IRTB Module 03 PG 01.2017

Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings
Training Support Package Participant Guide
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 1
MODULE 3 INTRODUCTION TO ENERGETIC MATERIALS – Administration Page . 2
Duration ....................................................................................................................... 2
Scope Statement ......................................................................................................... 2
Terminal Learning Objectives (TLO) ............................................................................ 2
Enabling Learning Objectives (ELO)............................................................................ 2
Resources ................................................................................................................... 2
Instructor to Participant Ratio ...................................................................................... 3
Reference List ............................................................................................................. 3
Assessment Strategy ................................................................................................... 3
ICON MAP ...................................................................................................................... 4
MODULE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 5
R.A.I.N. = RECOGNIZE, AVOID, ISOLATE, NOTIFY .................................................. 10
BASIC DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................... 15
EXPLOSIVE REACTION COMPONENTS: THE CHEMISTRY OF EXPLOSIVES ....... 26
FIRING TRAIN .............................................................................................................. 42
CATEGORIES OF EXPLOSIVES ................................................................................. 57
EXPLOSIVE EFFECTS................................................................................................. 68
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 86
January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-1

Emergency Operations Sensitive
MODULE 3 INTRODUCTION TO ENERGETIC MATERIALS –

Administration Page
Duration
1.75 Hours
Scope Statement
During this module, participants are introduced to basic explosive terms and processes.
Included in the presentation is information concerning the components required to
produce an explosive or incendiary event, the physical and chemical processes required
to cause an explosion, and the physical consequences of an explosion.
Terminal Learning Objectives (TLO)
At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to identify components,
processes, and physical blast characteristics associated with explosive events.
Enabling Learning Objectives (ELO)
3-1 Identify the three forms of energy released during explosive and
incendiary events.
3-2 Define key terms: deflagration, detonation, deflagration-to-detonation
transition (DDT), low-order detonation, high-order detonation, homemade
explosive, precursors, incendiary device, and hypergolic reaction.
3-3 Identify the components of an explosive reaction: fuel, oxidizer, and
stimulus (heat).
3-4 Order the components of a firing train
3-5 Define the acronym FISHED and identify examples of the five stimuli that
can be used to release energy from energetic materials
3-6 Categorize examples of low explosives and high explosives.
3-7 Classify high explosives as primary, secondary, or tertiary.
3-8 Given images depicting explosive effects, label the following: incendiary
effect, blast-pressure effect, fragmentation effect, shrapnel effect, positive
pressure, peak overpressure, negative pressure, reflected pressure,
impulse, shock wave, shock front, detonation velocity, brisance, and
heave.
Resources
• Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings (IRTB) Course Handouts, including
course evaluation forms, pre-test forms, registration forms, self-evaluation forms,
and travel reimbursement forms (one per participant).
• Pencil or pen, protective glasses, badge, and nameplate (one per participant).
• Flash drive containing Participant Guide, Video Library, Case Study Library, and
Additional Resources.

• Digital projectors, flip-chart, and whiteboard.

• Slides and video clips.
Instructor to Participant Ratio
Conference (Classroom–2:50; Range–3:50).
Reference List
See Appendices.
Assessment Strategy
• Observation of the level and quality of classroom participation.
• Participation and quality of performance on the performance exercise.
• Administration of the post-test to assess mastery of module objectives (TLO and
ELOs).

ICON MAP
Question: Used when there is an opportunity to ask a question or start a class
discussion.
Key Points/Learning Objectives: Used to highlight each time lesson content is

directly relevant to an Enabling Learning Objective.
First Responder Safety: Used to highlight information that relates directly to the
personal safety of first responders.

MODULE INTRODUCTION
Slide 3-1 IRTB Module 3: Introduction to Energetic

Materials
To respond safely and effectively to a terrorist attack involving

energetic materials, an emergency responder must understand how
these materials are activated to attain the terrorist's destructive
goals. This module introduces key terms and concepts associated
with energetic materials and their use in the formulation of explosive
compounds and the fabrication of explosive devices.

Slide 3-2 Terminal Learning Objective
This module builds on information presented in Module 2

concerning the use of energetic materials by terrorists. At the
conclusion of this module, participants will be able to identify
components, processes, and physical blast characteristics
associated with explosive events.
Module 3 provides participants with foundation knowledge that

allows them to interpret and understand concepts and information
contained within the remaining modules of instruction. Completion
of this module will provide participants with sufficient information to
make appropriate decisions when responding to incidents involving
energetic materials. In pre-detonation incidents, those decisions
involve evacuating individuals from the immediate vicinity of the
known or suspected device, securing the crime scene, and awaiting
arrival of specially trained bomb technicians or military explosive
ordnance disposal (EOD) personnel. In post-detonation incidents,
those decisions typically involve assessing risk to responders,
protecting evidence, and providing appropriate response to the
injured and other survivors.

Slide 3-3 Enabling Learning Objectives
Slide 3-4 ELOs (cont.)
Slides 3-3 and 3-4 contain the Enabling Learning Objectives and
should be summarized by the instructor.

3-1 Identify the three forms of energy released during explosive

and incendiary events.
3-2 Define key terms: deflagration, detonation, deflagration-to-

detonation transition (DDT), low-order detonation, high-order
detonation, homemade explosive, precursors, incendiary
device, and hypergolic reaction.
3-3 Identify the components of an explosive reaction: fuel, oxidizer,

and stimulus (heat).
3-4 Order the components of a firing train
3-5 Define the acronym FISHED and identify examples of the five
stimuli that can be used to release energy from energetic
materials
3-6 Categorize examples of low explosives and high explosives.
3-7 Classify high explosives as primary, secondary, or tertiary.
3-8 Given images depicting explosive effects, label the following:

incendiary effect, blast-pressure effect, fragmentation effect,
shrapnel effect, positive pressure, peak overpressure, negative
pressure, reflected pressure, impulse, shock wave, shock front,
detonation velocity, brisance, and heave.

Slide 3-5 Course Map
Module 3 is part of the first block of modules which focus on helping

participants gain background knowledge of terrorism and
explosives. This background knowledge will help the participants
participate more effectively in discussions in later modules, which
deal with response to terrorist bombing incidents.

R.A.I.N. = RECOGNIZE, AVOID, ISOLATE, NOTIFY
Slide 3-6 R.A.I.N.
Why should first responders learn about energetic materials? The

knowledge contained in this course can benefit first responders and
the communities they serve. First responder’s responsibilities
with regards to energetic materials, explosive devices, and
explosive device components can be summarized in a simple
acronym: R.A.I.N., which stands for Recognize, Avoid, Isolate,
Notify.
R – Recognize explosive devices/components or potentially

hazardous situations
A – Take defensive actions to avoid the hazard
I – Isolate yourself and everyone from the explosive device or

suspicious item
N – Notify the proper authorities to respond and render assistance.
First responders are often among the first to arrive at the scene of a
pre- or post-blast event. Being able to recognize the threat, take

appropriate steps to avoid and isolate the hazard, and notify trained
experts and bomb technicians, could save a first responder’s life.
By following the four simple steps of R.A.I.N., you, your colleagues,
and other citizens will remain safe.

Slide 3-7 Example: Michael Sibley Bomb Plot, 2014
This slide contains a photograph of first responder vehicles during a

suspicious backpack incident in the Chattahoochee River National
Recreation Area in November 2014.
On November 4, 2014, a mother and daughter were walking a trail

at the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area in Georgia
when they observed a backpack next to the trail. The daughter
looked into the backpack and recognized wires and a copy of the
Quran. The daughter notified her mother, who made a 911 call to
the Roswell police department. The first officer from the Roswell
police department to arrive on the scene made contact with the
caller and never approached the backpack. A second officer, who
was from the National Park Service, used binoculars from a
distance and was able to see what appeared to be white PVC pipe
sticking out of the backpack. The Roswell police officer contacted
dispatch, which notified the Cobb county bomb squad. The two
officers secured the area and waited for additional resources to
help secure the whole park. When the Cobb county bomb squad
arrived at the park, they used a robot to render safe the backpack.
They ultimately secured the evidence until the following day when
the FBI processed the scene.

