Dr.

Gaur Hari Singhania

Institute Of
Management & Research

Term Paper
Computer Application

“OPERATING SYSTEM”

Submitted to – Submitted by-

Mr. Shashikant K. Dixit Gautam Macker 195
Assistant Professor, Vaibhav Mehta 213
(Information Technology) MBA (Part Time),
Batch No. – 10th (2008-11)

Submitted on – November 12, 2008

 Operating
system
INTRODUCTION
In the early days of computer use, computers were huge machine,
which were expensive to buy, run and maintain. The user at the time
interacted directly with the hardware through machine language. A
software was required which could perform basic task, such as
recognising input from the keyboard, sending output to the display
screen, keeping track of file and directories on the disk, and controlling
peripheral devices such as printer and scanner. The search for such
software led to the evolution of modern day operating system (OS).
This software is loaded onto the top of memory and performs the
entire aforeside basic task. Initially, the operating system’s interface
was only character-based. This interface provides the user with a
command prompt. And the user has to type all the commands to
perform various functions. As a result, the user had to memorise many
commands. With the advancement in technology, operating system
became even more user-friendly by providing graphical user interface
(GUI). The GUI-based operating system allows manipulation of
software by using visual objects such as windows, pull-down menus,
mouse pointers, and icon. Consequently, operating the computer
became easy and intuitive.

Definition
An Operating System (OS) is a computer program that manages the
hardware and software resources of a computer. At the foundation of
all system software, the OS performs basic tasks such as controlling
and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input
and output devices, facilitating networking, and managing files. It also
may provide a graphical user interface for higher level functions.

A typical vision of computer architecture as a series of abstraction

layers
 O.S.

Kernel

Assembler

Firmware

Hardware

Evolution of program to assist in operations

such as input and output. At this
stage, operating systems were
Operating very diverse,` with each vendor
producing on or more operating
Systems system specific to its particular
hardware. Typically, every time
In the early days the computer
new hardware architecture was
lacked from the operating
introduced, there was a need of
system. The user would arrive at
new operating system
the machine armed with his
compatible with the new
program and data, often on
architecture. This state of affairs
punched paper tabe. The
continued until 1960s when IBM
program would be loaded into
developed the s/360 series of
the machine, and the machine
machine. Although there were
set to work. Then came machine
enormous performance
with libraries of support code
differences across the range, all
(initial operating system), which
the machines ran essentially the
were linked to the user’s
same operating system called like 386, 486, and Pentium
s/360. series by Intel, the whole
computing world got a new
Then came the small 4bit and dimension. AT&T and Microsoft
8bit processors known as came up with character-based
microprocessors. The operating system, namely, UNIX
development of microprocessors and disk operating system,
provided inexpensive computing which supported the prevalent
for the small business. This led hardware architectures. After
to the widespread use to the character-based operating
interchangeable hardware systems, Microsoft and Apple
components using a common Macintosh came with their
interconnection and thus an window 3.1 and MAC, which
increasing need for operating were GUI-based operating
system to control them. systems and well suited for
desktop pc market. Today,
The most important of the early operating such as windows XP
operating system was CP/M-80 and Red Hat Linux have taken
for the 8080/8085/Z-80 the driver’s seat in personal
microprocessor. With the desktops.
development of microprocessor

CUI vs GUI
Operating Systems
Character User Interface is a basic

command-line interface between the user

and the OS. A user has to learn and Graphical User Interface provides the

memorize the command in order to use user a much simpler interface where a

the OS effectively. The commands are user can use the mouse to point and click

written in basic text form and various icons, buttons and other visual

applications are initialized using control to interact with the OS. Here, the

commands. user is not required to remember any

command and hence reduces the chances

Example of CUI based Operating to make mistake.

Systems: The GUI relies on various events

MS-DOS, UNIX etc. performed by the user such as, mouse

click, double click, mouse drag, mouse

hover etc.

