Garden city movement

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This article is about a method of urban planning. For the band, see Garden City Movement (band).
"Garden town" redirects here. For other uses, see Garden town (disambiguation).

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Ebenezer Howard's 3 magnets diagram which addressed the question 'Where will the people go?', the choices
being 'Town', 'Country' or 'Town-Country'
 The garden city movement is a method of urban planning in which self-contained communities are
surrounded by "greenbelts", containing proportionate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture.
The idea was initiated in 1898 by Sir Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom.

Contents
[hide]

 1History
o 1.1Conception
o 1.2First developments
 2Garden cities
o 2.1List of garden cities
 2.1.1United Kingdom and Ireland
 2.1.2North America
 2.1.3Australia and New Zealand
 2.1.4Europe
 2.1.5Asia
 2.1.6Africa
 3Criticisms
 4Legacy
o 4.1New garden cities and towns
 5Diagrams
o 5.1Diagrams from the 1898 edition
o 5.2Diagrams from the 1922 edition
o 5.3"Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907
 6Garden Suburbs
 7See also
 8References
 9Bibliography
 10External links

History[edit]
Conception[edit]
Inspired by the utopian novel Looking Backward and Henry George's work Progress and Poverty,
Howard published the book To-morrow: a Peaceful Path to Real Reform in 1898 (which was
reissued in 1902 as Garden Cities of To-morrow). His idealised garden city would house 32,000
people on a site of 6,000 acres (2,400 ha), planned on a concentric pattern with open spaces, public
parks and six radial boulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre. The garden city
would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another garden city would be developed
nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a central city of 58,000
people, linked by road and rail.[1]
Howard’s To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform sold enough copies to result in a second
edition, Garden Cities of To-morrow. This success provided him the support necessary to pursue the
chance to bring his vision into reality. Howard believed that all people agreed the overcrowding and
deterioration of cities was one of the troubling issues of their time. He quotes a number of respected
thinkers and their disdain of cities. Howard’s garden city concept combined the town and country in
order to provide the working class an alternative to working on farms or in ‘crowded, unhealthy
cities’.[2]
First developments[edit]
To build a garden city, Howard needed money to buy land. He decided to get funding from
"gentlemen of responsible position and undoubted probity and honour".[3] He founded the Garden
City Association (later known as the Town and Country Planning Association or TCPA), which
created First Garden City, Ltd. in 1899 to create the garden city of Letchworth.[4] However, these
donors would collect interest on their investment if the garden city generated profits through rents or,
as Fishman calls the process, ‘philanthropic land speculation’.[5] Howard tried to include working
class cooperative organisations, which included over two million members, but could not win their
financial support.[6] Because he had to rely only on the wealthy investors of First Garden City,
Howard had to make concessions to his plan, such as eliminating the cooperative ownership
scheme with no landlords, short-term rent increases, and hiring architects who did not agree with his
rigid design plans.[7]
In 1904, Raymond Unwin, a noted architect and town planner and his partner Barry Parker, won the
competition run by First Garden City Ltd. to plan Letchworth, an area 34 miles outside
London.[8] Unwin and Parker planned the town in the centre of the Letchworth estate with Howard’s
large agricultural greenbelt surrounding the town, and they shared Howard’s notion that the working
class deserved better and more affordable housing. However, the architects ignored Howard’s
symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more ‘organic’ design.[9]
Letchworth slowly attracted more residents because it brought in manufacturers through low taxes,
low rents and more space.[10] Despite Howard’s best efforts, the home prices in this garden city could
not remain affordable for blue-collar workers to live in. The populations comprised mostly
skilled middle class workers. After a decade, the First Garden City became profitable and started
paying dividends to its investors.[11] Although many viewed Letchworth as a success, it did not
immediately inspire government investment into the next line of garden cities.
In reference to the lack of government support for garden cities, Frederic James Osborn, a colleague
of Howard and his eventual successor at the Garden City Association, recalled him saying, "The only
way to get anything done is to do it yourself."[12] Likely in frustration, Howard bought land
at Welwyn to house the second garden city in 1919.[13] The purchase was at auction, with money
Howard desperately and successfully borrowed from friends. The Welwyn Garden City Corporation
was formed to oversee the construction. But Welwyn did not become self-sustaining because it was
only 20 miles from London.[14]
Even until the end of the 1930s, Letchworth and Welwyn remained as the only existing garden cities
in the United Kingdom. However, the movement did succeed in emphasizing the need for urban
planning policies that eventually led to the New Town movement.[15]
Garden cities[edit]