It was eventually revealed that the backpack contained two

partially-assembled IEDs, a copy of the Quran, a book entitled The
Rape of Kuwait, a t-shirt with the name “Mina Kodari” written on it,
copies of the Atlanta Falcons schedule, public transportation
schedules, and a list of locations of Jewish community centers. In
March 2015, the FBI interviewed Michael Conrade Sibley, a 67-
year-old white man, about the case. Several days later, Sibley
requested to meet with agents and confessed to building the IEDs
and placing the backpack along a trail near a tree in the park. The
FBI affidavit on the case stated: “Sibley stated he is a ‘patriot’ and
he felt no one was paying attention to what was going on in the
world. Sibley felt if he placed the package in a Roswell Park then
people would finally get that this type of activity could happen
anywhere. Sibley also admitted to using his computer to research
how to make a bomb.”1
An ordinary backpack found in a park with an unusual motive could

have been handled with complacency, but serves as an example of
a positive outcome when first responders remain aware and fight
against becoming complacent about bomb-related threats.
Successfully following the recognition, avoidance, isolation, and
notification (RAIN) steps resulted in a safe mitigation of the bomb at
the scene, preservation of evidence, and the opportunity for
authorities to apprehend and prosecute the suspect.
Let’s briefly review how RAIN was implemented in this case:
Recognition: A citizen reported the suspicious backpack to

Roswell police, who surveyed the backpack and recognized it as
containing, what appeared to be partially-assembled IEDs.
Avoidance: Once the backpack and its contents were recognized

as a package with explosive potential, the area was secured, the
park evacuated, and all entrances guarded.
Isolate: The backpack was isolated at its location.
1
United States District Court Northern District of Georgia, (2015, Mar 20). Criminal Complaint, Case Number 1:15-
MJ-00226-JFK, Retrieved from http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/michael-sibley-bombs-atlanta-
georgia
2
FBI Atlanta Division Press Releases. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.fbi.gov/atlanta/press-releases/2015/arrest-
made-in-investigation-of-explosive-device-left-in-vickery-creek-park

Notify: Notification went to additional personnel within the Roswell

Police Department. According to J. Britt Johnson, Special Agent in
Charge, FBI Atlanta Field Office: “Reports of backpacks containing
possible explosive devices are obviously taken seriously by the FBI
and its Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF).” The notification in this
case resulted in a “law enforcement response by Roswell Police,
the FBI, and its JTTF as well as a significant response by area
bomb squad units.”2

BASIC DEFINITIONS
Slide 3-8 Energetic Materials
ELO 3-1
Identify the three forms of energy released during explosive
and incendiary events.
As discussed in Module 2, an energetic material is a substance that

can undergo an exothermic chemical reaction (one that gives off
heat), rapidly releasing a large amount of energy. Rapid
decomposition can occur in fractions of a second. These reactions
will cause solids and liquids to transform into superheated gases
almost instantaneously.

Slide 3-9 Forms of Energy Release
Energetic materials release their energy in three forms: heat, light,

and sound.
We will focus on a detonation of a chemical explosive. A chemical

explosion is caused by the extremely rapid conversion of a solid or
liquid explosive compound into gases having a much greater
volume than the substances from which they are generated. When
a block of explosives detonates, the produced gases will expand
10,000 to 15,000 times greater than the original volume of the
explosive. The expansion of these generated gases is quite rapid,
reaching velocities of approximately 5 miles per second.
Temperatures generated by the conversion of a solid into a gas
state may reach 5400 to 7300 °F.2 The entire conversion process
takes only a fraction of a second and is accompanied by shock and
loud noise.
The temperatures generated produce the heat and light while the
accompanied shock produces the sound, which equates to
overpressure. When describing an explosion or detonation, we do
2
Urbanski, T. & Vasudeva, S., K. (1981). Explosions and Explosives: Fundamental Aspects. Journal of Scientific and
Industrial Research, 40, 512-519. http://www.cem.de/documents/pdf/publikation/digestion/rd089.pdf

so by describing the heat and light as the thermal effect, and the
sound as overpressure.
It is important to note that the energy released is an immediate

threat, but there are additional explosive effects that can pose a
serious threat to life and property. These effects include
fragmentation from the explosive device or surrounding materials,
toxic fumes from the transformation of the energetic material into a
rapidly expanding gas, and incendiary effects.

Slide 3-10 Terminology
ELO 3-2
Define key terms: deflagration, detonation, deflagration-to
detonation transition (DDT), low-order detonation, high-order
detonation, homemade explosive, precursors, incendiary
device, and hypergolic reaction.
Deflagration. Rapid burning, with intense heat and light.

Deflagration typically occurs with pyrotechnic materials as well as
smokeless and black powder. Deflagration occurs relatively slowly,
compared to detonation, at speeds below 3,300 feet per second.3
Detonation. A specific form of energy release that supports a

shock wave (the most rapid form of energy release). The speed at
which the explosives are consumed is the “detonation velocity” of
the material. More specifically, it is the speed at which the
supersonic shockwaves move through the material. Explosive
materials vary in detonation velocity from 3,300 to 29,000 feet per
second, depending on the type of explosive.
DDT. (Deflagration to Detonation Transition) The transition of a
3
Burke, R. A. (2006). Counter-Terrorism for Emergency Responders, Second Edition. Taylor and Francis.
https://books.google.com/books?id=6xPNBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&
cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

burn or deflagration to a detonation, producing an explosion. The

DDT is also dependent upon the amount of materials present as
well as how the materials maybe initiated.

Slide 3-11 Example: West, Texas
On April 17, 2013 a citizen called 911 and reported smoke and fire
coming from the West Fertilizer Company which housed 30 tons of
ammonium nitrate fertilizer and numerous other fertilizers. One of
the first responders on scene was a West, Texas police officer who
was on patrol. He smelled smoke but was unable to locate where it
was coming from until a citizen pointed out the smoke coming from
the West Fertilizer Company plant. The officer observed fire and
notified dispatch of a structural fire at the plant and requested the
West Volunteer Fire Department. The fire department arrived with
two engines, two brush trucks and a water tender truck. The initial
police officer at the scene began evaluating a city park next to the
plant and requested assistance in blocking traffic. The firefighters
began to fight the fire with water hoses in an attempt to extinguish
the fire. The fire continued to grow causing the fire chief and assist
chief to discuss a withdrawal, however, 20 minutes after the 911
call was made a massive explosion erupted. The explosion killed a
total of 15 people, 12 of them being first responders.
Over 260 people were injured and 150 buildings were damaged or
destroyed. The force felt of the explosion was the equivalent of a
magnitude-2.1 earthquake and the explosion was within the range of
10,000 to 21,500 pounds of TNT. The explosion caused an
asymmetric crater that was 75 feet in diameter and 8 feet deep.

This destructive explosion demonstrates an example of the

deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT). This incident
emphasizes the importance of first responders knowing what
chemicals are stored in their jurisdictions, the hazard awareness of
each chemical, and the importance of utilizing pre-incident planning
at facilities that could be a danger to the community.4
First responders who understand the DDT process can make

better decisions about evacuation or sheltering in place when
responding to pre-detonation incidents involving explosives.
4
West Fertilizer Explosion and Fire. U.S. Chemical Safety Board. Retrieved from
http://www.csb.gov/west-fertilizer-explosion-and-fire-/

Slide 3-12 Terminology (cont.)
Explosion. An explosion is the rapid expansion of matter into a

greater volume. Explosives are not needed for an explosion – A
pressure cooker on a stove or a hot water heater can explode. The
terms explosion and detonation are often used interchangeably,
although they do not technically refer to the same thing. Every
detonation produces an explosion, while not every explosion is the
result of a detonation.
High-Order vs. Low-Order Detonations. A high-order detonation

occurs when an explosive performs as designed and is completely
consumed. A low-order detonation can occur due to improper
configuration of a device and its firing train or through malfunction
so that the explosive material is not completely consumed. This
means that explosive materials or residue could remain in the
vicinity of the blast, posing risks for first responders.
First responders must remember that even in a post-blast

situation, there still may be hazardous energetic materials at
the incident scene susceptible to accidental detonation. These
could include residue or materials leftover from a low-order
detonation, or secondary/additional devices and explosives that
may be stored or planted in the area. It is highly recommended that
first responders utilize RAIN and the bomb threat stand-off card

(which will be presented in Module 6 of this course). Taking safety

measures will preserve life at a bombing or hazardous material
scene. Those responders who arrive first on scene should attempt
to survey the scene and denote possible hazards, while remaining
aware that only necessary movements should be made, and these
should be taken with extreme caution.

Slide 3-13 Terminology (cont.)
Homemade Explosive (HME). Homemade explosives are created

by combining ingredients known as precursors. Information on how
to make HMEs is readily available in books, videos, and on the
Internet. HME explosives are extremely sensitive materials that are
typically not manufactured as commercial or military explosives
because of their instability and sensitivity.
Precursors. Chemical substances that can be combined to create

HME. Explosive precursors are often commercially available for
over-the-counter purchase, and include common items such as
hydrogen peroxide, aluminum powder, nitro-methane, potassium
chlorate, petroleum jelly, ammonium nitrate, icing sugar, black
powder, and smokeless powder.
Incendiary device. Incendiary devices or incendiary bombs are

weapons designed to start fires or destroy sensitive equipment
using fire (and sometimes used as anti-personnel weaponry).
Incendiary devices use materials such as napalm, thermite,
chlorine trifluoride, or white phosphorus.
Hypergolic reaction. Refers to the property of a mixture to

spontaneously combust when the components are mixed together.
Some improvised explosives are hypergolic in nature. This means

when two particular chemical constituents are brought together they

can violently react with each other, with the surrounding
atmospheric temperature often being the catalyst; they are highly
unstable and unpredictable. This reaction will result in either an
incendiary effect or an explosion. An example is sulfuric acid
(oxidizer) and sugar (fuel) in a Styrofoam cup. The acid slowly eats
through the Styrofoam and mixes with the sugar, causing a
hypergolic reaction within seconds and resulting in an explosion.
Domestic terrorists from the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) have
used hypergolic devices to destroy fur coats and other property.

