2.2.

1 CONCEPT OF AGGREGATE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Aggregate that used in concrete mixture is an inert rock that will not react with other
substances in concrete mixture. Aggregate in concrete can be categorized to two which are
coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. Aggregate is one of the most important material in a
mixture as it covers about 60 - 85% of the total amount of material that was used. In addition,
aggregates also play an important role in the influence of wet and hard concrete properties,
mixed mixtures and cost of concrete mixes designed. Concrete compression strength will also
be affected by the aggregate strength, aggregate shape and texture, size distribution, aggregate
size and aggregate moisture content that were used.

Usually aggregates that used in concrete mixtures were obtained from different types
of rocks that had different mechanical properties. Therefore, the level of strength and durability
of the concrete will also affect the type and properties of the aggregate mechanical that were
used. Furthermore, the aggregates must free from contaminated materials or alien substances
such as clay and ion chloride because the material can affects the quality of the concrete that
was made. For example, if the aggregate was covered by the clay, the bond of adhesiveness
between the aggregate and the concrete mixture will be lesser. This will cause the decreasing
of the strength of the concrete. Otherwise if the content of ion chloride in the aggregate is very
high, this can lead corrosion to the reinforcement bar for concrete reinforcement structure.

Generally, the main role of the aggregate in the concrete mixture are to give strength to
the concrete, reduce shrinkage and deformation and reducing the cost of to make concrete.
Clean and high quality aggregates possess high hardness, have a dense microstructure that can
produce high strength and durability concrete as well as reduce the occurrence of shrinkage in
concrete which can lead cracking. Usually aggregate that was used in the mixture were obtained
from the quarry through crashing process, washing and grading according the various types of
size. The selection of the types and sizes of aggregate to be used usually based on the strength
of the concrete that were needed. For example, to produce a normal strength concrete mixture
(Grade 30), usually the nominal size of the course aggregate need to be used is 20 mm.
Otherwise, to produce the high strength concrete mixture (Grade 60) the smaller size of the
aggregate, 10 mm is suitable and need to be use. It is because the smaller size of the aggregate,
the probability of being wrecked or failed at low loads is lesser than the larger size of the
aggregate. Table 2.2.1.1 below shows the Grade of concrete :

2.2.1.1 Grade Of Concrete

2.2.2 CATEGORY OF AGGREGATE

Various types of aggregate can be used in the construction industry. However, the
aggregate suitability depends on characteristics of the aggregates and the need of their usage
either for members who will bear the burden or not. Generally, aggregate that were used in the
construction industry can be classified into few groups below:

1) Ordinary Aggregates
 This aggregate was obtained from natural sources such as granite and limestone.
these type of aggregate especially granite mostly used in the construction
industry due to its high quality. Besides laterite stones that have undergo
sufficient weathering process can also be used in producing ordinary strength
concrete mixtures. Diagram 2.2.2.1 show Granite, Limestone, Laterite Stone.

Diagram 2.2.2.1

Granite stones Limestone Laterite Stone

2) Synthetic Aggregate

This aggregate was made from other materials such as clay, lightweight
aggregate and blance furnance slag and steel. This aggregate usually used to
produce a special concrete such as lightweight concrete because this aggregate
allows water to absorbed through stones pores. Diagram 2.2.2.2 shows the
blance furnance slag and steel process.

Diagram 2.2.2.2

3) Recycled Aggregate
 This aggregate was obtained and produced from wastage material such as concrete
sample from concrete building that have been demolished or used brick. Besides
that, waste products such as palm shells can also be used as a lightweight aggregate
to produce a lightweight concrete. The usage of recycling aggregate can reduce the
material disposal problem while reducing the dependency on natural aggregates that
nowadays are decreased.

The usage of aggregates other than regular aggregates is expected to increase gradually
as the supply of regular quality aggregate is decreasing due to the rate of construction of
infrastructure that increasing rapidly. Ordinary aggregate that being used in concrete mixture
can be separated into two category based on its size, that are coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate. Course aggregate usually referred as stone while fine aggregate was referred as sand.
In a concrete mixture design, both coarse aggregates and fine aggregates should be used since
their combinations will make the concrete microstructure denser and stronger. If the coarse
aggregate only being used in concrete mixtures. A lot of voids will be generated in concrete as
shown in fig. 2.2.2.3. This condition will cause the concrete to be unable to handle a high load
beside disturbed the durability of the concrete.

