Chapter
Fluid Flow
The flow of compressible and non-compressible liq-
uids, gases, vapors, suspensions, slurries and many other
fluid systems has received sufficient study to allow definite
evaluation of conditions for a variety of process situations
for Newtonian fluids. For the non-Newtonian fluids, con-
siderable data is available. However, its correlation is not
as broad in application, due to the significant influence of
physical and rheological properties. This presentation is
limited to Newtonian systems, except where noted.
Primary emphasis is given to flow through circular
pipes or tubes since this is the usual means of movement
of gases and liquids in process plants. Flow through duct
systems is treated with the fan section of Compression in
Volume 3.
Scope
The scope of this chapter emphasizes applied design
techniques for 85%+ of the usual situations occurring in
the design and evaluation of chemical and petrochemical
plants for pressure and vacuum systems (see Figure 2-1).
Whereas computer methods have been developed to
handle many of the methods described here, it is the
intent of this chapter to present only design methods per
se that may be applied to computer programming. First,
however, a thorough understanding of design methods,
their fundamental variations and limitations is critical.
There is a real danger in losing sight of the required
results of a calculation when the computer program is
"hidden" from the user and the user becomes too enam-
ored with the fact that the calculations were made on a
computer. A good designer must know the design details
built into the computer program before "blindly" using it
and its "cold" results. There are many programs for
process design that actually give incorrect results because
the p r o g r a m m e r was not sufficiently familiar with the
design procedures and end limits/limitations of the
52
method. Then, when such programs are purchased by
others, or used in-house by others, some serious and
erroneous design results can be generated. On the other
hand, many design procedures that are complicated and
require successive approximation (such as distillation)
but are properly programmed, can be extremely valuable
to the design engineers.
Except as a limited reference, computer programs are
not emphasized anywhere in these volumes. Instead,
important mechanical details are given to emphasize the
mechanical application of the process requirements (see
Figure 2-2). Many of these details are essential to the prop-
erfunctioning of the process in the hardware. For two funda-
mental aspects of fluid flow, see Figures 2-1 and 2-3.
Basis
The basis for single-phase and some two-phase friction
loss (pressure drop) for fluid flow follows the Darcy and
Fanning concepts. The exact transition from laminar or
viscous flow to the turbulent condition is variously identi-
fied as between a Reynolds n u m b e r of 2000 and 4000.
For an illustration of a portion of a plant piping system
(see Figure 2-2).
Incompressible Flow
For liquids, laminar or turbulent flow in a pipe [3]
[3fv 2L
AP = , lbs / square in. (2-1)
144D (2g)
or,
fLy 2
hf - - ~ , ft of fluid flowing (2-2)
D(2g)
 Fluid Flow 53

P = P' + Pbr Any Pressure Level Above Atmospheric (gauge or absolute = (gauge) + (barometer))

i i i=,
p. I Gauge Pressure.
Above Reference
Sea Level Standard ~ Atmospheric Pressure
v p

760 mm Hg abs, or L
I
14.696 psia ttmospheric Pressure (Pbr). variesl with Geographical Altitude Location. called
A ~ ~' Local Barom,et.ric Pressure. Pbr
===
0 psig
.,
A
]- 9

Vacuum (Gauge)
Below
.t 3arometric[ Atmospheric
~ressure or Below a
.i I Standard
Barometer
Arbitrary Pressure Level
*o I

Absolute } Absolute Pressure

Vacuum is Above Reference
Measurement of Absolute Zero

0 psia ..~ Absolute Zero Pressure

I.. I . (Perfect or Absolute Vacuum)
also, Absolute Reference Level

Notes:
1. At sea level, barometric pressure = 14.696 pounds/sq, in. absolute, or 760 mm of mercury, referred to as "stan-
dard." This is also 0 pounds/sq, in. gauge for that location.
2. Absolute zero pressure is absolute vacuum. This is 0 psia, also known as 29.92 inches of mercury below at-
mospheric pressure, or 33.931 feet of water below atmospheric, all referenced at sea level.
3. Important equivalents: 1 atmospheric pressure at sea level =
(a) 14.696 psia
(b) 33.931 feet of water (at 60~
(c) 29.921 inches mercury (at 32~
(d) 760 mm Hg (at 32~
(e) 1.0332 kilogram/sq, centimeter
(f) 10,332.27 kilogram/sq, meter
4. Barometric pressure for altitudes above "standard" sea level are given in the appendix. These correct values
must be used wherever the need for the local absolute barometric pressure is involved in pressure calculations.
5. Vacuum is expressed as either
(a) Inches (or millimeters) vacuum below atmospheric o~ local barometric, or
(b) Inches vacuum absolute, above absolute zero pressure or perfect vacuum.
(c) For example, at sea level of 29.921 in Hg abs. barometer;(1) 10" vacuum is a gauge term, indicating 10" of mer-
cury below local barometric pressure; (2) 10" vacuum (gauge) is equivalent to 29.921" Hg abs. - 10" = 19.921" Hg
abs. vacuum.

Figure 2-1. Pressure level references. Adapted by permission from Crane Co., Technical Paper #410, Engineering Div., 1957.

See nomenclature for definition of symbols and units.
The units presented are English engineering units, unless
a conversion is required. The friction factor is the only
experimental variable that must be determined by refer-
ence to the above equations and it is represented by Fig-
ure 2-3. Note that this may sometimes be referred to as
the Fanning formula, and may be modified to yield a fric-
tion factor one-fourth that of the Darcy factor. Care
should be observed; otherwise, the friction loss calcula-
tions for flow of liquids or gases will be too low, but not
necessarily by a straight one-fourth factor. Also, it is
important to note that the Figure 2-3 presented here is
the friction chart recommended and consistent with the
engineering data of the Hydraulic Institute [2].
54 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Stop Safety
valve valve
Pressure
sensing Stop
line ~ valve
Separator Strainer
1

Strainer
Float trap
Pressure
Pressure
reducing Stop
[
Pressure
gauge valve valve gauge

5
Spira-tec trap
leak indicator

Figure 2-2. Portion of a plant piping system. By permission, Spirax-Sarco, inc., 1991.