EXPLOSIVE REACTION COMPONENTS: THE CHEMISTRY OF

EXPLOSIVES
Slide 3-14 Explosive Reaction Components
ELO 3-3
Identify the components of an explosive reaction: fuel,
oxidizer, and stimulus (heat).
To understand explosives, you must understand some basic

chemical processes. The first of these is the burning process, or
fire. To have a fire, you need three components present: oxygen,
fuel, and heat. A fourth component, a chemical-exothermic reaction
is required to sustain the fire once ignited.
These same components—oxidizer, fuel, and heat—are necessary

for an explosive to detonate. In the end, the major difference
between fire combustion and an explosion is the speed at which the
chemical reaction takes place.
To discriminate between fire combustion and explosion, consider a

common roll of toilet paper found in your home. Toilet paper is a
fuel that burns if placed in a campfire; the paper serves as the fuel,
oxygen is drawn or diffused from the surrounding air, and heat from

the fire causes an energetic reaction to occur in the paper, which

begins to give off flame and heat.
That same roll of toilet paper can be made into an explosive by

submerging it in Nitro Methane (which can be purchased from a
hobby store or auto racing supply company) for several hours and
attaching a blasting cap to it. In the campfire, the toilet paper roll
had to wait for oxygen to diffuse in from the air, causing the
reaction to take some time. When the toilet paper roll is soaked in
Nitro Methane, the fuel and oxygen are well mixed, and diffusion of
oxygen from the air does not need to occur. These two fuels get the
necessary oxygen from the pores in the paper, trapped when it was
manufactured.
The blasting cap provides an intense heat source that immediately

begins the chemical reaction of the fuel and oxygen mix. The same
energy released from the toilet paper burning over a period of
minutes or hours in a campfire becomes instantaneously available
and the toilet paper roll explodes.
Oxidizers
An oxidizer is a compound that can support a chemical reaction,

resulting in a near-instantaneous release of energy. When an
oxidizer is combined with a fuel component, an energetic material is
produced.

Slide 3-15 Oxidizer Components
This slide displays one of four parts of the “Improvised Explosive

Threat Card” published by the FBI. The column on the left lists
oxidizer names and their chemical symbols. The center column lists
chemicals commonly associated with oxidizers. The right column
lists examples of oxidizer compounds.
The Improvised Explosive Threat Card was created in 2006 by the

FBI, Bomb Data Center as a field guide for many common
explosive compounds. It provides a reference to recognize the
various oxidizers utilized for making an explosive. It lists which fuels
can be mixed with the oxidizers and which explosive compound
they create.
Note that all oxygen compounds have one of three common

groups of letters as a suffix: -ate, -ite, and -ide. This can be a
helpful guide for first responders in recognizing chemical
compounds that may be used in explosives production. However,
not all oxidizers used in explosives contain one of the letter
groupings: Nitric acid, the most widely used oxidizer, does not
follow the -ate, -ite, and -ide rule.
Oxidizers used in bomb making can be found in common

household and industrialized products. These products can be

purchased over the counter from drugs stores to home
improvement centers. Oxidizers are used in fertilizers, herbicides,
black powder, food preservation, fireworks, cleaning agents, and
many other products.

Slide 3-16 Fuels: Overview
Slides 3-15 through 3-18 provide an opportunity to discuss the

three types of fuels: hydrocarbons, energetic hydrocarbons, and
non-hydrocarbons. The slides illustrate how simple it might be for a
terrorist to obtain some of these fuels, as they can be simple
household products.
A fuel is any substance or item that can burn. Fuels are divided into
three categories: hydrocarbons, energetic hydrocarbons, and non-
hydrocarbon fuels.
This slide displays the back, or page two, of the card shown on the
previous slide. It lists the various groups of fuels that can be
combined with the oxidizer to produce an explosive mixture.

Slide 3-17 Fuels: Hydrocarbons
This slide shows photos of types of hydrocarbon fuels: a gas can

with fuel oil, a bag of sugar, a container of castor oil, a container of
turpentine, and a container of petroleum jelly.
The majority of fuels are hydrocarbons, meaning they are materials

made out of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). They are often referred
to as organic compounds due to their prevalence in living
organisms. There are so many examples of pure hydrocarbons that
they cannot all be listed.

Slide 3-18 Fuels: Energetic Hydrocarbons
This slide shows photos of energetic hydrocarbon fuels:

nitromethane, nitrobenzene in a plant fertilizer, and a barrel of ethyl
nitrate.
It is possible to take hydrocarbons and place an oxidizing group

(like the nitro group) right on the molecule. This chemistry creates
an energetic fuel.
Energetic hydrocarbons are materials with carbon, hydrogen, and

an oxidizing group all in the same molecule. Prime examples are
nitro methane (NM), nitrobenzene (NB), and ethyl nitrate. Many of
these energetic hydrocarbons are explosives in their own right,
because they contain both fuel and oxidizer on the same molecule.
The most familiar energetic fuel is NM, a well-known racing fuel. It

provides much more energy than gasoline because it brings along
some of its own oxygen to speed up the burning process. Energetic
hydrocarbons such as NM can be mixed with oxidizers to make
very effective high explosives.
Under the proper conditions, energetic hydrocarbons are explosive

mixtures, even without the addition of an oxidizer. For example, NM
is no longer shipped in railroad tank cars because of two incidents

where a tank car exploded.5
5
Mackay, P. (Sept. 2013). Hazardous Cargo Bulletin: 30 Years Ago. Retrieved from
http://www.hazardouscargo.com/content/30-years-ago-40.

Slide 3-19 Fuels: Elemental “Hot” Fuels
This slide shows two photos of elemental fuels, aluminum and

sulfur. The most common examples of non-hydrocarbon fuels are
powdered metals (aluminum, magnesium, antimony), carbon
disulfide, phosphorus, sulfur, and antimony sulfide.
For the most part, these elemental (non-hydrocarbon) fuels

produce improvised explosive formulations that are very
sensitive and often unstable. Mixtures incorporating any of
them should be treated with extreme caution.
Fire service personnel know that these metals burn at extremely

high temperatures; the reaction may be spontaneous when put in
contact with oxidizers. As discussed previously, when the
components of a mixture ignite upon contact,
\without any external source of ignition such as heat or flame, it is

defined as a hypergolic reaction.

Slide 3-20 Oxidizer and Fuel Combinations
This slide displays a table that shows oxidizer and fuel

combinations to create secondary and tertiary explosives.
When an oxidizer is combined with a fuel, an energetic material or

explosive is formed. This chart presents some mixtures to
demonstrate the types of explosives produced. Note that by
changing a fuel, the type of explosive produced may change. For
example, Ammonium Nitrate (AN) combined with fuel oil or diesel
fuel (ANFO) becomes a powerful but stable tertiary explosive (an
insensitive, stable explosive often used as a main charge).6
However, if the AN is combined with a hot fuel or energetic
hydrocarbon such as NM, it becomes a hotter, faster acting,
powerful secondary explosive (a moderately sensitive explosive)
that does not require as great a shock to initiate. A small primary
charge will cause it to explode.
ANFO, like many other explosives, is a chemical mixture containing

the fuel and oxidizer.
6
NOTE: Explosives are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary explosives are the least stable and
easiest to ignite, secondary explosives are moderately stable, and tertiary explosives are more stable and typically
used as the main charge in larger explosives. We will discuss these different categories in depth later in this lesson.

Slide 3-21 Oxidizer and Fuel Combinations: HME
This slide lists common precursors, various nitrated explosives,

peroxide explosive combinations, and a primary explosive mercury
fulminate.
The left column of this chart lists common precursors that can be
used to develop Homemade Explosives (HME). The middle and
right columns of this chart list different types of HME: Nitrated
explosives, which contain nitric acid as the oxidizer, and peroxide
explosives, which use hydrogen peroxide as the oxidizer.
Precursors can be easily obtained and are used for many legitimate
purposes. However, first responders should learn to identify
these materials and recognize when large quantities of
precursors or precursors in an unrelated setting (Ex: multiple
gallon jugs containing urine in a location that has a functioning
bathroom) may indicate attempts to produce explosives.
Recognizing these red flags can help prevent the completion
of terrorist bomb plots, and can protect first responders and
civilians.
Common ways to obtain these precursors are listed below:

 Hydrogen peroxide – Available for purchase in most grocery
or general goods stores

 Sulfuric acid – used as a drain cleaner, in lead-acid

batteries, and in various cleaning agents
 Nitric acid –available for purchase in stores and online,
contained in fertilizers, and instructions for producing it can
be found on YouTube
 Hydrochloric “muriatic” acid – available for purchase in
stores and online, used as a paint thinner, paint stripper, and
in batteries
 Urea – commonly used in fertilizers, Diesel Exhaust Fluid
(DEF), plastics, animal feed and cleaning agents. Urea can
also be distilled from human urine.
 Acetone – active ingredient in nail polish remover and paint
thinner, sold online and in most stores
 Methyl Ethyl Ketone (AKA butanone) – available at most
home repair stores, used in plastics manufacturing
 Alcohol (ethyl or methyl) – available for purchase in stores
and online, found in beverages, fuel, antiseptics, and
solvents
 Ethylene Glycol (antifreeze) – available for purchase in
stores and online, used in antifreeze, hydraulic brake fluid,
stamp pad ink, ball point pens, solvents, paints, and
cosmetics
 Glycerin(e) (Glycerol) – available for purchase in stores and
online, used in food preservation and skin care products
 Hexamine (camp stove tablets) – available for purchase in
stores and online
 Citric acid (sour salt) – available for purchase in stores and
online

Slide 3-22 Example: Najibullah Zazi Bomb Plot, 2009
This slide contains photos of Najibullah Zazi being arrested by the