Diagram 2.2.2.3

Voids

When coarse aggregate and fine aggregate were used, the smaller size aggregate can
fill or insert into the space or void between coarse aggregate and reduce voids in the aggregate
that shows in diagram 2.2.2.4. This situation can make concrete more compact and decrease
the effect of deformation from the shrinkage as well as improve the strength and the durability
of the concrete. Besides that, the combination of coarse and fine aggregate was very important
because it can reduce voids and improve the rate of concrete compactness when harden.

Diagram 2.2.2.4: Combinations of coarse and fine aggregate

2.2.3 COARSE AGGREGATE

Coarse aggregate or stone usually sized bigger than 5 mm. The nominal size of coarse
aggregate that usually used in the concrete mixture are 10 mm or 20 mm. Using bigger size
aggregate over than 20 mm will make construction process difficult. Therefore, 20 mm size
coarse aggregate usually used in ordinary concrete mixture such as Grade 30 concrete. Based
on guided source or source of aggregates obtained coarse aggregate can be classified as
crushed and non-crushed. The usage of them of whether an aggregate crushed or non-crushed
will affect the workability and concrete strength. Crush coarse aggregate that usually
obtained from the quarry using solving process were change into various size and have
dimensional shape with a rough. Because of its rough surfaces and dimensional shape, it can
reduce the workability of the concrete. However, the strength of the concrete will increase
because the bond of adhesiveness between aggregate surface and cement mixture become
stronger. While non-crush coarse aggregate usually obtained from the river and have a
smooth surface as rounded shape dimension. This aggregate will improve the workability
concrete because of its rounded shape and smooth surface. However, the strength of the
concrete is lower than the crush coarse aggregate because the bond of adhesiveness between
cement mixture and aggregate is low. Because of that, the right decision on choosing types of
aggregate is important in concrete mix design. Usually the types of crush aggregate that
usually used in the construction because their characteristics are better and easy to get than
non-crush aggregate.

2.2.4 FINE AGGREGATE

Fine aggregate or sand contains particle size less than 5 mm and usually
obtained from the river or quarry. This aggregate serves to insert or fulfilled the voids that
occur between the aggregate coarse to make the concrete more compact. Fine aggregate is
same as coarse aggregate, that can be obtained in crush and non-crush form based on the
source obtained. Fine aggregate that used in concrete mixture must free from ion chloride
because it can corrosion on reinforcement bar. Because of that, sand beach or sand that
exposed to sea water not suitable to be used in concrete mixture because high of ion chloride
that can cause problem to the built concrete structure.
 2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATE

The characteristics of wet and hard concrete were affected by affected by the
physical properties of aggregates used. There are some physical properties of the
aggregates that will affect the properties of the concrete that are the crushed strength,
density and porosity and the shape and the texture of the aggregate.

1) Crushed Strength

Aggregates with high crushing strength can produce stronger concrete than
aggregates with low crushing strength. For example, granite type aggregates
have higher crushing strength than the laterite aggregates. The strength level
of a concrete mixture usually was determined by the level of aggregate
strength used. Usually the level of compaction strength of the concrete can be
achieved does not exceed the strength of crushed aggregate.

2) Density

Aggregates with high density will produce concrete with strong and durability
form. The higher the value of the aggregate density means the aggregate will
have solid microstructure. This aggregate will be able to bear higher loads. For
example, ordinary aggregate such as granite has a bulk density value that is
2300 kg/m3 which yields a stronger concrete compared to a light-weight
aggregate with a 1200 kg/m3 bulk density.

3) Porosity

Aggregate that contain high porosity or voids cannot accommodate high

compressive strength. For example, generally the light-weight aggregates that
has a high porosity is not strong as normal aggregates. Diagram 2.3.1 shows
example that too many voids can lead the porosity and less strength
 aggregates. However, this such porous aggregate is suitable for concrete
mixtures that will be used as insulation and does not hold any loads.

Diagram 2.3.1 shows voids in the aggregate that can lead porosity

4) Shape and texture

Aggregates that are round, rectangular and flaky will produce stronger concrete
than the aggregate having a rigid shape. This is because the aggregate has a
shreded and elongated shape can breaks easily or broken rather than round and
square aggregates when they were bear to a load. Diagram 2.3.2 shows shape of
coarse aggregate that are elongated, flaky, angular, rounded.

Diagram 2.3.2 Various shapes of coarse aggregate

 Besides that, a rough aggregate surface such as crushed aggregates will increase
the strength of the concrete because the adhesion between the cement mixture with the
aggregates is stronger than the non-crushed aggregate. The non-crushed aggregate not
only has a round shape but it also has a smooth surface due to its natural process of how
the aggregate was formed. Therefore, the election of rough and non -slip aggregate
surface texture is important in the concrete mix design process so that the strength that
required can be achieved.