The many empirical correlations advanced to repre-
sent the frictional resistance to flow vary from exact
results because of the specific simplifying assumptions
incorporated in each. Some relations agree in one region
of flow and diverge in others.
Compressible Flow: Vapors and Gases [3]
Compressible fluid flow occurs between the two
extremes of isothermal and adiabatic conditions. For adia-
batic flow the temperature decreases (normally) for
decreases in pressure, and the condition is represented by
conditions. If these criteria do not apply, then refer
to the method using the flow coefficient, K.
3. For larger pressure drops in long lines of a mile or
greater in length than noted above, use methods
presented with the Weymouth, Panhandle Gas for-
mulas, or the simplified compressible flow equation.
4. For isothermal conditions [3]:
144gA 2 [ (p~) 2 _ (P2') 2
Ws --

p'V '(k) = constant. Adiabatic flow is often assumed in short ~r1 f L + 2log e _-7
and well-insulated pipe, supporting the assumption that D P2
no heat is transferred to or from the pipe contents, except lbs/sec (2-3)
for the small heat generated by friction during flow.
Isothermal p'Va = constant temperature, and is the mech-
anism usually (not always) assumed for most process pip-
ing design. This is in reality close to actual conditions for 84 I (P~)2 - (P2)2 ]
many process and utility service applications. w s = 0.371
The single-phase friction loss (pressure drop) for these gl fL + 2log
situations in chemical and petrochemical plants is still
represented by the Darcy equation with specific limita- lbs/sec (2-4)
tions [3]:

1. If calculated pressure drop from inlet (upstream) to

The correlations included here are believed to apply to
outlet (downstream) of a line system is less than
good plant design procedures with good engineering
about 10% of inlet pressure P1, reasonable accuracy
accuracy. As a matter of good practice with the exercise of
can be expected provided the specific volume used
proper judgment, the designer should familiarize himself
is based on inlet or outlet conditions.
with the background of the methods presented in order
2. If calculated pressure drop from inlet to outlet of line to better select the conditions associated with a specific
system (not including control or hand valves) is
problem.
greater than approximately 10%, but less than about
40% of the inlet pressure P1 (pounds per square inch Design conditions may be:
gauge), the Darcy equation will yield reasonable
accuracy when using a specific volume based on the 1. Flow rate and pressure drop allowable established,
average of upstream (inlet) and downstream (outlet) determine pipe size for a fixed length
56 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
2. Flow rate and length known, determine pressure
drop and line size.
Usually either of these conditions requires a trial
approach based upon assumed pipe sizes to meet the stat-
ed conditions. Some design problems may require deter-
mination of maximum flow for a fixed line size and
length: however, this just becomes the reverse of the con-
ditions above.
Optimum economic line size is seldom realized in the
average process plant. Unknown factors such as future
flow rate allowances, actual pressure drops through cer-
tain process equipment, etc., can easily over-balance any
design predicated on selecting the optimum. Certain
guides as to order of magnitude of costs and sizes can be
established either by one of several correlations or by con-
ventional cost estimating methods. The latter is usually
more realistic for a given set o f conditions, since general-
ized equations often do not fit a plant system.
There are many computer programs for sizing fluid
flow through pipe lines. An example can be found in Ref-
erence [32]. However, before "blindly" jumping to use
such programs, the designer should examine the bases
and sources of such programs. Otherwise, significant
errors could destroy the validity of the program for its
intended purpose.
Factors of "Safety" for Design Basis
Unless noted otherwise the methods suggested here do
not contain any built-in safety factors. These should be
included, but only to the extent justified by the problem at
hand. Although most designers place this factor on the
flow rate, care must be given in analyzing the actual con-
ditions at operating rates below this value. In some situa-
tions a large factor imposed at this point may lead to unac-
ceptable conditions causing erroneous decisions and
serious effects on the sizing of automatic control valves
internal trim.
As a general guide, factors of safety of 20 percent to 30
percent on the friction factor will accommodate the
change in roughness conditions for steel pipe with aver-
age service of 5 to 10 years, but will not necessarily com-
pensate for severe corrosive conditions. Corrosion condi-
tions should dictate the selection of the materials of
construction for the system as a part of establishing
design criteria. Beyond this the condition often remains
static, but could deteriorate further. This still does not
allow for increased pressure drop due to increased flow
rates. Such factors are about 10 percent to 20 percent
additional. Therefore for many applications the conserv-
ative Cameron Tables [4] give good direct-reading results
for long-term service. See Table 2-22.
Important Pressure Level References
Figure 2-1 presents a diagrammatic analysis of the
important relationships between absolute pressure, gauge
pressures, and vacuum. These are key to the proper solu-
tion of fluid flow, fluid pumping, and compression prob-
lems. Most formulas use absolute pressures in calcula-
tions; however, there are a few isolated situations where
gage pressures are used. Care must be exercised in fol-
lowing the proper terminology as well as in interpreting
the meaning of data and results.
Pipe, Fittings, and Valves
To ensure proper understanding of terminology, a
brief discussion of the "piping" components of most
process systems is appropriate.
The fluids considered in this chapter consist primarily
of liquids, vapors, gases, and slurries. These are transport-
ed usually under pressure through circular ducts, robes, or
pipes (except for low pressure air), and these lengths of
pipe are connected by fittings (screwed or threaded, butt
welded, socket welded, or flanged) and the flow is con-
trolled (stopped, started, or throttled) by means of valves
fixed in these line systems. The components of these sys-
tems will be briefly identified in this chapter, because the
calculation methods presented are for flows through these
components in a system. These flows always create some
degree of pressure drop (or loss of pressure head), which
then dictates the power required to move the fluids
through the piping components (Figure 2-2).
Pipe
Process plants use round pipe of varying diameters
(see pipe dimensions in Tables A-14, A-15, and A-16 in
Appendix). Connections for smaller pipe below about 1~
in. to 2 in. (Figures 2-4A, 2-4B) are threaded or socket
welded, while nominal pipe sizes 2 in. and larger are gen-
erally butt-welded or socket welded (Figure 2-4C) with
the valves and other connections flanged into the line.
Steam power plants are a notable exception. This chapter,
however, does not deal with power plant design, although
steam lines are included in the sizing techniques. Pipe is
generally designated by nominal size, whereas calcula-
tions for flow considerations must use the actual standard
inside diameter (I.D.) of the pipe. For example: (Note:
O.D. refers to outside diameter of pipe.)
 Fluid Flow 57

_L
L.
j- B ----~ ,L.
- S Jr I -7
COUPLING REDUCING HALF CAP
COUPLING COUPLING

I~n~J
] "

SQUARE HEAD HEX HEAD ROUND HEAD HEX HEAD FLUSH

PLUG PLUG PLUG BUSHING BUSHING

Figure 2-4A. Forged steel threaded pipe fittings, WOG (water, oil or gas service). Note: the working pressures are always well above actual plant
operating levels. Pressure classes 3000 psi and 6000 psi, sizes 1~in. through 4 in. nominal. By permission, Ladish Co., Inc.

A ~
//•C
o +-+

9 0 ~ ELBOWS 4 5 ~ E LBOWS TEES CROSSES

! t
N

L A T E RA LS COUPLI NGS CAPS

Figure 2-4B. Forged steel socket weld fittings, WOG (water, oil or gas service). Note: the working pressures are always well above actual plant
operating levels and are heavy to allow for welding. Pressure classes 3000 psi and 6000 psi, sizes 1~in. through 4 in. nominal. Do not weld on
malleable iron or cast iron fittings. (By permission, Ladish Co., Inc.)