FBI, and a security camera photo of a man believed to be Zazi who
was purchasing large quantities of hydrogen peroxide, acetone,
and other beauty products at Beauty Supply Warehouse in Denver,
CO.
Najibullah Zazi is an Afghan-American who was arrested in

September 2009 and charged with being part of an al-Qaeda plot to
conduct a suicide bombing operation on several New York City
subway trains. In 2008, Zazi received weapons and explosive
training from al-Qaeda in Pakistan while visiting his wife and
children. Intelligence sources had identified Zazi as a potential
terrorist threat, and this information was given to the FBI. The FBI
began an investigation and surveillance of Zazi when he returned to
the United States.
Upon returning to the United States, Zazi immediately moved to

Aurora, Colorado (a suburb of Denver) to live with relatives. The
FBI’s investigation showed that Zazi began to review bomb making
notes he had emailed and visiting websites on safe handling of
hydrogen peroxide. The FBI was also able to intercept a phone call
where Zazi talked about mixing chemicals. Zazi purchased large
quantities of hydrogen peroxide, acetone, and other beauty

products from several beauty supply stores around Denver. These

substances are used to make triacetone triperoxide (TATP), which
was used in the 2005 London Bombings.7 One of the store clerks
asked Zazi why he wanted so much hair dye, and Zazi responded
that he had “a lot of girlfriends.” In August 2009, Zazi rented a hotel
room in Aurora and used the room’s kitchenette to create chemicals
for making explosives.8 On September 9, 2009, Zazi began a
1,800-mile drive to New York City from Aurora in a rented car, with
the FBI following him. In New York City, Zazi purchased a number
of backpacks and rode the subway to determine the best times and
locations to detonate bombs for maximum casualties. The plan was
for Zazi and two high school friends to conduct coordinated suicide
bombings on September 11; however, Zazi learned authorities
were conducting an investigation into his activities and he returned
to Aurora before he could conduct the bombing. The FBI never
found the suspected bomb-making material. Zazi was arrested on
September 19, 2009, and ultimately pled guilty to conspiring to use
weapons of mass destruction (explosive bombs), conspiracy to
commit murder in a foreign country, and providing material support
to a terrorist organization.9
The FBI was conducting surveillance on Zazi from the time he

returned from Pakistan until he was arrested. Had this not been the
case, a first responder or a citizen may have been the first to
recognize or report Zazi’s suspicious activity in purchasing
precursor bomb-making chemicals. This is why it is important for
first responders to be knowledgeable about homemade explosive
precursors and to ensure that personnel at local businesses are
also trained on what they should look for and report to law
enforcement.
7
Vince, G. (2005). Explosives Linked to London Bombings Identified. New Scientist. Retrieved from:
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7682-explosives-linked-to-london-bombings-identified/
8
United States District Court Eastern District of New York, (2009). Memorandum of Law Support of the
Government’s Motion for A Permanent Order of Detention, Retrieved from
http://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/legacy/2009/09/24/zazi-detention-memo.pdf
9
United States District Court Eastern District of New York, (2009). Memorandum of Law Support of the
Government’s Motion for A Permanent Order of Detention, Retrieved from
http://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/legacy/2009/09/24/zazi-detention-memo.pdf

Slide 3-23 Pod Discussion: Obtaining Explosive Precursors
This slide shows questions for discussion at participant tables.
Discuss the following questions with the other first responders at

your table:
 Excluding online purchases, how easy is it to obtain different
types of fuels, oxidizers, or precursors in your area? If you
believe it would be easy, list the possible locations and
discuss what you as a first responder can do to bring
awareness to your community.
 What unique aspects of your area might affect access to
these items? (Ex: agriculture, mining industry, hunting
culture, etc.)
 What kind of budget would a terrorist need to produce a
small bomb of these materials? Cite resources used to
calculate prices. (NOTE: Students may find it educational to
use personal devices to search for explosive components
that can be purchased online, and calculate the potential
cost to produce an IED.)
The Department of Homeland Security’s Office for Bombing

Prevention (OBP) and the FBI have developed the Bomb-Making
Materials Awareness Program (BMAP). Through this program,

outreach materials are distributed by law enforcement to local

businesses to help employees more easily:
 Identify homemade explosives precursor chemicals.
 Identify improvised explosive device (IED) components.
 Recognize supsicious purchasing behavior that could
indicate potential bomb-making activities.
BMAP also encourages a stronger relationship between businesses
and local law enforcement agencies, reinforcing the foundation of
effective community safety and security.
BMAP materials are provided in the Additional Resources section

of the IRTB flash drive.

FIRING TRAIN
Slide 3-24 Firing Train
ELO 3-4
Order the components of a firing train.
This slide shows the position and relationship between primary,

secondary, and tertiary explosives in a high explosive firing train.
Primary, secondary, and tertiary explosives are often used together

in terrorist bombs. The steps in initiating this series of progressively
larger explosions constitute the firing train (sometimes referred to
as the explosive train).
Basically, a firing train is a series of burns or explosions increasing

in size until the final material or explosive is detonated. All
weapons, including firearms, contain a firing train in one form or
another. This slide depicts a five-step firing train, but two-, three-,
and four-step firing trains can also effectively initiate explosions.
The firing train may vary depending on the materials being used
and the situation for which it is intended.
As illustrated on this slide, a small insult escalates into a large

explosion. Building a campfire is a good analogy to help understand

firing trains.
 In this case, the stimulus (Step 1) is fire and the process

begins when the fire provides heat to ignite a propellant (like
black powder contained in a piece of time fuse). In the
campfire analogy, fire from a match serves as the stimulus.
 The initiator (Step 2) or burning propellant delivers flame to a

primary explosive (contained in a blasting cap). In the
campfire analogy, straw or kindling (dry grass, leaves, paper,
or other easily-ignited items) serve as the initiator.
 The primary explosive or blasting cap (Step 3) immediately

detonates delivering a shock to the secondary explosive. In
a campfire analogy, twigs are the primary components.
 The secondary explosive or booster (Step 4) immediately

detonates delivering a significant shock to the tertiary
explosive. In the campfire analogy, small sticks are the
secondary components.
 The tertiary explosive or main charge (Step 5) then

detonates completing the firing train. In the campfire
analogy, the big log is the tertiary component.
When building a campfire, a match will not successfully ignite a log.

The same is true in a firing train. The primary can ignite by itself,
the secondary needs the primary, and the tertiary needs both the
primary and secondary.
Five steps are shown on this slide; however, if the secondary

explosive were the main charge, then there would be only four
steps in the train. For black powder in a pipe bomb, only three
steps will be present: the stimulus (fire) lights the igniter (fuse) and
the fuse lights the black powder inside the pipe resulting in DDT
and an explosion. Likewise, for firing a projectile from a gun, there
are three steps involved: the gun’s firing pin is released by pulling
the trigger, it impacts the primer (Step 1), the primer sparks (Step
2), and ignites the gunpowder (Step 3). The gases propel the
projectile down and out the barrel.
Explosive trains vary in complexity, but they all are intended to

initiate a series of explosions arranged to produce the most
effective detonation or explosion of a particular explosive.

Regardless of how many steps it contains, the firing train is nothing

more than a series of progressively larger explosions until the main
charge explodes.
If the explosive train is interrupted in any of the steps, the

detonation of the main charge will not occur. For example, a
commercial blasting cap used with military C-4 may result in a low-
order explosion because a more powerful military blasting cap is
required to achieve a high-order explosion. Also, cracks in the
composition C-4, when molded, can result in a low-order explosion
even when using a military blasting cap. Additionally, detonating
cord, if configured incorrectly, can instantaneously cut the firing
train (due to its high speed) and leave a portion of the device intact.
Firing trains can also be initiated electrically, if the fire and the time
fuse are replaced with an electric wire and a current.

Slide 3-25 Stimuli (Insults)
ELO 3-5
Define the acronym FISHED and identify examples of the five
stimuli that can be used to release energy from energetic
materials.
The FISHED acronym may help participants remember the five

stimuli: friction, impact, shock, heat (or fire), and electrostatic
discharge.
Stimuli (Insults). The technical term for the energy imparted to an

energetic material to cause an explosion is insult. Insults (also
known as initiation energy) can come in five forms: friction, impact,
shock, heat (fire) and electrostatic discharge (FISHED). All insults
create initiation through different mechanisms but with the same
final result—they impart energy in the form of heat into the system.
Close attention should be paid to friction, impact, and

electrostatic discharge. In fact, circle them on the slide printed
in your course book. These insults are the ones that most
often cause accidental detonations during routine handling of
explosives.

Slide 3-26 Stimuli: Friction
This slide shows three graphics that depict friction. One graphic of
a pipe wrench spinning a nipple, one graphic showing the end caps
on a pipe bomb being twisted off and the resulting explosion, and
one graphic showing a jar having the lid twisted off and its
relationship to a pepper grinder.
Friction poses a significant danger. All forms of friction create heat.

Just walking creates friction. Rubbing your hands together causes
them to warm due to friction.
Anytime you open a jar, it creates friction in the threads. If there is

anything inside the threads that could explode or ignite, opening the
lid could set off the jar contents. Pyrotechnics and common
propellants (such as black powder) are very sensitive to friction.
Do not ever handle or attempt to move or open a suspected

explosive device.