An attempt at a garden city: Zlín in Czech Republic (architect: František Lydie Gahura )

Howard organised the Garden City Association in 1899. Two garden cities were built using Howard's
ideas: Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City, both in the county
of Hertfordshire, England, United Kingdom. Howard's successor as chairman of the Garden City
Association was Sir Frederic Osborn, who extended the movement to regional planning.[16]
The concept was adopted again in the UK after World War II, when the New Towns Act spurred the
development of many new communities based on Howard's egalitarian ideas.
The idea of the garden city was influential in other countries, including the United States. Examples
are: Residence Park in New Rochelle, New York; Woodbourne in Boston; Newport News,
Virginia's Hilton Village; Pittsburgh's Chatham Village; Garden City, New York(parenthetically, the
name "Garden City," as it applied to the Stewart-designed city on Long Island, incorporated 1869,
pre-dates that of the garden city movement, which was established some years later near the end of
the nineteenth century); Sunnyside, Queens; Jackson Heights, Queens; Forest Hills Gardens, also
in the borough of Queens, New York; Radburn, New Jersey; Greenbelt,
Maryland; Buckinghamin Arlington County, Virginia; the Lake Vista neighborhood in New
Orleans; Norris, Tennessee; Baldwin Hills Village in Los Angeles; and the Cleveland suburbs
of Parma[17] and Shaker Heights.
Greendale, Wisconsin is one of three "greenbelt" towns planned beginning in 1935 under the
direction of Rexford Guy Tugwell, head of the United States Resettlement Administration, under
authority of the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act. The two other greenbelt towns are Greenbelt,
Maryland (near Washington, D.C.) and Greenhills, Ohio(near Cincinnati). The greenbelt towns not
only provided work and affordable housing, but also served as a laboratory for experiments in
innovative urban planning. Greendale's plan was designed between 1936 and 1937 by a staff
headed by Joseph Crane, Elbert Peets, Harry Bentley, and Walter C. Thomas for a site that had
formerly consisted of 3,400 acres (14 km2) of farmland.
In Canada, the Ontario towns of Don Mills (now incorporated into the City of Toronto)
and Walkerville are, in part, garden cities, as well as the Montreal suburb of Mount Royal. The
historic Townsite of Powell River, British Columbia[18] and the Hydrostone district of Halifax, Nova
Scotia are recognized as National Historic Sites of Canada[19] built upon the Garden City Movement.
In Montreal, La Cité-jardin du Tricentenaire is a classic form of Garden City located near the Olympic
Stadium. All streets are cul-de-sacs and are linked via pedestrian paths to the community park.
Svit in Slovakia - originally in 1934 planned as a combination of an industrial and garden city.

