FM-20-pipe Flow

©Dr.
Avinash Chandra
Fluid Mechanics
©Dr. Avinash Chandra
Pipe Flow System
Pipe
D=2R Center
RR
R line
L
Schematic diagram of a circular pipe
▪ The energy of the system is expressed in terms of ‘head.’
2
P V
H z
g 2g
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL )
Hydraulic gradient line is the sum of pressure

head and datum head
p
HGL   h
g
where
The hydraulic grade line lies one velocity head
below the energy line.
Total energy gradient line (TEL)

▪ A line plotted of total head versus distance
through a system is called the total energy line
(TEL).
▪ The TEL is also known as energy grade line (EGL).
▪ The sum of the elevation head and pressure head
yields the hydraulic grade line (HGL).
or
TEL is equal to sum of pressure head ,velocity head and
datum head along a streamline
p v2
TEL  H  + + h  constant
g 2g
▪ In a uniform pipeline, the total shear stress (resistance to flow) is

constant along the pipe resulting in a uniform degradation of the
total energy or head along the pipeline.
▪ The total head loss along a specified length of pipeline is referred

to head loss due to friction and denoted as hf.
▪ For a fluid flow without any losses due to friction (major losses)
or components (minor losses) - the energy line would be at a
constant level. In a practical world the energy line decreases
along the flow due to losses.
▪ A turbine in the flow reduces the energy line and a pump or fan
in the line increases the energy line
HGL & TEL
7
Figure: Flow in a uniform pipeline

▪ Referring to the previous figure, the Bernoulli

equation can be written from section 1 to section
2 as;
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
 z1    z2   hf
g 2g g 2g
Types of Flow
The physical nature of fluid flow can be categorized into three
types, i.e. laminar, transition and turbulent flow. It has been
mentioned earlier that Reynolds Number (Re) can be used to
characterize these flow.
VD VD
Re  
 
where  = density
 = dynamic viscosity
 = kinematic viscosity ( = /)
V = mean velocity
D = pipe diameter
In general, flow in commercial pipes have been found to

conform to the following condition:
Laminar Flow: Re <2000

Transitional Flow : 2000 < Re <4000
Turbulent Flow : Re >4000
Laminar flow
Viscous shears dominate in this type of flow and the fluid

appears to be moving in discreet layers. The shear stress
is governed by Newton’s law of viscosity
du
 
dy
In general the shear stress is almost impossible to
measure. But for laminar flow it is possible to calculate
the theoretical value for a given velocity, fluid and the
appropriate geometrical shape.
Pressure loss during a laminar flow in a pipe
❖For ideal fluid where there is no losses due to friction or any other factors.
❖For real fluids, fluids are viscous, energy is lost by flowing fluids due to
friction which must be taken into account.
❖The effect of friction shows itself as a pressure (or head) loss.
❖The shear stress will vary with velocity of flow and hence with Re.
➢In laminar flow the paths of individual

particles of fluid do not cross, so the flow may
be considered as a series of concentric
cylinders sliding over each other – rather like
the cylinders of a collapsible pocket
telescope.
➢Lets consider a cylinder of fluid with a length
L, radius r, flowing steadily in the center of
pipe.
A typical velocity
distribution in a
pipe flow
Cylindrical of fluid flowing steadily in a pipe

The fluid is in equilibrium, shearing forces equal the pressure

forces.
Shearing force = Pressure force
  2 rL   PA  P r 2
P r

L 2
Taking the direction of measurement r (measured from the
center of pipe), rather than the use of y (measured from the
pipe wall), the above equation can be written as;
dur
  
dr
Equating these Eqs. will give: P r du
 
L 2 dr
du P r

dr L 2
In an integral form this gives an expression for velocity, with the

values of r = 0 (at the pipe center) to r = R (at the pipe wall)
P 1 r R
u
L 2 r 0
rdr
ur 
 R 2
 r 2  P
4 L
where P = change in pressure
L = length of pipe
R = pipe radius
r = distance measured from the center of pipe
The maximum velocity is at the center of the pipe, i.e. when

r = 0.
R P
2
umax 
4 L
It can be shown that the mean velocity is half the maximum
velocity, i.e.
umax
V
2
Shear stress and velocity distribution in pipe for laminar flow
The discharge may be found using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation,

which is given by the following;
P  D 4
Q
L 128
The Hagen-Poiseuille expresses the discharge Q

in terms of the pressure gradient, diameter of
pipe, and viscosity of the fluid.
where
 dP P 
Pressure gradient    
 dx L 
Pressure drop throughout the length of pipe can
then be calculated by
8 LQ
P 
R 4
Turbulent flow
In this type of flow both viscous and turbulent shear stresses exists.
Thus, the shear stress in turbulent flow is a combination of laminar and

turbulent shear stresses, and can be written as:
dU
   la min ar   turbulent     
dy
where  = dynamic viscosity