A m e r i c a n S t a n d a r d s Association p i p i n g pressure class-

Nominal Pipe Size O.D. Inches I.D. Inches es are"
Inches Schedule 40 80 40 80
ASA Pressure Class Schedule No. of Pipe
90 1.050 1.050 0.824 0.742
1 1.315 1.315 1.049 0.957 < 250 lbs./sq, in. 40
lg 1.900 1.900 1.610 1.500 300-600 80
2 2.375 2.375 2.067 1.939 900 120
3 3.500 3.500 3.068 2.900 1500 160
4 4.500 4.500 4.026 3.826 2500 (g in.-6 in.) XX (double extra strong)
2500 (8 in. and larger) 160
See Appendix for other sizes.
58 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 2-4C. Forged steel welded-end fittings. By permission, Tube Turn Technologies, Inc.
 Fluid Flow
Usual Industry Pipe Sizes and Classes Practice
Certain n o m i n a l process and utility pipe sizes are
not in c o m m o n use and hence their availability is lim-
ited. Those not usually used are: N in., 188 in., 2~ in., 3~
in., 5 in., 22 in., 26 in., 32 in., 34 in.
Some of the larger sizes, 22 in. and up, are used for spe-
cial situations. Also, some of the non-standard process
sizes such as 2g in., 3~4in. and 5 in. are used by "packaged"
equipment suppliers to connect components in their sys-
tem for use in processes such as refrigeration, drying, or
contacting.
The most c o m m o n schedule in use is 40, and it is use-
ful for a wide range of pressures defined by ANSI Std. B
36.1 (American National Standards). Lighter wall thick-
ness pipe would be designated Schedules 10, 20, or 30;
whereas, heavier wall pipe would be Schedules 60, 80,
100, 120, 140, 160 (see Appendix Table). Not all sched-
ules are in c o m m o n use, because after Schedule 40, the
Schedule 80 is usually sufficient to handle most pressure
situations. The process engineer must check this schedule
for both pressure and corrosion to be certain there is suf-
ficient metal wall thickness.
When using alloy pipe with greater tensile strength
than carbon steel, the schedule n u m b e r s still apply, but
may vary, because it is unnecessary to install thicker
walled alloy pipe than is necessary for the strength and
corrosion considerations. Schedules 10 and 20 are
rather c o m m o n for stainless steel pipe in low pressure
applications.
For example, for 3-in. n o m i n a l c a r b o n steel pipe,
the Schedule 40 wall thickness is 0.216 in. If the pres-
sure r e q u i r e d in the system needs 0.200 in. wall and
--r
i
f
I F
f
/
B
SECTION H-H
Figure 2-5A. Lined-steel pipe and fittings for corrosive service. By permission, Performance Plastics Products.
59
the c o r r o s i o n rate over a five-year life r e q u i r e d 0.125
in. (N in.), t h e n the 0.200 in. + 0.125 in. = 0.325 in.
and the Schedule 40 pipe would n o t be strong e n o u g h
at the e n d of five years. Often the c o r r o s i o n is calcu-
lated for 1 0 - o r 15-years' life before r e p l a c e m e n t . Cur-
rently Schedule 80, 3-in. pipe has a 0.300 in. wall
thickness, so even this is not g o o d e n o u g h in c a r b o n
steel. Rather than use the m u c h heavier Schedule 160,
the designer s h o u l d r e c o n s i d e r the materials of con-
struction as well as re-examine the c o r r o s i o n data to
be certain there is not u n r e a s o n a b l e conservatism.
Perhaps stainless steel pipe or a "lined" pipe would
give a d e q u a t e strength and c o r r o s i o n resistance. For a
bad c o r r o s i o n condition, lined pipe using linings of
PVC (polyvinyl chloride), Teflon | or Saran | typically
as shown in Figure 2-5A, 2-5B, 2-5C and 2-5D can be
helpful.
While t h r e a d e d pipe is j o i n e d by t h r e a d e d fittings
(Figure 2-4A), the j o i n t s of welded pipe are connect-
ed to each o t h e r by butt welding or socket welding
(Figure 2-4B) and to valves by socket welds or flanges
of several types (Figure 2-6) using a gasket of compo-
sition material, r u b b e r or metal at the j o i n t to seal
against leaks. The j o i n t is pulled tight by bolts (see
Figure 2-7).
For lower pressure systems of approximately 150 psig
at 400~ or 225 psig at 100~ and where sanitary pre-
cautions (food products or chemicals used in food
products) or some corrosion resistance is necessary,
tubing is used. It is j o i n e d together by butt welds (Fig-
ure 2-8) or special compression or hub-type end con-
nectors. This style of "piping" is not too c o m m o n in the
(text continued on page 62)
-•-H
[ ! 9J
]
-.--H
60 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

1" - 6" SCH 80

8" - SCH. 40 FLANGE 3
FLANGE 2 PIPE /

PFA LINED
& JACKETED

.... ~ ......
.J
VENT HOLE 1_2
-~.... L .L 12" MAX

----'--"--'--'--MAX.1 2 " ~ - A = LENGTH

MAX 120"

Figure 2-5B. Lined-steel pipe flanged sparger for corrosive service. By permission, Performance Plastics Products.

ConnecUonof reinforced flared

face to gasketedplastic-lined pipe Wib~taper reducing spacer~
20nly the following size
reductions should be madeby
this techniquewhenconnecting
pipe with molded raisedfaces:
RING S P A C E R ~ 1Y2x1, 2xl, 2x11/2, 2Y2xlY2,
2~x2, 3x2, 3x2~, 4x2V2,
4 x 3, 6 x 4, 8 x 6. All other
tV/,,'///,,"~
..... ~.///./.t1 ~.-]
reductions requireuse of
reducing filler flanges or
concentric reducers.
HALFGASKETJ ~ ~ PERFORATED
STEELLOCKING
COLLAR
ouc, o

Figure 2-5C. Flanged lined-steel pipe fittings for corrosive service. By permission, Dow Plastic-Lined Products, Bay City, Mich. 48707, 1-
800-233-7577.

i= 0 =l
K

DJG

H
1, --~c Figure 2-5D. Lined plug valve for corrosive service. By permission, Dow Plas-
tic-Lined Products, Bay City, Mich. 48707, 1-800-233-7577.
 Fluid Flow 61

Welding neck flanges are distinguished from other types by their long tapered hub and gen-
tle transition of thickness in the region of the butt weld joining them to the pipe. Thus this type
of flange is preferred for every severe service condition, whether this results from high pres-
sure or from sub-zero or elevated temperature, and whether loading conditions are substan-
tially constant or fluctuate between wide limits.

Slip-on flanges continue to be preferred to welding neck flanges by many users on account
of their initially lower cost, the reduced accuracy required in cutting the pipe to length, and the
somewhat greater ease of alignment of the assembly; however, their final installed cost is
probably not much, if any, less than that of welding neck flanges. Their calculated strength
under internal pressure is of the order of two-thirds that of welding neck flanges, and their life
under fatigue is about one-third that of the latter.

