Branches of physics

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Further information: Classical physics, Modern physics, and Outline of physics § Branches of
physics

Domains of major fields of physics

Physics deals with the combination of matter and energy. It also deals with a wide variety of
systems, about which theories have been developed that are used by physicists. In general, theories
are experimentally tested numerous times before they are accepted as correct as a description of
Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical
mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger
than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of
active research: for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was
discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics
by Isaac Newton (1642–1727). These "central theories" are important tools for research in more
specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate
in them.

Contents
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 1Classical mechanics
 2Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
 3Electromagnetism
 4Relativity
 5Quantum mechanics
 6Interdisciplinary fields
 7Summary
 8References

Classical mechanics[edit]
Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. It is often referred to as
"Newtonian mechanics" after Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. It also includes classical
approach as given by Hamiltonian and Lagrange methods. It deals with motion of particles and
general system of particles.

Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics[edit]

Main articles: Thermodynamics and Statistical mechanics
The first chapter of The Feynman Lectures on Physics is about the existence of atoms, which
Feynman considered to be the most compact statement of physics, from which science could easily
result even if all other knowledge was lost.[1] By modeling matter as collections of hard spheres, it is
possible to describe the kinetic theory of gases, upon which classical thermodynamics is based.
Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical
systems on the macroscopic scale, and the transfer of energy as heat.[2][3]Historically,
thermodynamics developed out of the desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.[4]
The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations is the laws of thermodynamics, which
postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat orwork.[5] They also
postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any system.[6] In
thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized.
Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles,
whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another
through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal
energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions
for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

Electromagnetism[edit]
Main article: Electromagnetism
See also: Optics
Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism
Relativity[edit]
Main articles: Special relativity and General relativity
The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with electromagnetism and mechanics; that is,
the principle of relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics can be used to
derive Maxwell's equations,[7][8] and vice versa.
The theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity
resolves an inconsistency between, Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is
based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of thelaws of physics are invariant in
all inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the
source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the
frame-dependent concept of spacetime.
General relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in
1915/16.[9][10] It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that
gravitation can be described by the curvature of space and time. In general relativity, the curvature
of spacetime is produced by the energy of matter and radiation.

Quantum mechanics[edit]
Main article: Quantum mechanics
The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density

Schrödinger equation of quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomic systems and their
interaction with radiation. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in
discrete units or bundles called "quanta". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits
only probable or statistical calculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in
terms of wave functions. The Schrödinger equation plays the role in quantum mechanics
that Newton's laws and conservation of energy serve in classical mechanics—i.e., it predicts the
future behavior of a dynamic system—and is a wave equation that is used to solve for
wavefunctions.
For example, the light, or electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by an atom has only
certain frequencies (or wavelengths), as can be seen from the line spectrum associated with the
chemical element represented by that atom. The quantum theory shows that those frequencies
correspond to definite energies of the light quanta, or photons, and result from the fact that
the electrons of the atom can have only certain allowed energy values, or levels; when an electron
changes from one allowed level to another, a quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed whose
frequency is directly proportional to the energy difference between the two levels. The photoelectric
effect further confirmed the quantization of light.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves sometimes exhibit particle-like
properties, but particles may also exhibit wave-like properties. Two different formulations of quantum
mechanics were presented following de Broglie's suggestion. The wave mechanics of Erwin
Schrödinger (1926) involves the use of a mathematical entity, the wave function, which is related to
the probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. The matrix mechanics of Werner
Heisenberg (1925) makes no mention of wave functions or similar concepts but was shown to be
mathematically equivalent to Schrödinger's theory. A particularly important discovery of the quantum
theory is the uncertainty principle, enunciated by Heisenberg in 1927, which places an absolute
theoretical limit on the accuracy of certain measurements; as a result, the assumption by earlier
scientists that the physical state of a system could be measured exactly and used to predict future
states had to be abandoned. Quantum mechanics was combined with the theory of relativity in the
formulation of Paul Dirac. Other developments include quantum statistics, quantum electrodynamics,
concerned with interactions between charged particles and electromagnetic fields; and its
generalization, quantum field theory.
Interdisciplinary fields[edit]
To the interdisciplinary fields, which define partially sciences of their own, belong e.g. the

 astrophysics, the physics in the universe, including the properties and interactions of celestial
bodies in astronomy.
 biophysics, studying the physical interactions of biological processes.
 chemical physics, the science of physical relations in chemistry.
 econophysics, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of economy.
 geophysics, the sciences of physical relations on our planet.
 medical physics, the application of physics to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
 physical chemistry, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of physical
chemistry.

Summary[edit]
The table below lists the core theories along with many of the concepts they employ.

Theory Major subtopics Concepts

Density, dimension, gravity, space, time, motion,

length, position, velocity, acceleration, Galilean
Newton's laws of
invariance, mass,momentum, impulse, force, ener
motion,Lagrangian
gy, angular velocity, angular
Classical mechanics,Hamiltonian
momentum, moment of
mechanics mechanics,kinematics, statics, dyna
inertia, torque, conservation law,harmonic
mics,chaos theory, acoustics, fluid
oscillator, wave, work, power, Lagrangian, Hamil
dynamics, continuum mechanics
tonian, Tait–Bryan angles, Euler
angles, pneumatic, hydraulic

Capacitance, electric charge, current, electrical

Electrostatics, electrodynamics,ele
Electromagnetism ctricity, magnetism,magnetostatics,
Maxwell's equations, optics
conductivity, electric field, electric
permittivity, electric potential, electrical
resistance, electromagnetic field, electromagnetic
induction, electromagnetic radiation, Gaussian
surface, magnetic field, magnetic flux, magnetic
monopole, magnetic permeability

Boltzmann's constant, conjugate

variables, enthalpy, entropy, equation of
state, equipartition theorem, thermodynamic free
Thermodynamicsa
energy, heat, ideal gas law, internal energy, laws
nd statistical Heat engine, kinetic theory
of thermodynamics, Maxwell
mechanics
relations, irreversible process, Ising
model, mechanical action, partition
function, pressure, reversible
process, spontaneous process, state

Path integral formulation,scattering constant, observer
theory, Schrödinger
Quantum
equation, quantum field
mechanics
theory,quantum statistical
mechanics
Special relativity, general
Relativity
relativity, Einstein field equations
function,statistical
ensemble, temperature, thermodynamic
equilibrium, thermodynamic
potential, thermodynamic
processes,thermodynamic state, thermodynamic
system, viscosity, volume, work, granular
material
Adiabatic approximation, black-body
radiation, correspondence principle, free
particle, Hamiltonian, Hilbert space,identical
particles, matrix mechanics, Planck's
effect, operators, quanta, quantization, quantum
entanglement, quantum harmonic
oscillator, quantum number, quantum
tunneling, Schrödinger's cat, Dirac
equation,spin, wave function, wave
mechanics, wave–particle duality, zero-point
energy, Pauli exclusion principle, Heisenberg
uncertainty principle
Covariance, Einstein manifold, equivalence
principle, four-momentum, four-vector, general
principle of relativity,geodesic
motion, gravity, gravitoelectromagnetism, inertial
frame of reference, invariance, length
contraction, Lorentzian manifold, Lorentz
transformation, mass–energy
equivalence, metric, Minkowski
diagram, Minkowski space, principle of
relativity, proper length, proper time, reference
frame, rest energy, rest mass, relativity of
simultaneity, spacetime,special principle of
relativity, speed of light, stress–energy
tensor, time dilation, twin paradox, world line