2.4 AGGREGATE MOISTURE

The aggregate moisture condition that used in the mixture indirectly will affects
the concrete's characteristics whether it wet or dry. This is because one of the main
factors that will affect the strength of concrete is the amount of free water content that
found in the concrete mixture. Generally, the moisture condition of the aggregate is
divided into two, the moisture that absorbed in the aggregate and moisture that found
on the aggregate surface or can be called as free moisture as shown in diagram 2.4.1

Absorbent Moisture Free Moisture

Diagram 2.4.1 Moisture category on the aggregate

2.4.1 Absorbent Moisture

Absorbent moisture is the moisture that absorbed by the pores in the aggregate
until the condition of aggregate moisture reach into the saturated dry surface state. The
 moisture content contained in the aggregate is usually expressed in percentages. in the
state of the saturated dry surface, no moisture on the aggregate surface but the pores in
the aggregate are filled with moisture. This condition caused the aggregate to not absorb
the moisture or to give more moisture when used in concrete mixture.

2.4.2 Free Moisture

Free moisture is the moisture that is exist on the aggregate surface other than
the moisture that absorbed in the aggregate. Since this moisture is on the aggregate
surface, it is called as free moisture. The content free moisture should be taken count in
the concrete mixture because it will directly will affects the amount of water in the
concrete mixture. Excessive water in a concrete mixture will lead the concrete being
porous due to the exist of pores and will contributing to the reduction of strength and
durability of concrete.

2.4.3 Aggregate Moisture Condition

Aggregate moisture conditions should be take count in designing the concrete

mixtures. This is because one of the main factors that will affect the workability and
strength of concrete is the aggregate moisture conditions during the concrete mixture
process. Generally, moisture condition of coarse and fine aggregate was divided into
four categories, that are dry oven condition, dry air, saturated dry surface, and wet as
shown on diagram 2.4.2.

Diagram 2.4.2 shows the aggregate moisture condition; (a) dry oven, (b) dry air, (c) dry
surface, and (d) wet
 1) Dry oven condition

This condition occurs when all the moisture in the aggregate evaporates out due
to the dried aggregate in the oven or oven as shown in 2.4.2 (a). If this type of aggregate
is used in a concrete mixture, this aggregate will absorb some amount of water mixture.
This causes the actual content of free water in the concrete mixture decreases. Then it
will affect the workability of the concrete level and resulting the concrete are hard to
compact. Therefore, before the aggregate in dry oven conditions are used in concrete
mixtures, the amount of water needed to make the aggregate in a saturated dry surface
condition must be determined first. The amount of water need to be added to the
concrete mixture to ensure the amount of water needed from the concrete mix design
process has not changed.

2) Dry air condition

This condition occurs when the aggregates were left exposed to dry environment
state. This cause the aggregate surface to dry slightly as shown in diagram 2.4.2 (b). If
this aggregate is used in concrete mixtures, this aggregate will soak some of the water
that mixed but not as much as compared to the dry oven aggregate. The workability of
the concrete will decrease slightly while the strength and durability of the concrete will
be affected if the concrete is hard to be compacted. However, the effect is less than if
the aggregates in the dry oven conditions. This condition is the same as the dry oven
aggregate, that the necessary amount of water to make the air dry aggregate to be a dry
saturated surface condition to be counted and added to the amount of water from the
concrete mix design.

3) Dry saturated surface

This condition is an ideal aggregate state which that is practically impossible to

obtain. The aggregate in this condition is as shown in diagram 2.4.2 (c) will not affect
the amount of water mixed into the concrete mix. The aggregate use in such conditions
will result in the workability of concrete and strength of concrete as designed.

4) Wet condition

The presence of free moisture on the aggregate surface when the aggregate
becomes wet which is possibly to be exposed to the rain as shown in diagram 2.4.2
 (d). If the aggregate is used in concrete mixture, the amount of water will increase
from the mix design process because on the aggregate surface there is free water.
This condition will lead the increase on workability of concrete but strength and
durability of the concrete will decrease. Therefore, free moisture content on the
aggregate needs to be determined first before it use in the mixture. Eventually, the
calculated amount of water from the concrete mix design process should be reduced
by the amount of water free on the aggregate that is used. This is to ensure that the
amount of water in the concrete mixture does not change as designed.