Lap joint flanges are primarily employed with lap joint stubs, the combined initial cost of the
two items being approximately one-third higher than that of comparable welding neck flanges.
Their pressure-holding ability is little, if any, better than that of slip-on flanges and the fatigue
life of the assembly is only one-tenth that of welding neck flanges. The chief use of lap joint
flanges in carbon or low alloy steel piping systems is in services necessitating frequent dis-
mantling for inspection and cleaning and where the ability to swivel flanges and to align bolt
holes materially simplifies the erection of large diameter or unusually stiff piping. Their use at
points where severe bending stress occurs should be avoided.

Threaded flanges made of steel, are confined to special applications. Their chief merit lies in
the fact that they can be assembled without welding; this explains their use in extremely high
pressure services, particularly at or near atmospheric temperature, where alloy steel is essen-
tial for strength and where the necessary post-weld heat treatment is impractical. Threaded
flanges are unsuited for conditions involving temperature or bending stresses of any magni-
tude, particularly under cyclic conditions, where leakage through the threads may occur in rel-
atively few cycles of heating or stress; seal welding is sometimes employed to overcome this,
but cannot be considered as entirely satisfactory.

Socket welding flanges were initially developed for use on small-size high pressure piping.
Their initial cost is about 10% greater than that of slip-on flanges; when provided with an inter-
nal weld as illustrated, their static strength is equal to, but their fatigue strength 50% greater
than double-welded slip-on flanges. Smooth, pocketless bore conditions can readily be
attained (by grinding the internal weld) without having to bevel the flange face and, after weld-
ing, to reface the flange as would be required with slip-on flanges.

Figure 2-6. (continued on next page)

62 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Orifice flanges are widely used in conjunction with orifice meters for measuring the rate of
flow of liquids and gases. They are basically the same as standard welding neck, slip-on and
screwed flanges except for the provision of radial, tapped holes in the flange ring for meter
connections and additional bolts to act as jack screws to facilitate separating the flanges for
inspection or replacement of the orifice plate.

Blind flanges are used to blank off the ends of piping, valves and pressure vessel openings.
From the standpoint of internal pressure and bolt loading, blind flanges, particularly in the larg-
er sizes, are the most highly stressed of all American Standard flange types; however, since
the maximum stresses in a blind flange are bending stresses at the center, they can safely be
permitted to be higher than in other types of flanges.

1.) In Tube Turns tests of all types of flanged assemblies, fatigue failure invariably occurred in the pipe or in an unusually weak weld, never in the flange proper.
The type of flange, however, and particularly the method of attachment, greatly influence the number of cycles required to cause fracture.
2.) ANSI B16.5-1961--Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
3.) ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code 1966, Section I, Par. P-300.

Figure 2-6. Continued. Forged steel companion flanges to attach to steel pipe by the methods indicated. By permission, Tube Turn Tech-
nologies, Inc.

/ Gasket Here it i=
Altemates
,-- , .1
I
~i~ Oval Ring

~ l l l l l llit}}!l}!l~

Male to Male
Flanged Joint
Male to Female ) -il- so'ce ~~ OctagonalRing
Flanged Joint I
Raised Face Tongue& GroveJoint Assembled Ring Joint Gaskets
(flat gasket) (uses flat gasket)

Figure 2-7. Most common flange connection joints. Cross section of a pair of flanges with bolts to draw joint tight.

(text continuedfrom page 59)
chemical/petrochemical industries, except for instru-
ment lines (sensing, signal transmission) or high pres-
sures above 2,000 psig.
Figure 2-9 compares the measurement differences for
tubes (outside diameter) and iron or steel pipe size
(IPS), nominal inside diameter. One example of dimen-
sional comparison for IPS pipe for Schedules 5 and 10
are compared to one standard scale of tubing in Table 2-
1. The tubing conforms to ANSI/ASTM A-403-78 Class
CR (stainless) or MSS Manufacturers Standard Society
SP-43, Sch 5S.
 Fluid Flow 63

Figure 2-8. Light weight stainless steel butt-weld fittings/tubing for low pressure applications. By permission, Tri-Clover, Inc.
64 A p p l i e d P r o c e s s D e s i g n for C h e m i c a l a n d P e t r o c h e m i c a l Plants

Figure 2-9. Dimension comparison of tubing and IPS (iron pipe size) steel piping. By permission, Tri-Clover, Inc.

Table 2-1
Comparison of dimensions and flow area for Tubing and Iron Pipe Size (IPS) Steel Pipe.

0 D TUBING i n PiPE
..............,,,,,~
v a l , ......... I .............
_.~,_----- <.,.,,.,,m,, I ........................
.... ~ , ,lu<qir.,wv
,-, :: ......................................
, _..!,,~_,,,,-~-- : ..............................................
~. ......... ~ ~ - ..-..........
~ i ::.. :_::..................
. .I - :: : ~ ~ m :~............
:.: . :L ==========================================::===::=====
~,-,.12 1 vuililll l hulIDi ~n=A irl w lliOi ,,~,.,~. I,.. i A,,.~AI ,'.--'.M lli,.~i~iA ~
.'.,,n~,e,Tw, u , I i'ttlilUtt~il i ~ i l U t ~ l i ,,,,~'r~,-- t t l I l i i t l l / T ~ t s~vm ! r~.~F~ .e,lniu,t i w.tuuum.t~v'e! ! ~.~_ .
I l ll iN. ~Ilillil I . . . . . . . . . I'~. . . . . . . 1........................................
J

1 1.000 170 ,till 1, !L !31-6 i.lfl 1.,10 t,0O? l

II I ~ t,370 t.47 1t I.,900 1,770 148 I I l~ .....
....................i . . . . . . . . . 2~ " lJ~ ' 2..t 2 2.3~ 2,i li ]'1!.67 ....................3___~. ,_~

s 3.00O 2~4 e,S~

.. . . . . . . . 3 s.r~0 s~ e.73 ~_~!o e ~ ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ~ ....... 4.000 ....... 3 ~ ..... . ~1~ ~i~,~_ ~ ~1,10 ._

4 4.000 . 3J34 . 11.55 .... 4 4.500 4.334 " _ ........ i 41~ i T i ~ L 14j .....
, Looo s~ =8.= , **is e4o, ~4 e~, = is
i woo " 7.~ " 4,.= " 'll ...... : lim " e.4o7 ., . li.iil .i: .4, ....... _.
10 I0,000 9.732 74.4 10 10.750 10.482 86.3 10,420 _ llm.3 _
t= 12.000 1 ~.'v,',',',',',',',',ii ~oe. t= . . . . . . . . . . .
,~2.l, s o
. . . . . . . . . .
.!1:~ ....... 121. l i ~ lio.
9 llilId ~ WiiJll"r'1111ki~kllell lllill Otlt fCldltowtriO l
"" t n d ~ l ~ ~tt~ li~ludl Ifl ~ n l i~e ilie i~ c a ~ dol~ W flow ~i~u:iri~t:

By permission Tri-Clover, Inc.