In Peru, there is a long tradition in urban design[20] that has been reintroduced in its architecture more
recently. In 1966, the 'Residencial San Felipe' in the district of Jesus Maria (Lima) was built using the
Garden City concept.[21]
In São Paulo, Brazil, several neighbourhoods were planned as Garden Cities, such as Jardim
América, Jardim Europa, Alto da Lapa, Alto de Pinheiros, Jardim da Saúde and Cidade
Jardim (Garden City in Portuguese). Goiânia, capital of Goiás state, and Maringá are examples of
Garden City.
In Argentina, an example is Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar, declared by the influential
Argentinian professor of engineering, Carlos María della Paolera, founder of "Día Mundial del
Urbanismo" (World Urbanism Day), as the first Garden City in South America.
In Australia, the suburb of Colonel Light Gardens in Adelaide, South Australia, was designed
according to garden city principles.[22] So too the town of Sunshine which is now a suburb
of Melbourne in Victoria and the suburb of Lalor also in Melbourne Victoria Australia. The Peter Lalor
Estate in Lalor takes its name from a leader of the Eureka Stockade and remains today in its original
form. However it is under threat from developers and Whittlesea Council.[23][24] Lalor:Peter Lalor Home
Building Cooperative 1946-2012 Scollay, Moira. Pre-dating these was the garden suburb of
Haberfield in 1901 by Richard Stanton, organised on a vertical integrated model from land
subdivision, mortgage financing, house and interior designs and site landscaping.[25]
Garden city ideals were employed in the original town planning of Christchurch, New Zealand. Prior
to the earthquakes of 2010 and 2011, the city infrastructure and homes were well integrated into
green spaces. The rebuild blueprint rethought the garden city concept and how it would best suit the
city. Greenbelts and urban greenspaces have been redesigned to incorporate more living spaces.
Garden city principles greatly influenced the design of colonial and post-colonial capitals during the
early part of the 20th century. This is the case for New Delhi (designed as the new capital of British
India after World War I), of Canberra (capital of Australia established in 1913) and of Quezon
City (established in 1939, capital of the Philippines from 1948–76). The garden city model was also
applied to many colonial hill stations, such as Da Lat in Vietnam (est. 1907)
and Ifrane in Morocco (est. 1929).
In Bhutan's capital city Thimphu the new plan, following the Principles of Intelligent Urbanism, is an
organic response to the fragile ecology. Using sustainable concepts, it is a contemporary response
to the garden city concept.
The Garden City movement also influenced the Scottish urbanist Sir Patrick Geddes in the planning
of Tel Aviv, Israel, in the 1920s, during the British Mandate for Palestine. Geddes started his Tel Aviv
plan in 1925 and submitted the final version in 1927, so all growth of this garden city during the
1930s was merely "based" on the Geddes Plan. Changes were inevitable.[26]
The Garden City movement was even able to take root in South Africa, with the development of the
suburb of Pinelands in Cape Town.
In Italy, the INA-Casa plan - a national public housing plan from the 1950s and '60s - designed
several suburbs according to Garden City principles: examples are found in many cities and towns of
the country, such as the Isolotto suburb in Florence, Falchera in Turin, Harar in Milan, Cesate
Villaggio in Cesate (part of the Metropolitan City of Milan), etc.
In the former Czechoslovakia, all industrial cities founded or reconstructed by the Bata
Shoes company (Zlín, Svit, Partizánske) were at least influenced by the conception of the Garden
city.
The Epcot Center in Bay Lake, Florida took some influence from Howard's Garden City concept
while the park was still under construction.[27]
Singapore, a tropical city has over time incorporated various facets of Garden city concept in its town
plans to try and make the country a unique City in a Garden. The country starting incorporating
concepts in its town plans in the 1970s to ensure that building codes and land use plans made
adequate provisions for greenery and nature to become part of community development, thereby
providing a great living environment. In 1996, National Parks Board was given the mandate to
spearhead the development and maintenance of greenery and bring the island's green spaces and
parks to the community.[28]
List of garden cities[edit]
The localities in following lists have been developed directly as Garden Cities or their development
has been heavily influenced by the Garden City movement.
United Kingdom and Ireland[edit]

 Letchworth Garden City, England, United Kingdom

 Welwyn Garden City, England, United Kingdom
 Bedford Park, London, United Kingdom
 St Helier, London, United Kingdom
 Milton Keynes, England, United Kingdom
 Telford, United Kingdom
 Bournville Village, Birmingham UK
 Moor Pool, Birmingham, United Kingdom
 The Garden Village, Kingston upon Hull, United Kingdom
 Glenrothes, Scotland, United Kingdom
 Marino, Dublin, Ireland
 Rosyth, Scotland, United Kingdom
North America[edit]