FUNCTIONS OF
OPERATING SYSTEM
 • PROCESS MANAGEMENT
• MEMORY MANAGEMENT
• DISK AND FILE MANAGEMENT
• NETWORKING
• SECURITY
• GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
• DEVICE DRIVERS

PROCESS
MANAGEMENT

The OS must allocate resources to share and exchange

to processes, enable processes information, protect the
resources of each process from problems, it is required to monitor
other processes and enable and control the various programs
synchronisation among executing on the processor in a
processes. To meet these systematic way. The concept of
requirements, the OS must process provides the foundation
maintain a data structure for each process consists of the following
process, which describes the state three components.
and resource ownership of that • An executable program
process and which enables the OS • The associated data needed by
to exert control over each process. program
It is somewhat more general term • Execution context of program
than job. Process is a program that Execution context includes the
is in execution. Three major lines of information that the Operating
computer system development System needs to manage the
created problems in timing and process and that the processor
synchronization that contributed to needs to properly execute the
the development of the concept of process. If two processes A and B
the process.Multiprogramming exist in a portion of the main
batch processing, time sharing and memory, each process is recorded
real time transaction. The design of in process list, which is maintained
system software to co-ordinate the by Operating System. Process
various activities turned out to be index register contain the index in
difficult. With many jobs in to the process list of the process
progress at any one time, each of currently controlling the processor,
which involved numerous steps to Program counter points to the next
be performed in sequence, it instruction in that process to be
became impossible to analyze all executed. Base and limit register
the possible combination of defines the region in memory
sequences of events. So many occupied by the process. Thus
errors were detected which were process is realized as a data
difficult to diagnose because they structure. A process can either be
needed to be distinguished from executing or awaiting execution.
application software errors and The entire state of process is
hardware errors. To tackle these contained in its context.
 accessible in various ways by
MEMORY various users.
Long term storage: Many users
MANAGEMENT and application require means for
Users need a computing storing information for extended
environment that supports the periods.
flexible use of data, efficient and
orderly control of storage Operating Systems meet these
allocation. An OS, to satisfy these requirements with the concept of
requirements has five principal Virtual Memory and file system
storage management facilities. Virtual Memory is a
responsibilities. facility that allows program to
Process Isolation: An OS must address memory from a logical
prevent independent process from point of view without regard to the
interfacing with data & memory of amount of main memory physically
each other. available. When a program is
Automatic Allocation & executing only a portion of
Management: Programs should program and data may actually be
be dynamically allocated memory maintained in main memory. Other
across the memory is required. OS portions of program and data are
can achieve efficiency by assigning kept in blocks in disk itself and will
memory to jobs only as needed. be brought to main memory
Support of Modular whenever its execution is required.
Programming: Programmers Operating System must support a
should be able to define program variety of protection and security
modules and to create, destroy and mechanism to computer system
alter the size of modules and the information stored in them.
dynamically. Some overall protection policies
Protection and Access Control: are:
Sharing of memory at any level of • Processes are completely isolated
memory hierarchy. OS must allow from each other and each process
portions of memory to be has exclusive control over
resources statically or dynamically concerning which users have
assigned to it. access to which classifications
• No sharing originals of program • Access Control : Is concerned
or data files with regulating user access to the
• Controlled information total system,
dissemination: Users and sub systems, and data, and
applications are given security regulating process access to
clearances of a certain level, various resources and
whereas data and other resources objects within the system
(e.g., I/O devices) are given • Information flow control :
security classifications. The Regulates the low of data within
security policy enforces restrictions the system & Delivery to users