Total Line Pressure Drop Background Information (Also see Chapter 3)

Gas or vapor density following perfect gas law:

The total piping system pressure drop for a particular
pipe installation is the sum of the friction drop in pipe P = 144 P' (T) (1544/MW), lbs/cu ft (2-5)
valves and fittings, plus other pressure losses (drops)
through control valves, plus drop through equipment in Gas or vapor specific gravity referred to air:
the system, plus static drop due to elevation or pressure
level. For example, see Figure 2-2. Sg = MW of gas/MW of air = MW of gas/29 (2-6)

This total pressure loss is not necessarily required in Conversion between fluid head loss in feet and pres-
determining the frictional losses in the system. It is neces- sure drop in psi, any fluid:
sary when establishing gravity flow or the pumping head
requirements for a complete system. Pressure drop, pounds/sq in., AP = hL9/144 (2-7)

Design practice breaks the overall problem into small For water, AP = hL/2.31, psi (2-8)
component parts which allow for simple analysis and solu-
tion. This is the recommended approach for selection Equivalent diameter and hydraulic radius for non-cir-
and sizing of process piping. cular flow ducts or pipes
 Fluid Flow 65

Figure 2-10. Branch connections for welding openings into steel pipe. See Figure 2-4C for alternate welding fittings. By permission, Bonney
Forge Corp., Allentown, PA.
66 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 2-10. Continued.


RH = hydraulic radius, ft
cross- section for fluid flow, sq ft
R H=
wetted perimeter for fluid flow, ft
DH = hydraulic diameter, (equivalent diameter), ft
DH = 4 RH, ft
dH = hydraulic diameter, (equivalent diameter), in.
dH = 48 R, in.
4 (cross- section area for flow), sq in.
dH =
(wetted perimeter for fluid flow), in.
For the narrow shapes with width small relative to
length, the hydraulic radius is approximately [3]"
R. h 1/2 (width of passage)
For those non-standard or full circular configurations
of flow, use d equivalent to actual flow area diameter, and
D equivalent to 4RH.
d = 4I cross- section available for fluid flow, of duct 1
k wetted perimeter of duct J
This also applies to circular pipes or ducts and oval and
rectangular ducts not flowing full. The equivalent diame-
ter is used in d e t e r m i n i n g the Reynolds n u m b e r for these
cases, but does not apply to very narrow or slotted or
a n n u l a r flow cross-sections.
Minimum size ofpipe is sometimes dictated by structural
considerations, i.e., 1g-inch Schedule 40 steel pipe is con-
sidered the smallest size to span a 15' to 20' pipe rack with-
out intermediate support.
Gravity flow lines are often set at 11/4inch to 2 inch min-
imum, disregarding any smaller calculated size as a poten-
tial source of trouble.
Overflow p u m p suction lines are designed for about a
one f o o t / s e c o n d velocity, unless a higher velocity is nec-
essary to keep small solids or precipitates in suspension.
Suction line sizes should be larger than discharge sizes.
Flooded suction lines to p u m p s must be designed so
that pressure drop in the pipe is safely less than head
available.
As a general guide, for pipe sizes use:
threaded p i p e - - u p to and including 189 in. or 2 in.
nominal
Fluid Flow 67
welded p i p e - - 2 in. and larger
Situations may dictate deviations.
(2-9) Never use cast iron fittings or pipe in process situations
unless there is only gravity pressure head (or not over 10
psig) or the fluid is nonhazardous. One exception is in
some c o n c e n t r a t e d sulfuric acid applications; however,
extreme caution must be used in the design of the safety
(2-10) of the system area. Never use in pulsing or shock service.
Never use malleable iron fittings or pipe unless the
fluid is n o n h a z a r d o u s and the pressure not greater than
25 psig. Always use a pressure rating at least four times
(2-11) that of the m a x i m u m system pressure. Also, never use cast
iron or malleable iron fittings or valves in pressure pulsat-
ing systems or systems subject to physical shock.
(2-12) Use forged steel fittings for process applications as
long as the fluid does not create a serious corrosion prob-
lem. These fittings are attached to steel pipe a n d / o r each
other by threading, socket welding, or direct welding to
steel pipe. For couplings attached by welding to pipe, Fig-
(2-13) ure 2-4B, use either 2,000 psi or 6,000 psi rating to give
a d e q u a t e area for welding w i t h o u t distortion, even
t h o u g h the process system may be significantly lower
(even a t m o s p h e r i c ) . B r a n c h c o n n e c t i o n s are often
attached to steel pipe using forged Weldolets | or Thread-
olets | (Figure 2-10).
| = Bonney Forge, Mlentown, Pa.
Mean pressure in a gas line [57].
I
2 (p 1 +P2)- P I
P (mean or average ) = -~
PiP2
[~ 1:~2
] (2-14)
This applies particularly to long flow lines.
The usual economic range for pressure loss due to liq-
uid flow; (a) Suction p i p i n g m g to 188 psi per 100 equiva-
lent feet of pipe.
(b) Discharge p i p i n g - - 1 to 5 psi per 100 equivalent
feet of pipe.
The Appendix presents useful carbon steel and stain-
less steel pipe data.
Reynolds Number, Re (Sometimes used NRE)
This is the basis for establishing the condition or type
of fluid flow in a pipe. Reynolds n u m b e r s below 2000 to
2100 are usually considered to define laminar or viscous
flow; n u m b e r s from 2000 to 3000-4000 to define a transi-
tion region of peculiar flow, and n u m b e r s above 4000 to
define a state of turbulent flow. Reference to Figure 2-3
and Figure 2-11 will identify these regions, and the fric-
tion factors associated with them [2].
68 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

PIPE DIAMETER IN FEET, D

lished values of references [1, 2, 3], and cannot be used
with the values presented in Perry's Handbook [5], as Per-
ry's values for, f, are one-fourth times the values cited in
this chapter. It is essential to use f values with the corre-
sponding formulas offered in the appropriate text.
(/)
The Colebrook equation [6, 58] is considered a reli-
Q.
:= able a p p r o a c h to d e t e r m i n i n g the friction factor, f
CD
0
(Moody factor)

ula
0
Z
ILl
J 1 log( +2.51)
%/--( 10 3.7D Re ~ (2-18)
I-

vD
Re -
V

Note that the term E/D is the relative roughness from

Figure 2-11. The solution of the above equation is trial
and error. Colebrook [6] also proposed a direct solution
equation that is reported [7] to have

f = 1.8 loga0 (Re/7) -2 (2-19)

The equation proposed by Churchill [8] is also a direct

60 K)O
PIPE DIAMETER IN INCHES, d
RELAT IVE ROUGHNESS FACTORS FOR
NEW CLEAN PIPES
Figure 2-11. Relative roughness factors for new clean pipe. Reprint-
ed by permission from Pipe Friction Manual, 1954, The Hydraulic
Institute. Also see Engineering Data Book, 1st Ed., 1979, The
Hydraulic Institute. Data from L. E Moody, see note Figure 2-3.
solution with good accuracy [7].
3O0
Friction Head Loss (Resistance) in Pipe, Fittings, and
Connections
Friction head loss develops as fluids flow through the
various pipes, elbows, tees, vessel connections, valves, etc.
These losses are expressed as loss of fluid static head in
feet of fluid flowing.