 Cité-jardin du Tricentenaire (Tricentennial Garden-City) (1940–1947), Montreal, Quebec,

Canada
 Gardenvale neighbourhood, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada (ca. 1918)
 Town of Mount-Royal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 Village Homes, Davis, California, United States
 Jackson Heights, Queens, New York City, United States
 Reston, Virginia, United States
 Sunnyside Gardens Historic District, Queens, New York, United States
 Epcot, Bay Lake, Florida
 Forest Hills, Boston
 Wyvernwood Garden Apartments Los Angeles, California
 Fairview, Camden, New Jersey, United States
 Chatham Village, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States
Australia and New Zealand[edit]

 Colonel Lights Gardens, Adelaide, Australia

 Peter Lalor Housing Estate, Lalor, Victoria, Australia
 The Sunshine Estate, Sunshine, Victoria, Australia.
Europe[edit]

 Covaresa, Valladolid, Spain

 Garbatella, Rome, Italy
 Gartenstadt, Mannheim, Germany
 Giszowiec, Katowice, Poland
 Hellerau, Dresden, Germany
 Konstancin-Jeziorna, Poland
 Mežaparks, Riga, Latvia
 Milanówek, Poland
 Svit, Slovakia
 Podkowa Leśna, Poland
 Tapiola, Finland
 Ullevål Hageby, Norway
 Wekerle estate, Budapest, Hungary
 Zelenograd, Moscow, Russia
 Zlín, Czech Republic
Asia[edit]

 Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

 Sha Tin, New Territories, Hong Kong
 Den-en-chōfu, Ōta, Tokyo, Japan
Africa[edit]

 Edgemead, Cape Town, South Africa[29]

 Pinelands, Cape Town, South Africa

Criticisms[edit]
While garden cities were praised for being an alternative to overcrowded and industrial cities, along
with greater sustainability, Garden cities were often criticized for damaging the economy, being
destructive of the beauty of nature, and being inconvenient. According to A. Trystan Edwards,
Garden cities lead to desecration of the country side by trying to recreate country side houses that
could spread themselves; however, this wasn't a possible feat due to the limited space they had.[30]
More recently the environmental movement's embrace of urban density has offered an "implicit
critique" of the Garden City movement.[31] In this way the critique of the concept resembles critiques
of other suburbanization models, though author Stephen Ward has argued that critics often do not
adequately distinguish between true garden cities and more mundane dormitory city plans.[31]
It is often referred to as an urban design experiment which is typified by failure due to the laneways
used as common entries and exits to the houses helping ghettoise communities and encourage
crime; it has ultimately lead to efforts to 'de-Radburn' or partially demolish American Radburn
designed public housing areas.[32]
When interviewed in 1998, the architect responsible for introducing the design to public housing
in New South Wales, Philip Cox, was reported to have admitted with regards to an American
Radburn designed estate in the suburb of Villawood, "Everything that could go wrong in a society
went wrong," "It became the centre of drugs, it became the centre of violence and, eventually, the
police refused to go into it. It was hell."[32]

