit mass, is the sum of the internal (heat) energy of the
moist air in question, including the heat of the air and water vapor within. The SI unit of enthalpy is given in joules per
kilogram of air.

Specific volume, also called inverse density, is the volume per unit mass of the air sample. The SI unit is cubic meters
per kilogram of dry air.
This page may not print clearly. Download the JPG and PDF files.
1) Effect of Temperature on Humidity

The moisture-holding capacity of the air depends on the air temperature.

Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air.

The same humidity ratio results in different relative humidities at different

temperatures.

Humidity ratio
Dry bulb temperature
2) Sensible Heating and Cooling

Horizontal movement on the psychrometric chart (no change in absolute humidity)

3) Humidification

Humidification with steam or water spray will increase the humidity ratio and relative
humidity.
4) Dehumidification

Cooling is the most common method for dehumidifying

moist air.

If moist air is cooled to the saturation curve, further

cooling will reduce temperature and remove moisture

A portable dehumidifier
5) Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative cooling can be accompanied by

humidification of warm dry air.

Sensible heat loss = Latent heat gain

(no change in enthalpy)

Upward movement along a line of constant enthalpy

Energy saving cooling device in hot-dry climatic

regions.
2.3.2 Specific Enthalpy of Moist Air

enthalpy = sensible heat + latent heat

h  hda  x hwv

Where,
h = specific enthalpy of moist air (kJ/kg, kcal/kg)
hda = specific enthalpy of dry air (kJ/kg, kcal/kg)
x = humidity ratio (kg/kgda)
hwv = specific enthalpy of water vapor (kJ/kg, kcal/kg)
1) Specific heat of dry air (Sensible heat)
1 cal = 4.186 J

hda  Cpda t
Where,
Cpda = specific heat capacity of dry air at constant pressure
= 1.006 kJ/kg K = 0.24 kcal/kg °C

t = dry bulb temperature (K, °C)

Therefore,

hda  1.006 t (kJ/kg)  0.24 t (kcal/kg)

2) Specific enthalpy of water vapor (Latent heat)
1 cal = 4.186 J

hwv  Cpwv t  hwe

Where,
Cpwv = specific heat capacity of water vapor at constant pressure
= 1.84 kJ/kg K = 0.44 kcal/kg °C

t = temperature of water vapor (K, °C)

hwe = evaporation heat of water at 0 °C

= 2501 kJ/kg = 597 kcal/kg

Therefore,

hwv  1.84 t  2501 (kJ/kg)  0.44 t  597 (kcal/kg)

Finally, the specific enthalpy of MOIST AIR (Sensible heat + Latent heat) is:

h  1.006 t  x(1.84 t  2501) kJ/kg

h  0.24 t  x(0.44 t  597) kcal/kg

By ignoring the temperature of water vapor:

h  1.006 t  2501 x kJ/kg

h  0.24 t  597 x kcal/kg

Total heat of moist air m kg at temperature t °C and humidity ratio x kg/kgda is:

Q  m(1.006 t  2501 x) kJ
Q  m(0.24 t  597 x) kcal
Example:

What is the enthalpy of moist air at 25 °C with humidity ratio x=0.0203 kg/kgda.
(x=20.3g/kgda)

1) By including the temperature of water vapor:

h = (1.006 × 25) + 0.0203(1.84 × 25+ 2501) = 76.85 kJ/kg

h = (0.24 × 25) + 0.0203(0.44 × 25 +597) = 18.34 kcal/kg

2) By ignoring the temperature of water vapor:

h = (1.006 × 25) + (2501 × 0.0203) = 75.92 kJ/kg

h = (0.24 × 25) + (597 × 0.0203) = 18.12 kcal/kg

Also, try to find the answer from the psychrometric chart.

2.4 ENERGY TRANSPORT IN HVAC SYSTEMS

Manual Energy Transport

Energy is obtained from an outdoor The energy is transported to an

bonfire (energy source) using a fire indoor fire pot (destination)
shovel
Mechanical Energy Transport using Fluid (Water, Air, and Steam)

Hot water coil installed on floor

Duct and diffuser to transport energy by air

Hot water or steam radiator
2.4.1 Heat Transport by Fluid Flow (Sensible Heating and Cooling)
The heat liberated from a quantity of fluid is:
q  m  Cp  t

Where, q = liberated heat (kcal)

m = mass (kg)
Cp = specific heat capacity of fluid (kcal/kg℃)
∆t = temperature difference (final – initial temperature) (℃)

HVAC equipment loads, equipment capacity, and output are expressed as quantities per
unit time (kcal/h), or rates:

Q  G  Cp  t
Where, Q = heat flow (kcal/h)
G = mass flow (kg/h)
Cp = specific heat capacity of fluid (kcal/kg ℃)
∆t = temperature difference
1) Heat Transport by Water