Dv9 123.9 dv9 6.31W PipemRelative Roughness

Re - - - (2-15)
~s e ~L dB
t Pipe internal roughness reflects the results of pipe
22,700 q p 50.6 Qp 0.482 q h Sg
manufacture or process corrosion, or both. In designing
Re . . . . (2- 16)
dB dB dB a flow system, recognition must be given to (a) the initial
internal pipe condition as well as (b) the expected condi-
Friction Factor, f tion after some reasonable life period, such as 10, 15, or
20 years in service. Usually a 10- to 15-year life period is a
For laminar or viscous flow: reasonable expectation. It is not wise to expect smooth
internal conditions over an e x t e n d e d life, even for water,
f = 64/R~ (2-17) air, or oil flow because some actual changes can occur in
the internal surface condition. Some fluids are m u c h
For transition and turbulent flow, use Figure 2-11 with worse in this regard than others. New, clean steel pipe can
Figure 2-3, and Figure 2-12A and 2-12B as appropriate. be adjusted from the initial clean condition to some situ-
Friction factor in long steel pipes handling wet (satu- ation allowing for the additional roughness. The design
rated with water vapor) gases such as hydrogen, carbon r o u g h e n e d condition can be interpolated from Figure 2-
monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and similar 11 to achieve a somewhat more r o u g h e n e d condition,
materials should be considered carefully, and often with the corresponding relative roughness E/D value.
increased by a factor of 1.2 to 2.0 to account for corrosion.
Important Note: The Moody [1] friction factors repro- = epsilon, absolute roughness factor, ft
duced in this text (Figure 2-3) are consistent with the pub- D = pipe inside diameter, ft
 Fluid F l o w 69

~ % , REGULAR
.~;~ SCREWED
BELL- MOUTH 45 ELL.
INLET OR REDUCER K
K = 0.05
.5 1 2 4

L .3
ONG
SQUARE EDGED INLET RADIUS .2
K=0.5 F LANGED
4R~ I=1 ! .t I
1 2 4 6 10 2(
i D
!~I 1 ! Illl ! l | I 1
2.=.~.~~! ! !!,! ]
INWARD PROJECTING PIPE K ii ir1~l j I!I ]
K = 1.0 SCREWED i lilil]",LI iI i
'--u-" RETURN
BE
BEND
I : :lllll
i
1
i
!
I
!
i
I
! !11
lill
I ~-L! I
l
| !
1
[ll~l
1 I ~1~

9 3 .5 1 2 4

NOTE: K DECREASES WITH FL,~

FLANGED "3i
INCREASING WALL THICKNESS OF RE'I
RETURN "[
PIPE AND ROUNDING OF EDGES BEf
BEND .2J
K.1!
i 2 4 6 10

~ 9 REGULAR LINE
SCREWED FLOW , , I, ,z J z= i i I! I' !
0 ~ ELL. ~1
l i
!
i ! !11
! ! ! 1 11 !
! i
9 i 9
!
9
"Ul ! i II!11 i I ! i 1
K Ra ! ! l l l l i ! I ! I I
'Vl i I i 1111 i i i 1 1
- 1 1 ~ i I .3 .5 1 2 4
I
.5 1 D2 4 SCREWED D
TEE sl !111111 ! !I! [
~ 9 LONG
RADIUS ir'~lL! !1111 ! i ! i f
SCREWED ill i
0~ ELL..3 BRANCH
FLOW ,lli liili iTI-t-,L
94.3 .5 1 D 2 4 .3 .5 1 2 4
D
~ REGULAR
FLANGED "6L 1 ! I 1 1 i ! i I!i ~FLINE .21~ i l 1 ililll 1 I
4~,J ! II !111111 i I1 LOW l i PH~IlIilli i l
9 1 I ! ! 1 ! ]'IPt,4a.[ ! 1 1
21 1 1 !! illlIII~"P'.~
l"sl i 1 11 lllilil I il | ' ' i i : "IIII'~' '
! .o#1 I I,, ,If,,,= ]~,.
, 1 2 4 6
,-.,., , , , = = , , , , ,
10 201
, , , FLANGED
elO
LONG ~[ n~Ll= i l l l = i l ! il
RADIUS " - L I I~I~II i!ii!11'" I !1
FLANGED ~I ! i !~11111 i ! ! K [ I1~11=~1 ! 9 i i ! !11 I !

90 ~ ELL. "'1 i Ill Pf~ll 1 11

96
9
'
' I ~ ' " ' "
! ! ! 1 ! i ~
i '
i ! J
11 1 I !1 I IlI]~',Lil BRANCH .4 l i i !1 j l i J l i i
20|
9 [ 9 9 9 9 9 l I Iil 9 ~lb,=l

1 2 4 6 D 10
FLOW I 1 i II I I i l i l i 1 !1
1 2 4 6 10 20]

V=
h - K -- FEET OF FLUID
2g
Figure 2-12A. Resistance coefficients for fittings. Reprinted by permission, Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data Book, 1st Ed., 1979, Cleve-
land, Ohio.
 70 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 2-12B. Resistance coefficients for valves and fittings. Reprinted by permission, Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data Book, 1st Ed.,
1979, Cleveland, Ohio.