Legacy[edit]
Contemporary town-planning charters like New Urbanism and Principles of Intelligent
Urbanism originated with this movement. Today there are many garden cities in the world, but most
of them have devolved to dormitory suburbs, which completely differ from what Howard aimed to
create.[citation needed]
In 2007, the Town and Country Planning Association marked its 108th anniversary by calling for
Garden City and Garden Suburb principles to be applied to the present New Townsand Eco-towns in
the United Kingdom.[33] The campaign continued in 2013 with the publication in March of that year of
"Creating Garden Cities and Suburbs Today - a guide for councils".[34] Also in 2013, Lord Simon
Wolfson announced that he would award the Wolfson Economics Prize for the best ideas on how to
create a new garden city.[citation needed]
In 2014 The Letchworth Declaration[35] was published which called for a body to accredit future
garden cities in the UK. The declaration has a strong focus on the visible (architecture and layout)
and the invisible (social, ownership and governance) architecture of a settlement. One result was the
creation of the New Garden Cities Alliance as a community interest company. Its aim is to be
complementary to groups like the Town and Country Planning Association and it has adopted TCPA
garden city principles as well as those from other groups, including those from Cabannes\Ross
booklet 21st Century Garden Cities of To-morrow.[36]
New garden cities and towns[edit]
British Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne announced plans for a new garden city to be
built at Ebbsfleet Valley, Kent, in early 2014, with a second also planned as an expansion
of Bicester, Oxfordshire.[37][38] The United Kingdom government announced further plans for garden
towns in 2015, supporting both the development of new communities in North Essex and support for
sustainable and environmentally-friendly town development in Didcot, Oxfordshire.[39] A "Black
Country Garden City" was announced in 2016 with plans to build 45,000 new homes in the West
Midlands on brownfield sites.[40]
On 2 January 2017, plans for new garden villages, each with between 1,500 and 10,000 homes, and
garden towns each with more than 10,000 houses were announced by the government.[41] These
smaller projects have been proposed due to opposition of "urban sprawl" in the garden city projects,
as well as such quick expansion to small communities. The first wave of villages to be approved by
ministers are to be located in:

 Long Marston, Warwickshire

 Oxfordshire Cotswold, Oxfordshire
 Deenethorpe
 Culm, Devon
 Welborne, Hampshire
 West Carclaze, Cornwall
 Dunton Hills, Essex
 Spitalgate Heath, Lincolnshire
 Halsnead, Merseyside
 Longcross, Surrey
 Bailrigg, Lancashire
 Infinity Garden Village, Derbyshire
 St Cuthberts, Cumbria
 North Cheshire, Cheshire
The approved garden towns are to be located in:

 Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire
 Taunton, Somerset
 Harlow & Gilston, Essex-Hertfordshire

Diagrams[edit]
Diagrams from the 1898 edition[edit]

Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.

Diagram No.1: The Three Magnets (Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.)

Diagram No.2 (Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.)

 

Diagram No.3 (Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.)

Diagram No.4 (Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.)

Diagram No.5 (Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.)

Diagram No.6 (Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.)


 Diagram No.7 (Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.)
Diagrams from the 1922 edition[edit]
 Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow.

 Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow.

 Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow.

 Diagram No.1 (Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow.)

 Diagram No.2 (Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow.)

 Diagram No.3 (Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow.)

 Diagram No.4 (Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow.)

"Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907[edit]
 "Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907.

 "Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907.

 Diagram No.1 ("Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907.)

 Diagram No.2 ("Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907.)

 "Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907.