Q  1.0 G Δt
Where, Q = heat transported by water (kcal/h)
G = mass flow of water (kg/h)
1.0 = specific heat capacity of water (1.0 kcal/kg℃)
∆t = temperature difference (t2-t1) (℃)

Hot water radiator

2) Heat Transport by Air

Q  0.24G Δt or Q  0.29V Δt Specific volume of air = 0.83 m3/kg

V
Where, Q = heat transported by air (kcal/h) Q  0.24G Δt  0.24 Δt  0.29V Δt
0.83
G = mass flow of air (kg/h)
0.24 = specific heat capacity of air mass (kcal/kg℃)
0.29= specific heat capacity of air volume (kcal/m3 ℃)
∆t = temperature difference (t2-t1) (℃)

t1
t2
2.4.2 Heat Transport by Fluid Phase Change

Q  539 G

where, Q = heat transported by steam (kcal/h)

G = mass flow of steam (kg/h)
539 = latent heat of vaporization of water at 100 ℃ (kcal/kg)

Steam radiator
2.4.3 Determining Fluid Flow Rates for HVAC Systems

Water Flow
Q
Gwater  (kg/h )
1.0(t 2  t1 )

Airflow
Q
Gair  (kg/h )
0.24(t 2  t1 )

Steam Flow
Q
Gsteam  (kg/h )
539
2.3.5 Sensible Heat and Humidity Controls in AHU

1) Heating and Humidification

Q  0.24G (t 2  t1 )  597G ( x2  x1 ) (kcal/h)

Q
 0.24(t 2  t1 )  597( x2  x1 )
G
 (0.24t 2  597 x2 )  (0.24t1  597 x1 )
 h2  h1

h  h2  h1 (kcal/kg)

t1, x1 t2, x2

Boiler
2) Cooling and Dehumidification

Q  0.24G (t 2  t1 )  597G ( x2  x1 ) (kcal/h)

Q
 0.24(t 2  t1 )  597( x2  x1 )
G
 (0.24t 2  597 x2 )  (0.24t1  597 x1 )
 h2  h1

h  h2  h1 (kcal/kg)

t2, x2
t1, x1

Chiller
 3) Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Airstreams
A common process in air-conditioning systems is the adiabatic mixing of two moist airstreams.

The RA(Return Air) and OA(Outdoor Air) are mixed and filtered before heating, cooling, and
humidification/dehumidification.

The mass flows of RA and OA are controlled by dampers.

air 1
(RA)

air 2
(OA) air 3
Adiabatic mixing is governed by three equations:

Air Mass: G1 + G2 = G3 (Mass conservation)

Enthalpy: G1h1 + G2h2 = G3h3 (Energy conservation)

Humidity Ratio: G1x1 + G2x2 = G3x3 (Mass conservation)

Eliminating G3 gives:

h2  h3 x2  x3 G1
 
h3  h1 x3  x1 G2
The state point of the resulting mixture lies on the straight line connecting the state
points of the two streams being mixed, and divides the line into two segments, in the
same ratio as the masses of the air in the two streams.

h2  h3 x2  x3 G1
 
h3  h1 x3  x1 G2
Therefore, when two airstreams are adiabatically mixed, first draw a straight line
connecting the two state points of streams being mixed and use the equation for total
mass and one of the two governing equations for enthalpy and humidity ratio.

If the enthalpy equation and mass is used:

G1h1 + G2h2 = G3h3

G1 + G2 = G3

G1h1  G2 h2
 h3
G1  G2
EXAMPLE

A stream of 5000 kg/h of outdoor air at 10 ℃ dry-bulb temperature and 30%

relative humidity is adiabatically mixed with 15000 kg/h of return air at 25 ℃ dry-
bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity. Find the dry-bulb temperature,
enthalpy and humidity ratio of the resulting mixture.

SOLUTION

1) Mark the states of the two airstreams on the psychrometric chart.

2) Find the enthalpy values, humidity ratios of the two streams.
3) Use the governing equations to calculate the enthalpy of the resulting mixture.
4) Mark the state of the mixture on the psychrometric chart.
5) Then, find other psychrometric values such as dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb
temperature, relative humidity, humidity ratio, etc. from the psychrometric chart.
 h2=50.1

h3=?
x2=0.01

h1=16
x3=?

x1=.0025

t1=10 t3=? t2=25

h3 = 41.6 kJ/kg(da)
76
 h2=50.1

h3=41.6

x2=0.01

x3=?
h1=16

x1=
0.0025

t1=10 t3=? t2=25

Verification of Enthalpy Values by Calculation
The dry-bulb temperature of the mixture also can be calculated by using the
extended form of the governing equation.