Note that the e / D factor from Figure 2-11 is used
directly in Figure 2-3. As an example that is only applica-
ble in the range of the charts used, a 10% increase in e / D
to account for increased roughness, yields from Figure 2-
3, an f of only 1.2% greater than a commercial condition
pipe. Generally the accuracy of reading the charts does
not account for large fluctuations in f values. Of course, f,
can be calculated as discussed earlier, and a more precise
n u m b e r can be achieved, but this may not m e a n a signifi-
cantly greater accuracy of the calculated pressure drop.
Generally, for industrial process design, e x p e r i e n c e
should be used where available in adjusting the roughness
and effects on the friction factor. Some designers increase
the friction factor by 10% to 15% over standard commer-
cial pipe values.
Pressure Drop in Straight Pipe: Incompressible Fluid
The frictional resistance or pressure drop due to the
flow of the fluid, hf, is expressed by the Darcy equation:
fLv 2
hf - - , ft of fluid, resistance
D(2g)
pfv 2L
or, AP = , resistance loss, lbs/sq in.
144D (2g)
Note: these values for hf and AP are differentials from
point (1) upstream to point (2) downstream, separated by
a length, L. These are not absolute pressures, and cannot be
meaningfully converted to such units. Feet of fluid, hf, can
be converted to pounds per square inch by:
AP(144)
hf = ~ - - ft, for any fluid
P
Referenced to water, convert psi to feet of water:
[(1 lb/sq in.)] (144)
hf (ft)-- = 2.31 ft
62.3 lb/cu ft
For conversion, 1 psi h 2.31 ft of water head
This represents a column of water at 60~ 2.31 feet
high. The bottom pressure is one p o u n d per square inch
(psi) on a gauge. The pressure at the bottom as psi will
vary with the density of the fluid. For fluids other than
water, the relationship is:
1 psi = 2.31/(Sp Gr rel. to water), ft fluid
With extreme velocities of liquid in a pipe, the down-
stream pressure may fall to the vapor pressure of the liq-
Fluid Flow 71
uid and cavitation with erosion will occur. T h e n the cal-
culated flow rates or pressure or pressure drops are not
accurate or reliable.
Pressure Drop in Fittings, Valves, Connections:
Incompressible Fluid
The resistance to flow through the various "piping"
components that make up the system (except vessels,
tanks, p u m p s - - i t e m s which do not necessarily provide
frictional resistance to flow) such as valves, fittings, and
connections into or out of e q u i p m e n t (not the loss
through the equipment) are established by test and pre-
sented in the published literature, but do vary d e p e n d i n g
on the investigator.
Resistance to fluid flow t h r o u g h pipe and piping
c o m p o n e n t s is b r o u g h t about by (1) pipe c o m p o n e n t
internal surface roughness along with the density and
viscosity of the flowing fluid, (2) directional changes in
the system t h r o u g h the p i p i n g c o m p o n e n t s , (3)
(2- 2) obstructions in the path to flow, and (4) changes in sys-
tem c o m p o n e n t cross-section and shape, w h e t h e r grad-
ual or sudden.
(2-1)
hf = K (v2/2g), ft of the fluid flowing (2-23)
Velocity and Velocity Head
The average or mean velocity is d e t e r m i n e d by the flow
rate divided by the cross section area for flow in feet per
second, v. The velocity in a pipe is related to the decrease
(2- 20) in static head due to the velocity only by:
h L = hf = v2/2g, termed velocity head, ft (2-24)
Note the static r e d u c t i o n (loss) due to fluid flowing
(2- 21) t h r o u g h a system c o m p o n e n t (valve, fitting, etc.) is
expressed in terms of velocity head, using the resis-
tance coefficient, K, in the equation above. This K rep-
resents the n u m b e r of velocity heads lost due to flow
t h r o u g h the respective system c o m p o n e n t . It is always
associated with d i a m e t e r for flow, h e n c e , velocity
t h r o u g h the c o m p o n e n t . Actually, for most system com-
ponents, the static losses due to pipe friction due to
i n t e r n a l r o u g h n e s s and the actual length of flow path
are m i n o r when c o m p a r e d to one or m o r e of the o t h e r
(2-22) losses listed in the previous p a r a g r a p h [3]. The resis-
tance coefficient, K, is c o n s i d e r e d i n d e p e n d e n t of fric-
tion factor or Reynolds n u m b e r and is treated as a con-
stant for any c o m p o n e n t obstruction (valve or fitting)
72 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
in a piping system u n d e r all conditions of flow, includ-
ing laminar.
From the Darcy equation [3]:
K = (f L/D)
Head loss through a pipe, h L = (f) (L/D) ( v 2 / 2 g )
Head loss through a valve (for instance),
h L = K(v2/2g)
where L / D is the equivalent length in pipe diameters of
straight pipe that will cause or develop the same pressure
drop as the fitting, component, or other obstruction
u n d e r the same flow conditions. K is a constant for all flow
conditions through a given system component; thus, the
value of L / D for the specific c o m p o n e n t must vary
inversely with the change in friction factor for varying
flow conditions [3].
For various components' K values, see Figures 2-12A, 2-
12B, 2-13A, 2-13B through 2-16 and Tables 2-2 and 2-3.
C o m m o n Denominator for Use of "K" Factors in a
System of Varying Sizes of Internal Dimensions
K value can be adjusted to a c o m m o n reference pipe
size:
K 2 -- K 1 ( d 2 / d l ) 4
where subscript I is the known resistance from standard K
factor tables or charts (these are based on standard ANSI
pipe/fitting dimensions), and subscript 2 is the corrected
resistance coefficient used to identify the inside diameter
of the actual pipe into which the valve or fitting is con-
nected or installed.
The K values d e t e r m i n e d for various valves, fittings,
etc., are specific to the system, particularly valves. For
example, most reliable data 8 have b e e n d e v e l o p e d
with valves a n d fittings installed in pipe of specific
dimensions, then, if a larger or smaller inside diame-
ter valve or fitting is to be installed in a pipe of dif-
ferent inside diameter, a c o r r e c t i o n of the K value
should be made.
Pressure drop through line systems containing more
than one pipe size can be determined by (a) calculating
the pressure drop separately for each section at assumed
flows, or (b) determining the K totals for each pipe size sep-
arately, and then converting to one selected size and using
that for pressure drop calculations. For example, using
K 2 -- K 1 ( d 2 / d l ) 4
and thereby converting to a c o m m o n base K, they are
then additive, when all referenced to the same size pipe. Flow
then can be determined for a fixed head system by
(2-25) GPM liquid = 19.65 d 2 (hL/K) 1/2 (2-29)
(2-26)
Of course, by selecting the p r o p e r equation, flows for
vapors and gases can be d e t e r m i n e d in the same way, as
(2-27) the K value is for the fitting or valve and not for the
fluid.
The head loss has been correlated as a function of the
velocity head equation using K as the resistance coeffi-
cient in the equation.
h L = K v 2 / 2 g = K v 2 / 6 4 . 4 , ft o f f l u i d (2-27)
For a system of multiple components of valves, pipe,
and fittings, Equation 2-25 can be used to establish a com-
p o n e n t size to which each separate resistance can be
expressed as a "common denominator," or c o m m o n pipe
size. Under these conditions, the "corrected" K values are
additive and can be used as one n u m b e r in Equation 2-27.
These types of corrections should be made to improve
and more accurately represent the pressure drop calcula-
tions.
An example procedure connecting 3-in. and 6-in. pipe
(2-28) and fittings, using 6-in. as the final reference, is as follows:
1. From Table 2-2, read for 3 in. Sch. 40 pipe, fT = 0.018.
2. Calculate Re for each pipe size.
3. Read friction factor, f, from Figure 2-3, using Figure
2-11.
4. Calculate K for 6-in. pipe:
K = 0.018 (L/d) (12), L6,, = ft 6-in. pipe.
5. Calculate K for 3-in. pipe, using L3- = ft of 3-in. pipe.
6. Then, referencing to the 6-in. pipe t h r o u g h o u t the
system:
K 2 -- (K3,,) ( d 3 - / d 6 , , ) 4, representing entire pipe part
of system.
7. Add K values for individual fittings and valves from
Figures 2-12A through 2-16 and Tables 2-2 and 2-3.
8. Using sum of K values for 6-in. pipe, 3-in. pipe equiv-
alent calculated above in step 6, and all items in step
7 above [3]:
h L -- (0.00259 K Q2) / (d6.) 4 (2-30)
(2-28) (text continued on page 77)
 Fluid Flow 73

Table 2-2
"K" Factor Table: Representative Resistance coefficients (K) f o r Valves a n d Fittings

Pipe Friction Data f o r Clean C o m m e r c i a l Steel Pipe with Flow in Zone of C o m p l e t e T u r b u l e n c e

~ N ~
Nominal Size /2 n T
N
188 i 89 2
~
2V2, 3" 4 5 6 8-10" 12-16" 18-24"[
Fridion .027 .025 .023 .022 .021 .019 .018 .0i7 .016 .01.5 .014 .013 .012 [
Factor (fr)

F o r m u l a s for Calculating "K" Factors for Valves a n d Fittings with R e d u c e d P o r t

9 Formula 1 9 Formula 6

o.8 s i n O ( , - 02) K,
K~ - ~- + F o r m u l a z + F o r m u l a 4.