Garden Suburbs[edit]
The concept of Garden Cities is to produce relatively economically independent cities with short
commute times and the preservation of the countryside. Garden Suburbs arguably do the opposite.
Garden Suburbs are built on the outskirts of large cities with no sections of industry. They are
therefore dependent on reliable transport allowing workers to commute into the city.[42] Lewis
Mumford, one of Howard's disciples explained the difference as "The Garden City, as Howard
defined it, is not a suburb but the antithesis of a suburb: not a rural retreat, but a more integrated
foundation for an effective urban life."[43]
The planned Garden Suburb emerged in the late 19th century as a by-product of new types of
transportation were embraced by a newly prosperous merchant class. The first garden villages were
built by English estate owners, who wanted to relocate or rebuild villages on their lands. It was in
these cases that architects first began designing small houses. Early examples
include Harewood and Milton Abbas. Major innovations that defined early garden suburbs and
subsequent suburban town planning include linking villa-like homes with landscaped public spaces
and roads.[44]
Despite the emergence of the garden suburb in England, the typology flowered in the second half of
the 19th century in United States. There were generally two garden suburb typologies, the garden
village and the garden enclave. The garden villages are spatially independent of the city but remain
connected to the city by railroads, streetcars, and later automobiles. The villages often included
shops and civic buildings. In contrast, garden enclaves are typically strictly residential and
emphasize natural and private space, instead of public and community space. The urban form of the
enclaves were often coordinated through the use of early land use controls typical of modern zoning
including controlled setbacks, landscaping, materials.[45]
Garden suburbs were not part of Howard's plan[46] and were actually a hindrance to garden city
planning—they were in fact almost the antithesis of Howard's plan, what he tried to prevent. The
suburbanisation of London was an increasing problem which Howard attempted to solve with his
garden city model, which attempted to end urban sprawl by the sheer inhibition of land speculation
due to the land being held in trust, and the inclusion of agricultural areas on the city outskirts.[47]
Raymond Unwin, one of Howard's early collaborators on the Letchworth Garden City project in 1907,
became very influential in formalizing the garden city principles in the design of suburbs through his
work Town Planning in Practice: An Introduction to the Art of Designing Cities and
Suburbs (1909). [48] The book strongly influenced the Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909, which
provided municipalities the power to develop urban plans for new suburban communities.[49]
Smaller developments were also inspired by the garden city philosophy and were modified to allow
for residential "garden suburbs" without the commercial and industrial components of the garden
city.[50] They were built on the outskirts of cities, in rural settings. Some notable examples being, in
London, Hampstead Garden Suburb, the Sutton Garden Suburb in Benhilton, Sutton, Pinner's
Pinnerwood conversation area and the 'Exhibition Estate' in Gidea Park and,
in Liverpool, Wavertree Garden Suburb. The Gidea Park estate in particular was built during two
main periods of activity, 1911 and 1934. Both resulted in some good examples of domestic
architecture, by such architects as Wells Coates and Berthold Lubetkin. Thanks to such strongly
conservative local residents' associations as the Civic Society, both Hampstead and Gidea Park
retain much of their original character.
However it is important to note Bournville Village Trust in SW Birmingham UK. This important
residential development was associated with the growth of 'Cadbury's Factory in a Garden'. Here
Garden City principles are a fundamental part of the Trust's activity. There are very tight restrictions
applying to the properties here, no stonewall cladding, uPVC windows, and so-on.

Park median in Avenida Ámsterdam, the "grand avenue" of the Mexico City subdivision Colonia Hipódromo de
la Condesa, designed in 1926 and inspired in part by Ebenezer Howard's Garden City
Howard's influence reached as far as Mexico City, where architect José Luis Cuevas was influenced
by the Garden City concept in the design of two of the most iconic inner-city subdivisions, Colonia
Hipódromo de la Condesa (1926) and Lomas de Chapultepec (1928-9):[51]

 In 1926, Colonia Hipódromo[52] (a.k.a. Hipódromo de la Condesa), in what is now known as

the Condesa area, including its iconic parks Parque México and Parque España
 In 1928-29, Lomas de Chapultepec
The subdivisions were based on the principles of the Garden City as promoted by Ebenezer
Howard, including ample parks and other open spaces, park islands in the middle of "grand
avenues" such as Avenida Amsterdam in colonia Hipódromo.[51] One unique example of a garden
suburb is the Humberstone Garden Suburb in the United Kingdom by the Humberstone Anchor
Tenants' Association in Leicestershireand it is the only garden suburb ever to be built by the
members of a workers' co-operative; it remains intact to the present.[53] In 1887 the workers of the
Anchor Shoe Company in Humberstone formed a workers' cooperative and built 97 houses.
American architects and partners, Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin[54] were
proponents of the movement and after their arrival in Australia to design the national capital
Canberra, they produced a number of Garden Suburb estates, most notably at Eaglemont with the
Glenard and Mount Eagle Estates and the Ranelagh and Milleara Estates in Victoria.