Since the moisture conditions on the aggregate can affect the characteristics of
concrete made, the knowledge on how to overcome the problems that may arise
because of that is very important. Deciding on the rate aggregate moisture before
use in concrete mixture is very important in ensuring the amount of sufficient water
content same as the quantity that need to be specify in the mixture design. Table
2.4.3 shows a summary of the effects of different aggregate moisture conditions on
workability, strength and durability of concrete.

Table 2.4.3 The effects of moisture conditions in term of workability, strength and durability

Moisture Content of water (kg) Effect in term of

condition
Design Absorbed Additional Real Workability Strength
and
Durability

Dry oven 10 2 0 8 Decrease Affected

because hard
to be
compacted
Dry air 10 1 0 9 Decrease Affected
because hard
to be
compacted
Dry 10 0 0 10 Unchanged Same as
saturated designed
surface
Wet 10 0 2 12 Increase Decrease
because to
many voids
 2.5 Grading Aggregate

Diagram 2.5.1 aggregate grading conditions; (a) uniform grade, (b) one size grade, and (c)
graded gap

2.6 Sieve Analysis

The distribution of various particle sizes in an aggregate can be determined using a

sieve analysis method. Before an aggregate type whether coarse aggregate or fine aggregate
used in concrete mixture, the distribution of particle size must be determined first. It is
important to ensure that the concrete mixture design can be done correctly and the strength and
durability of concrete can be achieved. For example, to design a concrete mixture using the
Department of Environment or DoE method, the fine aggregate percentage value that exceed
600 µm sieve size should be determined before the design can be done.

This sieve analysis test is carried out using a sieve machine. A representative weighed
sample is poured into the top sieve which has the largest screen openings. Each lower sieve in
the column has smaller openings than the one above. At the base is a round pan, called the
receiver. The size of sieve is 5.00 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 µm, 300 µm, 150 µm shows
on diagram 2.6.1.

The column is typically placed in a mechanical shaker. The shaker shown on diagram
2.6.1 The shaker shakes the column, usually for some fixed amount of time. After the shaking
is complete the material on each sieve is weighed. The weight of the sample of each sieve is
then divided by the total weight to give a percentage retained on each sieve. The size of the
average particle on each sieve is then analysed to get a cut-off point or specific size range,
which is then captured on a screen.

The results of this test are used to describe the properties of the aggregate and to see if
it is appropriate for various civil engineering purposes such as selecting the appropriate
aggregate for concrete mixes and asphalt mixes as well as sizing of water production well
screens.

A suitable sieve size for the aggregate underneath the nest of sieves to collect the
aggregate that passes through the smallest. The entire nest is then agitated, and the material
whose diameter is smaller than the mesh opening pass through the sieves. After the aggregate
reaches the pan, the amount of material retained in each sieve is then weighed.

Diagram 2.6.1 Sieve openings and various sizes for sieve analysis

After the transparent cumulative percentages of each sieve are determined, the data
is compared to the limits given by the referenced by BS 882: 1992 standards for rough
grading, medium or fine categories. For example, the result of the fine aggregate sieve test
sample shows in table 2.6.2 was compared by upper and lower limit medium fine aggregate
category. Fine aggregate is said to be in that category if all the sample result located between
limit given.
 Table 2.6.2 Calculation of the result of sieve analysis

Sieve Sizes Retained Mass Percentage Cumulative Cumulative Comparison

with Medium
(g) Retained Retained Passed
Grading
(%) (%) (%) Categories

5.00 mm 6 2 2 98

2.36 mm 31 10 12 88 65 – 100

1.18 mm 30 10 22 78 45 – 100

600 µm 59 19 41 59 25 – 80

300 µm 107 35 76 24 5 - 48

150 µm 53 17 93 7

Pan 21 7 - -

Total 307 246

The sieve analysis result can be shown in graph 2.6.3. The importance of this fine
aggregate sieve analysis not only gives the distribution of various aggregate sizes but the
percentage of the transparent aggregate of 600 µm. As mentioned earlier, the 600 µm
transparent fine aggregate percentile value is important for use in the process of designing
concrete mixture using the Department of Environment (DoE). as a result of the sieve
analysis results can also provide value of aggregate fineness modules. The modulus of this
fineness is calculated by dividing the cumulative number of retained percentages by 100. For
example, the result of the sieve analysis shown in table 2.6.2 shows the fine modulus of fine
aggregate is 2.46. The value of fineness modulus will indicate the aggregate roughness level
in a sample. The results of the calculation of the modulus indicate that the higher the value of
fineness modulus the roughness of the aggregate condition in the sample.
Cumulative Passed (%)

Sample

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

Sieve Size (mm)