Slide 3-27 Example: Friction Initiating a Pipe Bomb
This slide contains a photo of a man’s hand after a pipe bomb he

was holding exploded. An Energetic Materials Research and
Testing Center (EMRTC) instructor, who worked for the Orange
County Police in 2005, provided the photos on this slide and the
information about this incident.
In 2005 in Orange County, CA, police responded to a call regarding

an explosion with injury. A 26-year-old male claimed to have
“found” a steel pipe bomb. He said he was removing the end cap
when it exploded due to the friction between the end cap threads,
removing his entire right hand. The other end cap lodged into his
knee.
This case provides an example of why first responders should

never introduce friction by touching or moving a potential
explosive device.

Slide 3-28 Stimuli: Impact
This slide shows three photos that depict impact: A soldier holding
a hammer while sitting on a large bomb, a series of photos showing
the impact of a bullet on a solid object, and a hammer striking a
piece of glass.
Impact is another form of insult. Impact with another object provides

another way to introduce heat to a material. Feel a nail after you
have hit it several times with a hammer and you will see the ability
of impact to generate heat. Many explosives are highly sensitive to
impact. For example, homemade nitroglycerine can detonate if it is
dropped even a short distance.
Dropping an explosive can cause detonation. The best way to

avoid dropping an explosive is to not pick it up.

Slide 3-29 Stimuli: Shock
This slide shows a photo of an electric blasting cap (detonator).
Shock is the most powerful form of energy input. Shock can be

applied by placing one explosive in contact with another explosive
and detonating one to initiate the other. A prime example of shock
initiation is the use of a blasting cap.

Slide 3-30 Stimuli: Heat
This slide contains a photo of a burning match, and a graphic

(cross-section) of a vented electric squib.
Fire. Everyone is familiar with the potential effects of fire—it

generates heat. Some high explosives will burn without detonation;
some will detonate when burned.
Smoking near any energetic material is extremely dangerous.

The heat generated by a cigarette can be enough to generate
an explosive reaction.
Energetic materials are susceptible to exploding when exposed to

excessive heat.
However, excessive heat does not necessarily mean high

temperatures. Heat surrounds us, even at room temperature. Some
chemical combinations will violently decompose when the
components are together, even at room temperature, such as
hypergolic mixtures. For example, crystals of potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) mixed evenly with glycerin will ignite
spontaneously in seconds.
It is important to note that many hypergolic mixtures may not react

when temperatures are below about 50 degrees Fahrenheit (F). Put

such a mixture in an area that will warm up (from the sun or another
heat source), and the mixture will begin to react—ignite and
explode—when the temperature finally reaches an appropriate
level.
A chemical mixture that is relatively safe at one temperature may

be extremely dangerous at another temperature.

Slide 3-31 Stimuli: Electrostatic Discharge
This slide shows one of the stimuli that can severely impact first
responder safety. The two photos depict electrostatic discharge.
One photo shows visible energy arcing between two contacts, and
the other photo shows an Electronic Control Device (ECD),
commonly referred to as a Taser.
Electrostatic Discharge (ED). Static electricity is particularly

dangerous because electrostatic discharge can be imparted from
one object to another. It builds up quickly, often without warning.
(Consider the static that can develop when walking across a carpet,
particularly in the dry winter months.) Many energetic materials—
and particularly pyrotechnics—are sensitive to the spark created by
ED. An individual does not even have to touch an object directly to
convey this spark; getting close to the object may be sufficient.
EMRTC conducted a study in 2013 involving ECDs and TATP. The

result showed that the stimuli from the ECD initiated the HME TATP
100% of the time when the ECD arced through the TATP.10
Bomb squads attempt to control static electricity by wearing

non-static producing clothing. Man-made materials such as
10
7/26/2013 “Sensitivity of TATP to a Taser EMRTC quick look report”.

polyester are notorious for creating static electricity in the

clothing and body of the wearer. Humidity also plays an
important role in the production of static electricity; higher
humidity reduces the presence of static electricity while it
thrives in dry climates.
First responders should use caution when deploying

Electronic Control Weapons (ECW) or ECDs on a subject
holding or in close proximity to explosive material. ECDs can
ignite explosive material because they produce an
electrostatic discharge, which is one of the stimuli in the
acronym FISHED.

Slide 3-32 Additional Hazards – Radio Frequency Energy
This slide identifies hazards created by radio frequency (RF)

energy. The three photos are associated with RF energy: One
photo is of a radio control servo, one photo shows a cell phone, and
the other photo is of a radio control controller.
Radio frequency (RF) energy is a twofold issue. Although a

remote possibility, studies have shown that electric blasting
caps have the potential to initiate after harnessing RF energy.
The second, more probable issue deals with the RF
transmitting device being on the same or a similar frequency
as a remotely initiated IED.
The following position statement outlines the recommendation of

the National Bomb Squad Commanders Advisory Board (NBSCAB)
regarding the use of radios/cellular telephones during explosive-
related responses, as of April 2016:11
11
National Bomb Squad Commanders Advisory Board. (April 2016). National Guidelines for Bomb Technicians,

“Use of Radios/Cellular Telephones During Explosive Related

Responses:
There is a wide range of policies by public safety agencies

regarding the use of radios by first responders when responding to
an explosive-related incident. These policies deal with searches in
response to bomb threats as well as scene support in incidents
involving suspect packages or actual explosions. The policies vary
from general cautions about using radios, distance
recommendations, to mandatory requirements for turning off radios
completely.
The use of radios in bombing/threat response situations becomes a

subjective matter involving the balancing of risk and benefit. The
benefit to having a radio on and in the receiving mode outweighs
the risks that may arise from not having any communication with
other personnel. Some incidents have been reported, for example,
of finding a suspect package in one part of a building and not being
able to alert an officer assisting with the search in another part of
the building.
With these issues in mind it is advisable to leave radios and cell

phones on during a search, but if a suspect package is identified,
do not transmit from a position near the package. If a suspect item
is identified, an evacuation should begin, working from the package
outward, and a notification to other personnel and the bomb squad
should take place. When transmitting with a radio or cell phone, the
responder should place as much distance and shielding between
them and the suspect item as possible.”
As always, first responders should follow their agency’s SOPs

and guidelines for radio use when responding to explosive-
related incidents. However, if your department does not have a
policy or the policy is out-of-date with the NBSCAB policy
stated above, consider sharing this information with
leadership and advocating for change through appropriate
channels.

Slide 3-33 Initiators/Blasting Caps
This slide displays two graphics to compare initiation of low and

high explosives.
Low explosives can be initiated with flame or heat, while high

explosives are initiated by shock produced by detonators.
Detonators can be either electrical or non-electrical. The images on
this slide depict a burning match, an improvised initiator, and a
blasting cap.

CATEGORIES OF EXPLOSIVES
Slide 3-34 Categories of Explosives
ELO 3-6
Categorize examples of low explosives and high explosives.
Explosives can be divided into two categories: low explosives and

high explosives. Low explosives include pyrotechnics and
propellants. High explosives are further divided into primary,
secondary, and tertiary explosives. These categorizations depend,
in part, on the manner of use of the materials. In the following slides
we will learn more about each of these categories.

Slide 3-35 Low Explosives: Pyrotechnics
This slide lists various examples of pyrotechnic devices that are

used for both civilian and military activities. The photo is of air burst
commercial fireworks.
Pyrotechnics create smoke, light, heat, and sound. The

pyrotechnics most people are familiar with are those used for
entertainment purposes (such as fireworks). However, there are
numerous workhorse pyrotechnics that are used to make items
such as road flares, smoke grenades, and thermites. Thermites are
a group of pyrotechnic mixtures in which a reactive metal reduces
oxygen from a metallic oxide. The reduction produces a lot of heat,
slag, and pure metal. The most common thermite is ferroaluminum
thermite, made from aluminum (reactive metal) and iron oxide
(metal oxide). The military uses thermite to destroy equipment. It
also has many commercial uses such as being used to instantly cut
mooring cables that secure oil drilling platforms to the sea floor.
Many low explosives only require a two-step or three-step firing

train.

Slide 3-36 Low Explosives: Propellants
This slide contains images and lists key definitions associated with
the safe use of low explosives or propellants. The top image shows
a cross-section of a shotgun shell and how it is propelled out of the
barrel; the bottom image shows propellants deflagrating in a
controlled laboratory burn.
Propellants are designed to deflagrate. This controlled release of

gas can be used to perform useful work functions. Examples
include the deflagration of gunpowder for propelling a projectile out
of the barrel of a gun, and the burning of a mixture of ammonium
perchlorate and aluminum metal for launching the space shuttle.
The key to safe and effective use of propellants is to maintain a

controlled release of gas. When propellants are confined or when
control is lost, accidents can occur. Two of the more historic
incidents that involve the loss of control include the Space Shuttle
Challenger tragedy in 198312 and the detonation of the USS Iowa
main gun in 1989.13 Note that the oxidizer component of the
12
Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, (1986). U.S. Government
Printing Office. Retrieved from: http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/explode.html
13
USS Iowa Turret Explosion, (No Date). World Public Library. Retrieved from:
http://www.worldlibrary.org/articles/uss_iowa_turret_explosion

explosive is enough to support combustion and it does not need an

oxygen environment to function.
Two propellants in this category—low explosives designed to burn

or deflagrate—are used for military and civilian applications: black
powder and smokeless powder.
Black powder is used as a propellant in weapons such as