DISK AND FILE

MANAGEMENT
Access to files stored on disks is a Early operating systems generally
central feature of all operating supported a single type of disk
systems. Computers store data drive and only one kind of file
on disks using files, which are system. Early file systems were
structured in specific ways in order limited in their capacity, speed,
to allow for faster access, higher and in the kinds of file names and
reliability, and to make better use directory structures they could use.
out of the drive's available space. These limitations often reflected
The specific way in which files are limitations in the operating
stored on a disk is called a file systems they were designed for,
system, and enables files to have making it very difficult for an
names and attributes. It also allows operating system to support more
them to be stored in a hierarchy of than one file system.
directories or folders arranged in
While many simpler operating
a directory tree.
systems support a limited range of
options for accessing storage
systems, more modern operating used to translate the commands
systems like UNIX & Linux support used to access each specific file
a technology known as a virtual file system into a standard set of
system or VFS. A modern operating commands that the operating
system like UNIX supports a wide system can use to talk to all file
array of storage devices, systems. Programs can then deal
regardless of their design or file with these files systems on the
systems to be accessed through a basis of filenames, and
common application programming directories/folders, contained
interface (API). This makes it within a hierarchical structure.
unnecessary for programs to have
any knowledge about the device
they are accessing. A VFS allows
the operating system to provide
programs with access to an
unlimited number of devices with SECURITY
an infinite variety of file systems
installed on them through the use MANAGEMENT
of specific drivers and file system
A computer being secure depends
drivers.
on a number of technologies
A connected storage device such
working properly. A modern
as a hard drive is accessed through
operating system provides access
a device driver. The device driver
to a number of resources, which
understands the specific language
are available to software running
of the drive and is able to translate
on the system, and to external
that language into a standard
language used by the operating devices like networks via the

system to access all disk drives. On kernel.

UNIX this is the language of block

The operating system must be
devices. When the kernel has an
capable of distinguishing between
appropriate device driver in place,
requests which should be allowed
it can then access the contents of
to be processed, and others which
the disk drive in raw format, which
should not be processed. While
may contain one or more file
some systems may simply
systems. A file system driver is
distinguish between "privileged"
and "non-privileged", systems External requests are often passed
commonly have a form of through device drivers to the
requester identity, such as a user operating system's kernel, where
name. To establish identity there they can be passed onto
may be a process of applications, or carried out
authentication. Often a username directly...
must be quoted, and each
Network services include offerings
username may have a password.
such as file sharing, print services,
Other methods of authentication,
email, web sites, and file transfer
such as magnetic cards or
protocols (FTP), most of which can
biometric data, might be used
have compromised security. At the
instead. In some cases, especially
front line of security are hardware
connections from the network,
devices known as firewalls or
resources may be accessed with no
intrusion detection/prevention
authentication at all (such as
systems. At the operating system
reading files over a network share).
level, there are a number of
In addition to the allow/disallow software firewalls available, as well
model of security, a system with a as intrusion detection/prevention
high level of security will also offer systems. Most modern operating
auditing options. These would allow systems include a software firewall,
tracking of requests for access to which is enabled by default. A
resources (such as, "who has been software firewall can be configured
reading this file?"). Internal to allow or deny network traffic to
security, or security from an or from a service or application
already running program is only running on the operating system.
possible if all possibly harmful Therefore, one can install and be
requests must be carried out running an insecure service, such
through interrupts to the operating as Telnet or FTP, and not have to
system kernel. If programs can be threatened by a security breach
directly access hardware and because the firewall would deny all
resources, they cannot be secured. traffic trying to connect to the
service on that port. Security of
External security involves a request
operating systems has long been a
from outside the computer, such as
concern because of highly sensitive
a login at a connected console or
some kind of network connection.
data held on computers, both of a
commercial and military nature.
GRAPHICAL USER
INTERFACE (GUI)
Most modern computer systems
support graphical user
interfaces (GUI), and often include
them. In some computer systems,
such as the original
implementations of Windows and
the Mac OS, the GUI is integrated
into the kernel.
While technically a graphical user
interface is not an operating
system service, incorporating
support for one into the operating
system kernel can allow the GUI to
be more responsive by reducing
the number of context
switches required for the GUI to
perform its output functions. Other
operating systems are modular,
separating the graphics subsystem
from the kernel and the Operating
System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS
and many others had operating
systems that were built this way.
GNU/Linux and Mac OS X are also
built this way. Modern releases of
Microsoft Windows such
as Windows Vista implement a
graphics subsystem that is mostly
in user-space; however versions
between Windows NT
4.0 and Windows Server 2003's
graphics drawing routines exist
mostly in kernel space. Windows
9x had very little distinction
between the interface and the
kernel.
Many computer operating systems
allow the user to install or create
any user interface they desire.
The X Window System in
conjunction with GNOME or KDE is
a commonly-found setup on most
Unix and Unix-like (BSD,
GNU/Linux, Minix) systems. A
number of Windows shell
replacements have been released
for Microsoft Windows, which offer
alternatives to the
includedWindows shell, but the
shell itself cannot be separated
from Windows.
Numerous Unix-based GUIs have
existed over time, most derived
from X11. Competition among the
various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM,
Sun) led to much fragmentation,
though an effort to standardize in
the 1990s to COSE and CDE failed
for the most part due to various
reasons, eventually eclipsed by the
widespread adoption of GNOME
and KDE. Prior to open source-
based toolkits and desktop
environments, Motif was the
prevalent toolkit/desktop
combination (and was the basis
upon which CDE was developed).
Graphical user interfaces evolve
over time. For example, Windows
has modified its user interface
almost every time a new major
version of Windows is released,
and the Mac OS GUI changed
dramatically with the introduction
of Mac OS X in 2001.