 = eddy viscosity which is not a fluid property but
depends upon turbulence condition of flow.
The velocity at any point in the cross-section will be proportional to the

one-seventh power of the distance from the wall, which can be expressed
as: 1/7
Uy  y
 
U CL R
where Uy is the velocity at a distance y from the wall, UCL is the velocity at
the centerline of pipe, and R is the radius of pipe. This equation is known
as the Prandtl one-seventh law.
the velocity profile for turbulent flow in a pipe. The shape of the profile is
said to be logarithmic.
Figure: Velocity profile for turbulent flow

Example 6.1
Glycerin ( = 1258 kg/m3, =9.60 x10-1 N.s/m2) flows
with a velocity of 3.6 m/s in a 150-mm diameter pipe.
Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Solution: VD
Re 

1258  3.6  0.15
Re  1
 708
9.60 10
Since Re =708, which is less than 2000, the flow is
laminar.
Major Losses due to friction

▪ When a liquid flows through a pipeline, shear stresses develop
between the liquid and the pipe wall.
▪ This shear stress is a result of friction, and its magnitude is

dependent upon the properties of the fluid, the speed at which
it is moving, the internal roughness of the pipe, the length and
diameter of pipe.
▪ Friction loss, also known as major loss, is a primary cause of
energy loss in a pipeline system.

Friction Losses in Laminar flow

❖In laminar flow, the fluid seems to flow as several layers, one on
another. Because of the viscosity of the fluid, a shear stress is created
between the layers of fluid.
❖Energy is lost from the fluid to overcome the frictional forces produced
by the shear stress.
❖ Energy loss is usually represented by the drop of pressure in the

direction of flow.
❖Therefore, the frictional head loss, hf, can be written in terms of

pressure drop along the pipeline, as follows:
P
hf 
g
Substituting the Hagen-Poiseuille equation and applying the

continuity equation, Q = VA, to the above resulted into the
following expression:
32 LV 64 L V 2
hf  
 gD 2
Re D 2 g
f
Friction factor
Friction Losses in Turbulent flow

▪ In turbulent flow, the friction head loss can be calculated by considering
the pressure losses along the pipelines.
▪ In a horizontal pipe of diameter D carrying a steady flow there will be a
pressure drop in a length L of the pipe.
▪ Equating the frictional resistance to the difference in pressure forces, and
manipulating resulted into the following expression:
L V2
hf  f
D 2g
This equation is known as Darcy-Weisbach (D-W) equation, in which f is the
friction factor. It should be noted that f is dimensionless, and the value is
not constant
Minor Losses
▪ In addition to head loss due to friction, there are always other
head losses due to pipe expansions and contractions, bends,
valves, and other pipe fittings. These losses are usually known
as minor losses (hLm).
▪ In case of a long pipeline, the minor losses maybe negligible

compared to the friction losses, however, in the case of short
pipelines, their contribution may be significant.
Losses due to pipe fittings
V2
hLm K
2g
where Typical K values
hLm= minor loss
Type K
K = minor loss coefficient
V = mean flow velocity Exit (pipe to tank) 1.0
Entrance (tank to pipe) 0.5
90 elbow 0.9
45 elbow 0.4
T-junction 1.8
Gate valve 0.25 - 25
Sudden Enlargement
▪ As fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through sudden
enlargement, its velocity abruptly decreases; causing turbulence that
generates an energy loss. 2
Va
▪ The minor loss (hLm)is hLm  KE
2g
where is KE is the coefficient of expansion, and the values depends on the
ratio of the pipe diameters (Da/Db) as shown below.
Da/Db 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

K 1.00 0.87 0.70 0.41 0.15
Values of KE vs. Da/Db
Sudden Contraction
The energy loss due to a sudden contraction can be calculated
using the following;
Vb 2
hLm  KC
2g
The KC is the coefficient of contraction and the values depends
on the ratio of the pipe diameter (Db/Da) as shown below.
Db/Da 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