muzzleloaders and cannons. It can be purchased in varying grain
sizes and is normally sold in one-pound tin cans at gun and
sporting-goods stores. Black powder is also used as the burning
element in safety or time fuses, as well as in some pyrotechnic
fireworks and hobby fuses.
Black powder does not deteriorate with age, and while water may
temporarily desensitize it, once dry, it returns to its original
flammable composition. Black powder is extremely sensitive to
all forms of heat created by these five stimuli (friction, flame,
impact, shock, and static electricity). This characteristic makes
black powder one of the most dangerous explosives to handle.
Black powder can be purchased at a shooting supply store or the

internet. There are also instructions on the internet for making black
powder. The Boston Bombers used black powder from fireworks
they purchased. Black powder is used in pipe bombs and other
IEDs.
Smokeless Powder is a propellant that is considered to be the

world standard for small arms, cannons, and rockets. Propellants
that have a nitrocellulose (gun cotton) base are commonly referred
to as a single-base smokeless powder. Smokeless powders are
produced from a paste created by dissolving gun cotton in a
mixture of ether and alcohol. The paste is then squeezed into
spaghetti or straw-shaped forms that are cut into shorter lengths.
These cylindrical lengths are generally used as shotgun and rifle
ammunition powders. Pistol powders are usually thin wafers, flakes,
or balls.
Smokeless powders vary in form and color. Some are formed into
rods, grains, wafers, or round or square flakes and may vary in
color from black, gray, orange, or green. Double-base smokeless
powders and other special purpose smokeless powders differ from
single-base in that they contain nitroglycerine or other organic
nitrates added to the nitrocellulose.

Smokeless powder can be purchased in sporting goods and gun

stores in tin cans, plastic containers, or quantities up to twenty-five
pounds. While most propellants burn relatively slowly when
compared to high explosives, double-base smokeless powders can
detonate rather than deflagrate by using a high-explosive blasting
cap as the initiating system.
Like black powder, smokeless powder is also sensitive to

friction, heat, impact, shock, and static electricity. While not as
volatile as black powder, the same safety precautions used in
handling black powder should be observed for smokeless
powder.
Example: USS Iowa Turret Explosion14

On April 19, 1989, an explosion in the center gun room of the USS
Iowa killed 47 of the turret’s crewmen and severely damaged the
gun turret. Two major investigations – one by the US Navy and one
by the General Accounting Office and Sandia National Laboratories
-- produced conflicting conclusions about the cause of the
explosion. The Navy initially hypothesized that an electronic or
chemical detonator had been used to initiate the explosion, but later
concluded that the cause of the explosion could not be determined.
The Sandia investigation concluded that the explosion was likely
caused by an accidental over-ram of powder bags into the breech
of the 16-inch gun.
14
USS Iowa Turret Explosion, (No Date). World Public Library. Retrieved from:
http://www.worldlibrary.org/articles/uss_iowa_turret_explosion

Slide 3-37 High Explosives
This slide discusses the effects of high explosives. The two

photographs are of high explosive detonations.
ELO 3-7
Classify high explosives as primary, secondary, or tertiary.
While propellants are designed to produce a controlled release of

energy, high explosives are designed to detonate and yield a near-
instantaneous release of energy. Since high explosives detonate,
they do not require confinement, unlike low explosives which do
require confinement. High explosives produce heat that can exceed
2,500 degrees. Bombs made of high explosives are typically
designed to kill individuals and/or destroy property.

Slide 3-38 Classes of High Explosives
This slide lists the three classes of high explosives. These photos
are examples of the three types of high explosives— primary,
secondary, and tertiary.
High explosives are divided into three classes: primary, secondary,

and tertiary, in part due to their sensitivities to different stimuli.
Primary explosives are the most sensitive and tertiary explosives
are the least sensitive. Understanding sensitivity is important for
first responders when trying to identify the safest courses of action
in a response situation.
First responders may encounter homemade explosives, which can

be very sensitive. They will probably only encounter commercial
and military primary explosives in the form of blasting caps, or
occasionally in a laboratory setting.

Slide 3-39 Primary Explosives
This slide provides information on primary explosives. The diagram

shows the construction of a typical commercial electric blasting cap.
Primary explosives are extremely sensitive and, as a consequence,

extremely dangerous. Consider silver azide—the friction caused by
gently moving a bag of silver azide crystals can cause a detonation.
Because of their extreme sensitivity, primary explosives are

normally used in small quantities, such as in a blasting cap. They
are used mainly to initiate less sensitive, but more powerful,
secondary explosives. Most HME are primary explosives.
Five primary explosives have been used both commercially and by

the military as initiating explosives: lead azide, silver azide, lead
styphnate, and mercury fulminate.
Lead styphnate is the primary explosive that is used in modern

small arms ammunition primers. The small grain of lead styphnate
is positioned between the cup and the anvil of the primer. The
impact of the firing pin initiates the lead styphnate, which shoots a
small amount of flame into the powder chamber of the cartridge.

Slide 3-40 Secondary Explosives
This slide includes reference to secondary explosives being

capable of exhibiting DDT. This is normally created by confinement
or pressure and heat.
Secondary explosives are far less sensitive than primaries and

require a significant stimulus to detonate, such as the detonation of
a primary explosive. They are the explosive materials most
commonly used in bulk. These materials include composition C-4,
dynamite, det cord, and slurry or emulsion explosive.
No one wants to work with five pounds of primary explosives due to

their high sensitivity, but people routinely work with a large quantity
of secondary explosives. Secondary explosives are made to
withstand rough handling. Although they normally require the
energy levels created by another explosion to detonate, they still
must be treated with caution and respect for their potential
destructive capability. Under some conditions (usually created by
confinement or pressure and heat), some secondary explosives
can exhibit DDT.

Slide 3-41 Tertiary Explosives
Tertiary explosives are the most insensitive class of high

explosives. Most of these formulations are based on ammonium
nitrate (AN), which is commonly used as a fertilizer.
Tertiary explosives require a large stimulus to cause detonation; A

blasting cap will not initiate them. Usually, a quantity of secondary
explosives (referred to as a booster) is needed for this purpose. For
example, a stick of dynamite or a quarter-block of composition C-4
can be used to initiate tertiaries. Often, tertiary explosives require
confinement, especially in small quantities (pounds). However, in
larger amounts like hundreds of pounds, the sheer mass supplies
the tertiary explosive with its own confinement. Because of their
stable nature, tertiary explosives are more likely to be transported
in large quantities and used for commercial purposes.
Ammonium nitrate (AN) and fuel oil (ANFO) is a very insensitive

substance and is the most common tertiary explosive. It was
identified as the explosive that Timothy McVeigh used to attack the
Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995.15 Urea nitrate is another
15
After Action Report: Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Bombing. The Oklahoma Department of Civil
Emergency Management.

type of fertilizer-based explosive, which was identified as the

explosive used in the 1993 World Trade Center attack.16 Urea is a
fuel and can be purchased in prill form much like AN. A more
common form of urea is in the diesel fuel additive “Blue DEF”. The
urea can be distilled from this product and made into explosives.
16
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, (No Date). IED Attack, Improvised Explosive Devices, News &
Terrorism, Communicating in a Crisis. Retrieved from:
https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/prep_ied_fact_sheet.pdf

EXPLOSIVE EFFECTS
Slide 3-42 Explosive Effects
This slide illustrates the shock front, fragmentation effect, blast

pressure effect, and the incendiary thermal effect that takes place
during an explosion.
ELO 3-8
Given images depicting explosive effects, label the following:
incendiary effect, blast-pressure effect, fragmentation effect,
shrapnel effect, positive pressure, peak overpressure,
negative pressure, reflected pressure, impulse, shock wave,
shock front, detonation velocity, brisance, and heave.
Energetic materials decompose under tremendous pressure to

produce gases that expand rapidly, pushing against the
surrounding air. We have already explained that this energy release
cascades outwards, creating a leading shock front followed by a
shock wave in the air. A number of other effects are present in the
aftermath of the explosion.
Incendiary Effect. The incendiary effect occurs in the immediate

vicinity of the seat of the explosion with both high and low

explosives. The effect will vary greatly from one compound to

another. Generally, low explosives, when initiated, tend to have
lower heat than high explosives, but that heat is sustained for a
greater duration resulting in a higher potential for fires after the
initial explosion.
High explosives will produce higher temperatures for a shorter

period of time, resulting in less likelihood of fires from the
detonation. High explosives may generate secondary fires from hot
metal fragments and shrapnel as well as from the destruction or
penetration of HazMat lines and containers. Some high-explosive
devices are designed to start fire by utilizing elemental fuels, such
as magnesium or aluminum, in their mixtures. Within the range of
the incendiary effect, people and objects closest to the explosion
will sustain thermal injuries.
Blast-pressure Effect. The blast-pressure effect is the resulting

bubble surrounding the seat of an explosion. It encompasses the
entire area behind the shock front emanating from the seat of the
explosion. Conceptually it can be considered a hemisphere or
bubble moving outward from the seat of an explosion. As the shock
wave travels from the seat, it creates an overpressure situation.
Fragmentation Effect. Fragmentation refers to a piece of the device

or its container. Fragmentation occurs when pieces of the explosive
device or its container come apart and spread out from the seat of
the explosion.
Fragmentation normally involves casings, but can also involve

components such as batteries and switches. Casings such as
aluminum may be consumed in the explosion and add to the blast
effect of a device. Other casings may detract from the functioning of
a device; for instance, heavy steel piping may reduce the
fragmentation effect. Some casings may be scored to improve
fragmentation and maximize distribution.
Shrapnel Effect. Shrapnel differs from fragmentation in that

shrapnel does not derive from working parts of the device. Shrapnel
can include nails or shot placed in or around a device, or pieces of
material from the environment surrounding the seat of the explosion
(such as containers, structures, and vehicles).
The term shrapnel was first applied to an artillery shell that was

named after artillery officer Henry Shrapnel.17 The shell contained

iron balls. Over time, shrapnel came to mean any added object that
is thrown from a charge upon detonation, usually with intent to
harm individuals or damage property. The term “shrapnel” can also
include objects from the environment that become projectiles after
the explosion. In the case of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building
bombing, window blinds became deadly shrapnel.18
17
Lipscombe, N. (2013). Shrapnel/s Shell- A Force Multiplier. Retrieved from: http://www.nick
lipscombe.net/Shrapnel%20Shell%20Paper.pdf
18