NETWORKING

Currently most operating systems resources were connected directly

support a variety of networking to the local computer. This includes
protocols, hardware, and everything from simple
applications for using them. This communication, to using
means that computers running networked file systems or even
dissimilar operating systems can sharing another computer's
participate in a graphics or sound hardware. Some
common network for sharing network services allow the
resources such as computing, files, resources of a computer to be
printers, and scanners using either accessed transparently, such
wired or wireless connections. as SSH which allows networked
Networks can essentially allow a users direct access to a computer's
computer's operating system to command line interface.
access the resources of a remote
Client/server networking involves a
computer to support the same
program on a computer
functions as it could if those
somewhere which connects via a
network to another computer, Many operating systems support
called a server. Servers, usually one or more vendor-specific or
running on UNIX or Linux, offer (or open networking protocols well, for
host) various services to other example, SNA on IBM systems,
network computers and users. DECnet on systems from Digital
Equipment Corporation, and
Microsoft-specific protocols (SMB)
on Windows. Specific protocols for
specific tasks may also be

These services are usually provided supported such as NFS for file

through ports or numbered access access.

points beyond the server's network Protocols like ESound, or can be

address. Each port number is easily extended over the network
usually associated with a maximum to provide sound from local
of one running program, which is applications, on a remote system's
responsible for handling requests sound hardware.
to that port.

A daemon, being a user program,

can in turn access the local
hardware resources of that
computer by passing requests to
the operating system kernel.

DEVICE
DRIVERS
devices. Typically this constitutes
an interface for communicating
A device driver is a specific type of
with the device, through the
computer software developed to
specific computer bus or
allow interaction with hardware
communications subsystem that
the hardware is connected to, manufacturers that provide more
providing commands to and/or reliable or better performance and
receiving data from the device, and these newer models are often
on the other end, the requisite controlled differently. Computers
interfaces to the operating system
and software applications. It is a
and their operating systems cannot
specialized hardware-dependent
be expected to know how to
computer program which is also
control every device, both now and
operating system specific that
in the future. To solve this problem,
enables another program, typically
OSes essentially dictate how every
an operating system or
type of device should be controlled.
applications software package or
The function of the device driver is
computer program running under
then to translate these OS
the operating system kernel, to
mandated function calls into device
interact transparently with a
specific calls. In theory a new
hardware device, and usually
device, which is controlled in a new
provides the requisite interrupt
manner, should function correctly if
handling necessary for any
a suitable driver is available. This
necessary asynchronous time-
new driver will ensure that the
dependent hardware interfacing
device appears to operate as usual
needs.
from the operating systems' point
The key design goal of device
of view for any person.
drivers is abstraction. Every model
of hardware (even within the same
class of device) is different. Newer Thank You
models also are released by