K 0.5 0.49 0.42 0.27 0.20 0.0
Values of KC vs. Db/Da
Energy added and extracted

• A pump is a common device to which mechanical energy is applied
and transferred to the water as total head of the pump.
• The head added is called pump head (Hp), and is a function of flow
rate through the pump.
• On the other hand, fluid motor or turbines are common examples
of devices that extract energy from a fluid, and the head extracted
is called head of turbine (Ht), deliver it in a form of work.
Denoting the head loss due to friction and minor losses as HL, and
the external energy added/extracted by HE, then the Bernoulli
equation may be rewritten as
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
 z1   HE   z2   H L12
g 2g g 2g
HL1-2 = Hp (positive for pump) when the head is added to the fluid,
or HE = Ht (negative for turbine)
the total power (P) of a pump or turbine to HE or vice versa.
P = gQHE
In a pump HE = HP, the value is positive since power is added to the
fluid. In a turbine, HE = Ht is negative and power is extracted from
the flow.
The term efficiency is used to denote the ratio of the power delivered by
the pump to the fluid to the power supplied to the pump.
Power delivered to fluid P gQH p

p   
Power supplied to pump Pin Pin
The value of p is less than 1.0.
Similarly,
The efficiency of a turbine is defined as;
Power output from motor Po Po

t   
Power supplied by fluid Pt gQH t
Here again, the value of t is less than 1.0.

Pitot and Pitot-Static Tube

Pitot-Tube

ps  p  U   pt
2
35
Pitot-Static Tube
2  pM
U 

36
Venturi meter
37
38
• the fluid is accelerated by its passage through a converging cone

of angle 15o-20o.
• The pressure difference between the upstream and the throat is

measured
• The fluid is then retarded in a cone of smaller angle (5º-7º) in

which large proportion of kinetic energy is converted back to
pressure energy.
• The attraction of this meter lies in its high energy recovery so

that it may be used where only a small pressure head is available,
though its construction is expensive.
39
Friction is neglected, the meter is assumed to be horizontal.
If va and vb are the average upstream and downstream velocities,

respectively, and  is the density of the fluid,
vb2 - va2 = 2(pa - pb)/

The continuity equation can be written as,
va = (Db/Da)2 vb = b2 vb
where Da = diameter of pipe
Db = diameter of throat of meter
b = diameter ratio, Db/Da
If va is eliminated from above equations, the result is
40
• This equation applies strictly to the frictionless flow of non-

compressible fluids.
• To account for the small friction loss between locations a and b is
corrected by introducing an empirical factor Cv.
• The coefficient Cv is determined experimentally. It is called the
venturi coefficient,
• For a well designed venturi, the constant Cv is about 0.98 for
pipe diameters of 2 to 8 inch and about 0.99 for larger sizes.
therefore.......
Cv 2( p a  pb )
 vb 
1 b 4 
41
Orifice Meter
• The venturi meter described earlier is a reliable
flow measuring device.
– Furthermore, it causes little pressure loss.
– For these reasons it is widely used, particularly for

large-volume liquid and gas flows.
– However this meter is relatively complex to construct

and hence expensive.
• Especially for small pipelines, its cost seems

prohibitive, so simpler devices such as orifice
meters are used.
42
The orifice meter has several practical advantages when

compared to venturi meters.
• Lower cost
• Smaller physical size
• Flexibility to change throat to pipe diameter ratio to
measure a larger range of flow rates
Disadvantage:
• Large power consumption in the form of
irrecoverable pressure loss
43
Orifice Meter
The orifice meter consists of an

accurately machined and drilled plate
concentrically mounted between two
flanges. The position of the pressure
taps is somewhat arbitrary.
44
• The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a

circular hole drilled in it.
• There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and

another just downstream.
• The principle of the orifice meter is identical with that of

the venturi meter.
• Bernoulli's equation provides a basis for correlating the

increase in velocity head with the decrease in pressure
head.
45
• Similar to venturi meter………
therefore.......
Co 2( p a  pb )
 vb 
1 b 4 
• where…. b= (orifice dia / tank dia)

• Co = orifice coefficient (0.51-0.61)
46
Rotameters
Rotameters fall into the category of flow measurement
devices called variable area meters. These devices have
nearly constant pressure and depend on changing cross
sectional area to indicate flow rate. Rotameters are
extremely simple, robust devices that can measure flow
rates of both liquids and gasses.
Fluid flows up through the tapered tube and suspends a