Slide 3-43 Video: Shock Waves
This slide contains a video of an explosion of 20 kilograms (44 lbs.)

of Composition B explosives. The sphere was drilled so the
exploding bridge wire (EBW) initiator could be placed in the center
with the drill hole back filled with Comp B. The sphere was
suspended six feet high to replicate an air burst and capture the
multiple shock waves produced (six total). This detonation is in
extreme slow motion to demonstrate that multiple blast waves can
develop from a single detonation.
Several additional terms and concepts are critical to understanding

the destructive power of energetic materials.
Shock Wave. Explosions typically include a rapid escape of gases

accompanied by high temperatures, extreme shock, and a loud
noise. A shock wave is defined as a region of abrupt change of
pressure and density moving as a wave at or above the velocity of
sound, caused by an intense explosion or supersonic flow over an
object.
The gaseous products of an explosion expand rapidly, compressing

the surrounding air to form the shock wave. Multiple shock waves
can emanate from one explosion. One common cause is reflective
pressures that follow closely behind the initial shock wave.

Slide 3-44 Video: Shock Front
This slide contains a shock front video. The test (Divine Buffalo
Test #1) was conducted to evaluate the effect of an explosion on a
structure and different types of construction materials. The bottom
floor contains different types of frame and masonry construction,
while the second through fourth floors test different types of glazing
materials as well as blast curtains in one of the top floor rooms.
The test utilized 5,147 pounds of Composition C-4 with a standoff

of 656 feet. The video plays once at real-time speed and once in
slow motion. The slow motion video allows those watching to
actually see the shock front and its direct impact on the building.
The test was conducted at White Sands Missile Range in New
Mexico.
Shock Front. The forward boundary surface or leading edge of a

shock wave is the shock front. The initial energy from a shock front
can be amplified two to nine times when it is reflected off a surface.
The video on this slide demonstrates a shock wave as it moves

from the explosive device on the left of the screen to the building on
the right. This video was recorded during a Department of Defense
blast-effects test.

The shock front or leading edge of the shock wave can be visually
likened to the outer ripple of the ring created by a pebble being
thrown into a pond. The shock front is the front line of the blast
effect. Often the shock wave and its leading edge (the shock front)
can be seen from a distance traveling across the earth. The shock
wave is present on both the ground and in the air. Ground effects
are similar to an earthquake. In air, the shock wave is a front of hot
compressed gases. The shock wave causes damage by exerting
an intense wind and overpressure on structures.
Peak Overpressure is the highest point of overpressure.
Detonation Velocity is the rate or speed at which a shock wave

travels through an explosive. The speed at which the shock wave
moves is proportional to the energy being released, and can be
equated to the damage that the explosive is capable of doing. High
explosives have a detonation velocity or burn rate greater than
3,300 feet per second (fps). Low explosives have a detonation
velocity under 3,300 fps.

Slide 3-45 Brisance
This slide contains information that defines brisance. An easy way

to understand brisance is that it is a scale. On the lower velocity
end of the scale is “heave,” which is also sometimes referred to as
“push.” On the other end of the scale, where detonation velocity is
higher, is “shatter.”
Brisance refers to the shattering power or work done by an

explosive. Brisance has two effects: Shattering and heave. A
correlation exists between the amount of energy released and
expanding at or behind the shock front, and an explosive’s ability to
shatter material with which it comes into contact.
High-detonation-velocity explosives (high explosives) have more

shattering power. Brisance is proportional to detonation velocity
and compression density at or behind the shock front.
Field laboratories in this course feature demonstrations that show

the difference between the physical effects generated by the
detonation velocities of high and low explosives.
C-4 is an explosive where the majority of energy released is directly

behind the shock front, resulting in a rapid energy release of short
duration against the building; it typically destroys the face of the

structure without deep penetration. The attack on Khobar Towers in

Dhahran, Saudi Arabia in 1996 was an example of this
phenomenon (see the example on the next page).
Heave. Explosives at the lower end of brisance tend to heave. The

energy that is not added in support of the shock front tends to
create a push (or deeper shock wave) after the shock front travels
into the surroundings. Therefore, low-detonation-velocity explosives
tend to heave. This is in contrast to high-detonation-velocity/high
brisance explosives, which have more shattering or cutting power.
A heaving explosive such as ANFO produces a majority of its

energy well behind the shock front. This action results in the shock
front initially striking a structure and the energy well behind the
shock front penetrating deeply into the building, potentially causing
significant structure collapse. The damage at the Alfred P. Murrah
Federal Building reflects this phenomenon.

Slide 3-46 Example: Oklahoma City Bombing, 1995
This slide contains pictures of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building

in Oklahoma City, OK, before and after the 1995 bombing.
The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma

City, OK in 1995 provides a good example of a heaving explosion.
At 9:02 a.m. on April 19th, a rental truck packed with explosives

detonated in front of the nine-story Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in downtown Oklahoma City. The nearest fire station was
only five blocks away and firefighters, after hearing and feeling the
explosion, went outside, observed the smoke and immediately
responded with all units to the scene. Upon approach, they
observed numerous injured people and dispatched officers to assist
the wounded. Because of the thick smoke, the first arriving units
from the west could not fully see the Murrah Building. They
reported the explosion as being at the Water Resources Building
and immediately began rescue operations at that location.
Eleven fire stations in the city self-dispatched based on hearing the

explosion and observing the smoke that could be seen for miles.
Fire units began arriving from all directions and it soon became
apparent to those arriving from the east that the explosion occurred
at the Murrah Building.

The first arriving emergency medical units consisted of three

ambulances and a command vehicle that arrived from the north.
Upon approaching 6th Street, the first arriving emergency medical
units observed numerous injured survivors from the Journal Record
Building and the YMCA. Unaware of the major damage on 5th
Street, they immediately began treating the wounded and
established a triage site on 6th Street. Additional Emergency
Medical Services Authority (EMSA) units arrived from the south and
established a triage area to receive the hundreds of wounded
individuals from the area.
Police units arrived on the scene at 9:04 a.m. and immediately

began assisting firefighters and emergency medical units with the
rescue, treatment, and transportation of the injured. Initially, police
suspected that there had been an accidental natural gas
explosion. However, Police Bomb Squad Officers who arrived on
the scene observed the crater caused by the bomb and reported
the incident as a bombing. The Police Command Vehicle was
ordered to the site and placed next to the Fire Command vehicle. A
total of 69 officers were part of the initial response.
The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building killed 168

people and injured more than 680 others, destroyed or damaged
324 buildings within a 16-block radius, destroyed or burned 86 cars,
and shattered glass in 258 nearby buildings.19 Despite all this
destruction, in some ways it was a “low-order” detonation. High-
order detonations occurred within the primary and secondary
explosives, which were contained inside and connecting the tertiary
explosive (ANFO); however, not all of the main/tertiary charge of
ANFO was consumed in the event. Ammonium Nitrate prills and
residue coated the surrounding area.
19

Slide 3-47 Example: Khobar Towers, 1996
This slide shows images from the Khobar Towers incident in 1996.
Clockwise from left: Building 131 after the blast; the crater where
the truck bomb had been; Khobar Towers complex before the blast.
The 1996 bombing of Khobar Towers in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

provides an example of brisance in action.
On June 25, 1996, Khobar Towers was being used as quarters for
foreign military personnel (including U.S. Air Force personnel).
Operatives from Hezbollah Al-Hejaz converted a large sewage
tanker truck into a truck-bomb and detonated it across from an
eight-story structure, causing 19 deaths and 498 injuries. The truck
bomb utilized 5,000 pounds of plastic explosives and detonated
with the force of at least 20,000 pounds of TNT according to the
Defense Special Weapons Agency. The truck itself was parked
approximately 72 feet away from the building, but actually shaped
the charge by directing the blast toward the building. The relatively
high clearance between the truck and the ground gave it the more
lethal characteristics of an air burst. The blast was so powerful that
it was felt 20 miles (32 km) away. The size of the explosion created
an intense dust storm as the forces of the high-pressure blast wave
and the subsequent negative pressure forces caused considerable

damage in their own right. Several military vehicles parked to the

left side of building #131 suffered no direct impact from debris, but
were heavily damaged by the shock wave. The explosion heavily
damaged or destroyed six high-rise apartment buildings in the
complex. Windows were shattered in other buildings in the
compound up to a mile away. A very large crater, 85 feet (26 m)
wide and 35 feet (11 m) deep, was left where the truck had been.20
Mitigating the Damage:

The casualties from the Khobar Towers would have been far
greater had not two key factors helped to mitigate the damage:
Prompt evacuation and Jersey barriers.
Evacuation: The tanker truck and getaway vehicles were spotted by

Air Force Staff Sergeant Alfred R. Guerrero, who was stationed as
sentry atop Building #131. He witnessed the truck and two
additional vehicles arrive, reported it to security, and began a floor
by floor evacuation of the building. The bomb exploded three to four
minutes after the getaway vehicles departed. Many of the evacuees
were in the heavy stairwell on the side of the building away from the
truck bomb, perhaps the safest location in the building. Staff
Sergeant Guerrero was awarded the Airman’s Medal, the Air
Force’s highest peacetime award for valor, for his actions which
saved dozes of lives.
Jersey Barriers: Another security measure that probably minimized

damage were the Jersey barriers (concrete barriers commonly
used along roadways) that deflected the blast energy upward and
away from the lower floors of the building, perhaps even preventing
a total collapse of the structure.
20
United States District Court Eastern District of Virginia Alexandria Division, (2001). Criminal Complaint No: 01-228-
A. Retrieved from http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB318/doc05.pdf

Slide 3-48 Positive and Negative Pressure Phases
This slide depicts a scene prior to an explosion (an area at normal

atmospheric pressure), followed by the same area during a positive
pressure phase and a negative pressure phase.
Blast pressure can be measured in two distinct phases: positive

pressure and negative pressure. The basic mechanics of an
explosive blast are important in understanding the effects that a
blast can have on structures.
Positive Pressure. Positive pressure occurs when the blast creates

a shock wave (a wave greater than the atmospheric pressure, 14.7
psi) that moves rapidly from the seat of the explosion. The shock
wave pushes the air away from the seat of the explosion, causing a
positive pressure phase. The positive pressure wave is formed at
the instant of detonation when the blast compresses the
surrounding atmosphere and pushes it outward. This compressed
air forms the positive pulse of the shock wave; therefore, the shock
front can also be called the leading edge of the positive pressure
phase. This phase is short-lived.
Peak Overpressure. Simply stated, peak overpressure is the

highest amount of positive pressure above normal atmospheric

pressure an explosive charge achieves during detonation or

explosion. The pressure rises to peak overpressure, then dissipates
until it enters the negative pressure phase.
Negative Pressure. The negative pressure phase occurs when the

ambient pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, thereby,
causing a suction effect. The negative pressure phase follows
immediately after the positive phase, but lasts two to three times
longer. Essentially, it is a vacuum or suction phase and is of a lower
intensity than the positive pressure phase. Like any other blast
consequence, negative pressure reaches a peak velocity and then
begins to diminish. The strength of the negative pressure is variable
depending upon the size of the explosion, the environment
(especially whether the explosion occurred in a confined area or
open space), or other factors.

Slide 3-49 Impulse Time
This slide contains a chart showing the duration of a blast impulse,

including both positive and negative pressure phases.
Impulse. Impulse is a measure of how long a dynamic load

(including both positive and negative pressure phases) stays on a
structure or human body. This duration is usually on the order of
several milliseconds. For context, compare this to the time it takes
to blink an eye, which is approximately 200 milliseconds or 1/5th of
a second.
The duration of this positive pressure phase is based on the

detonation velocity of the explosive used. This is measured as
impulse time. The faster the detonation velocity, the shorter the
pressure wave or impulse time; the slower the detonation velocity,
the longer the pressure wave or impulse time and the more
damage that can occur to property and individuals.

Slide 3-50 Video: Reflected Pressure
This video depicts a detonation of 70 grains (4.535 grams) of PETN

(pentaerythritol tetranitrate), placed in a room at 4 feet above the
floor directly on a wall. While this is a very small charge, it
illustrates the predictable and unpredictable routes of pressure. The
green color indicates 1 psi while the red color represents 7 psi.
Notice how the pressure travels through the main room and to the
other rooms and the reflective pressure rebuilds in strength off the
walls, bouncing back and forth. The color changes from green to
yellow and reds to represent the increasing pressure.21 The location
of the red color illustrates how explosive waves want to fight for the
path of least resistance, and tend to gather in corners.
In a possible pre-detonation scenario, first responders should

be aware of danger zones in their environment, and make
efforts to stay away from corners or T-hallways. If possible,
opening doors and windows can be a way of assisting in
mitigating some internal reflective overpressures.
21
FEMA, (2003). Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings. Risk Management
Series FEMA 426, Ch 4. Retrieved from http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1455-20490-
7465/fema426_ch4.pdf

Slide 3-51 Understanding Reflected Pressure
This slide depicts how reflected pressure, to which a first responder

or bystander might be exposed, is increased when a bomb
detonates near or inside structures.
Reflected pressure is the term used to describe what occurs when

incident pressure (positive or negative) impacts and reflects off a
structure. Because the pressure is reflected and reinforced,
reflected pressure is always greater than the incident pressure at
the same distance from the explosion. Reflective pressure is
generally 2 to 9 times greater depending on the surface off of which
it is reflecting. In some cases, it has been measured to be up to 13
times greater.
The reflected pressure varies with the angle of incidence of the

shock wave. When the shock wave impinges on a surface that is
perpendicular to the direction it is traveling, the point of impact will
experience the maximum reflected pressure. When the reflecting
surface is parallel to the blast wave, the minimum reflected
pressure or incident pressure will be experienced. In addition to the
angle of incidence, the magnitude of the peak reflected pressure is
dependent on the peak incident pressure, which is a function of the
net explosive weight and distance from the detonation.

This slide illustrates how reflective pressures increase when a

bomb detonates near or inside a structure. The difference of one or
two feet can be the difference between life and death. The “T”
figure is the terrorist, wearing 6 pounds of C-4 (high explosive). The
figure with the badge represents you, the first responder, or a
bystander. The upper numbers show the pressure the first
responder figure would experience at a standoff distance of 7 feet,
in a variety of settings. The bottom numbers show the pressure
experienced by the first responder if the standoff distance is
increased to 15 feet.
 The upper left illustrates open-air pressures.
 The upper right scenario has added a wall to show reflective
pressure. If you were 7 feet away and the terrorist was
against the wall, the pressure on you would be 92 psi.
 The lower left scenario shows the same scenario as the
upper right, but reversed: If the first responder were against
the wall instead of the terrorist, the pressure on the first
responder would be 264 psi.
 The lower right image shows the pressure if there are two
walls and no place for the pressure to escape.
Note that the hazards of overpressure and mitigation techniques
will be discussed in more detail in Module 6, later in the course.

SUMMARY
Slide 3-52 Summary

Slide 3-53 Summary (cont.)
These slides offer an opportunity for instructors to summarize the

key points in the module and for participants to ask questions.


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Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings

Training Support Package Participant Guide

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-1

MODULE 3 INTRODUCTION TO ENERGETIC MATERIALS –

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-2

• Digital projectors, flip-chart, and whiteboard.

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-3

Key Points/Learning Objectives: Used to highlight each time lesson content is

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-4

Slide 3-1 IRTB Module 3: Introduction to Energetic

To respond safely and effectively to a terrorist attack involving

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-5

Slide 3-2 Terminal Learning Objective

This module builds on information presented in Module 2

Module 3 provides participants with foundation knowledge that

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-6

Slide 3-3 Enabling Learning Objectives

Slide 3-4 ELOs (cont.)

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-7

3-1 Identify the three forms of energy released during explosive

3-2 Define key terms: deflagration, detonation, deflagration-to-

3-3 Identify the components of an explosive reaction: fuel, oxidizer,

3-4 Order the components of a firing train

3-6 Categorize examples of low explosives and high explosives.

3-7 Classify high explosives as primary, secondary, or tertiary.

3-8 Given images depicting explosive effects, label the following:

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-8

Slide 3-5 Course Map

Module 3 is part of the first block of modules which focus on helping

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-9

R.A.I.N. = RECOGNIZE, AVOID, ISOLATE, NOTIFY

Slide 3-6 R.A.I.N.

Why should first responders learn about energetic materials? The

R – Recognize explosive devices/components or potentially

A – Take defensive actions to avoid the hazard

I – Isolate yourself and everyone from the explosive device or

N – Notify the proper authorities to respond and render assistance.

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-10

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-11

Slide 3-7 Example: Michael Sibley Bomb Plot, 2014

This slide contains a photograph of first responder vehicles during a

On November 4, 2014, a mother and daughter were walking a trail

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-12

It was eventually revealed that the backpack contained two

An ordinary backpack found in a park with an unusual motive could

Let’s briefly review how RAIN was implemented in this case:

Recognition: A citizen reported the suspicious backpack to

Avoidance: Once the backpack and its contents were recognized

Isolate: The backpack was isolated at its location.

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-13

Notify: Notification went to additional personnel within the Roswell

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-14

Slide 3-8 Energetic Materials

As discussed in Module 2, an energetic material is a substance that

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-15

Slide 3-9 Forms of Energy Release

Energetic materials release their energy in three forms: heat, light,

We will focus on a detonation of a chemical explosive. A chemical

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-16

It is important to note that the energy released is an immediate

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 3-17

Slide 3-10 Terminology

Deflagration. Rapid burning, with intense heat and light.