‘float’ in the column of fluid. The position of the float
indicates the flow rate on a marked scale.
47
Three types of forces must be accounted

for when analyzing rotameter performance:
• Flow Buoyancy
• Gravity
Gravity
• Buoyancy
For our analysis neglect drag effect
Flow
48
49
Mass Balance
Assume Gradual Taper
V1S  V2 S
Q
V1  V2 
S
Flow Between Float and Tube
Q S
V3   V1
S  S f  S3
S3 is annular flow area at plane 3
50
Momentum Balance
Note:
• p3 = p2
• Must account for force due to float
 QV3  V1    p1  p2 S   g zS  V f   f gV f
p  S  gV f  b   
2
 Q 1   
 gz   
 S  S3  S 
51
Mechanical Energy Balance

p
ˆ 1 2
 
W  V3  V1  gz 
2
2

 hf
0
V32
Assume: hf  KR (Base velocity head on smallest flow area)
2
p 
1 2  S 
2
 S 
2

 gz  V1  V1    K RV1   
 2
  2
 2  S3   S3  
 
52
Combining Momentum and Mechanical Energy Balance
 Q  
2
S  gV f b    1  Q   2
S  
2
  1       1  1  K R   
 S   S3  S  2 S    S3  
 
After Some Manipulation
S Sf 2 gV f  f  
Q  S3
1  K R S S f  
2
Sf
53
Assuming Sf ≈ S a discharge coefficient can be defined
CR  1  K R 
1 2
2 gV f  f  
Q  S 3C R
Sf 
CR must be determined experimentally. As Q increases the float

rides higher, the assumption that Sf = S is poorer, and the previous
expression is more nearly correct.
54

FM-20-pipe Flow

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

FM-20-pipe Flow

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

©Dr.

Pipe Flow System

▪ The energy of the system is expressed in terms of ‘head.’

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL )

Hydraulic gradient line is the sum of pressure

Total energy gradient line (TEL)

▪ In a uniform pipeline, the total shear stress (resistance to flow) is

▪ The total head loss along a specified length of pipeline is referred

HGL & TEL

Figure: Flow in a uniform pipeline

▪ Referring to the previous figure, the Bernoulli

In general, flow in commercial pipes have been found to

Laminar Flow: Re <2000

Viscous shears dominate in this type of flow and the fluid

Pressure loss during a laminar flow in a pipe

❖The effect of friction shows itself as a pressure (or head) loss.

➢In laminar flow the paths of individual

Cylindrical of fluid flowing steadily in a pipe

The fluid is in equilibrium, shearing forces equal the pressure

In an integral form this gives an expression for velocity, with the

The maximum velocity is at the center of the pipe, i.e. when

Shear stress and velocity distribution in pipe for laminar flow

The discharge may be found using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation,

The Hagen-Poiseuille expresses the discharge Q

Thus, the shear stress in turbulent flow is a combination of laminar and

where  = dynamic viscosity

The velocity at any point in the cross-section will be proportional to the

Figure: Velocity profile for turbulent flow

Major Losses due to friction

▪ This shear stress is a result of friction, and its magnitude is

▪ Friction loss, also known as major loss, is a primary cause of

energy loss in a pipeline system.

Friction Losses in Laminar flow

❖ Energy loss is usually represented by the drop of pressure in the

❖Therefore, the frictional head loss, hf, can be written in terms of

Substituting the Hagen-Poiseuille equation and applying the

Friction Losses in Turbulent flow

▪ In case of a long pipeline, the minor losses maybe negligible

Losses due to pipe fittings

Da/Db 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Db/Da 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Energy added and extracted

Power delivered to fluid P gQH p

Power output from motor Po Po

Here again, the value of t is less than 1.0.

Pitot and Pitot-Static Tube

• the fluid is accelerated by its passage through a converging cone

• The pressure difference between the upstream and the throat is

• The fluid is then retarded in a cone of smaller angle (5º-7º) in

• The attraction of this meter lies in its high energy recovery so

Friction is neglected, the meter is assumed to be horizontal.

If va and vb are the average upstream and downstream velocities,

vb2 - va2 = 2(pa - pb)/

• This equation applies strictly to the frictionless flow of non-

– For these reasons it is widely used, particularly for

– However this meter is relatively complex to construct

• Especially for small pipelines, its cost seems

The orifice meter has several practical advantages when

The orifice meter consists of an

• The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a

• There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and

• The principle of the orifice meter is identical with that of

• Bernoulli's equation provides a basis for correlating the