Kl + o.5 in ~-(i - ~ ) + (x - ~)2

9 Fwmula 2
Ks- t~
o. ~ (, - fit) ~ s i n _0z
K2-
9 Fennula 7

9 Formula $
KI
Ks - ~ + 0 (Formula z + F o r m u l a 4) when 0"- 1So~
z.6 sin --0 (, - ~)'
K,+O [o., (,-02)+ (,-02)= l
K2- 0~
9 Formula 4

K , - (x - ~ ) '

9 Formula 5

o,
Kl am xl
K=- ~ + Formula i + Formula 3 U4
Subscript 1 defines dimensions
and coefficients with reference to
KI + sin-~-[o.8 (I - / ~ ) + z.6 (I -- ~ ) 2 ] the smaller diameter.
K,- ~, Subscript 2 refers to the larger
diameter.

SUDDEN AND. GRADUAL CONTRACTION SUDDEN AND GRADUAL ENLARGEMENT

--.-- { a, 'j d, e d, I a, ,

I f: 0 z 45 ~ . . . . . . . . . Kt - F o r m u l a I f: 0 z 45 ~ . . . . . . . . . K2 - Formula 3
0 > 45 ~ z zS o ~ K= - F o r m u l a z 0 > 45 ~ z 180 ~ . . . Ks - F o r m u l a 4
(continued on next page)
74 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

(table 2-2 continued from previous page)

GATE VALVES SWING CHECK VALVES

Wedge Disc, Double Disc, or Plug Type

I
K - loofr K - soft
If" 0 - I, 0 - o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K x - 8fT M i n i m u m pipe velocity M i n i m u m pipe velocity
< I and 0 ~ 45 ~ . . . . . . . . . K, - Formula 5 (fps) for full disc lift (fps) for full disc lift
< I and 0 > 45 ~ ~ x 8 o ~ - Formula 6 -48
. . . . . . . . . i _ _ _ II]l'l II Ill - - ilill - ill- - iii -

LIFT CHECK VALVES

GLOBE AND ANGLE VALVES

If" 0- I...K,- 6oofr

< I . . . K , - Formula 7
M i n i m u m pipe velocity (fps) for full disc lift
If" ~- I...K1 - t4o]r -40 a'x/ff

If: O- I...K~- 55fr

< x . . . K ~ = Formula 7
If: fl- i.../<t- 55fr M i n i m u m pipe velocity (fps) for full disc lift
- ,40 a' x / ~ -

TILTING DISC CHECK VALVES

~. 5~ ,,~. x5 ~
If: B- z...Kx- z50fr If" - x...Kt- 55fr Sizes z t o 8 * . . . K = 40/,, xzo./r
Sizes l o to x4". 9 9K - 3o]:, 0oft
All globe and angle valves, Sizes 16 to 4 8 " . . . K = zo f r
whether reduced seat or throttled, M i n i m u m pipe velocity
(fps) for full disc l i f t - 8o 30
If" 3 < x.... K s - Formula 7
 Fluid Flow 75

STOP-CHECK VALVES FOOT VALVES WITH STRAINER

(Globe and Angle Types)
Poppet Disc Hinged Disc

If: If:
fl= I 9 9 . K t - 4 o o f I ' fl- I...Kl-zoofT, K-4zofr K-75fr
B < I . . :K2 - Formula 7 O < x . . . K ~ - Formula 7
Minimum pipe velocity M i n i m u m pipe velocity
Minimum pipe velocity Minimum pipe velocity (fps) for full disc lift (fps) for full disc lift
for full disc lift for full disc lift -15%~ - 3 5 ~
- . z5 o,

BALL VALVES

If: If:
O- I...K,-- 35o/r 0 - i...K, - 300/r
O < I.../<2 - Formula 7 O < x . . . K 2 - Formula 7
If: O-I, 0-o .............. K~-3fr
Minimum pipe velocity (fps) for full disc lift 0 <I and 0 z 45 ~ . . . . . . . . . K s - Formula 5
< i a n d 0 > 45 ~ ~ I 8 o ~ - Formula 6

d= BUTTERFLY VALVES

d=

If: If:
O-~...Kt- 55 fr 0 = x...Kt = 55fr
O < I...K2 - Formula 7 O < I . . . K~ -- Formula 7

Sizes z to 8 " . . . K - 45 f r
Minimum pipe velocity (fps) for full disc lift Sizes I O tO 1 4 " . 9 9K = ~ ~ f T
- 4o x/9 Sizes z6 to z 4 " . . . K - z5 f r
(continued on next page)
76 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

(table continued from previous page)

PLUG VALVES AND COCKS [ STANDARD ELBOWS

Straight-Way 3-Way [ 90 ~ 45 ~
I';,I
9 U,
K- 3o/r

If: 0 - x, If: 'B-t, If: 0 -s,

/'(1- lSfT K~ - 3 o / r K~ - o o / r
STANDARD TEES
If: O < I . . . K s - Formula 6

MITRE BENDS

J----d e~ K
I

o~ 2 fr Flow thru run . . . . . . . K - zo f~

d~ 15" 4 fr
Flow thru branch . . . . K - 6 o / ~
30~ 8 fr
45" 15 fr
6O~ 25
75" 40 fr
90 ~ 60 Fr

PIPE ENTRANCE
90 ~ PIPE BENDS AND
FLANGED OR BUTT-WELDING 90 ~ ELBOWS
Inward Flush
r/d K r/d K Projecting

12 fr 12 34 ooo. o,s
~

The resistance coefficient, Kn, for pipe bends other

than qo ~ may be determined as follows:
12fr
14~
17
24fr
14 38fr
1642
18 46 fr
20 5Oft t--'
!
K - 0.78
0.02

~
0.06
0.10
0.15
0.09
0.I 5 & up 0.04
*Sharp-edged
0.28

~ i
For K ,
see table
Ks-(n-I) 0.25~r/r~+0.5K +K
n - n u m b e r of 90 ~ bends
K - r e s i s t a n ~ coefi~ient for one 90 ~ bend (per table)
PIPE EXIT
Projecting Sharp-Edged Rounded
CLOSE PATTERN RETURN BENDS
I I 1
,+ -

! "1 I I

K- 5olT K- l.o K- l.o K- ,.o

By permission, Crane Co. TechnicalPaper #410, Engineering Div., 1976.

 Fluid Flow 77

Table 2-3
Resistance Coefficients for Valves and Fittings

Approximate Range of Variation for K

Fitting Range of Variation
90 Deg. Elbow Regular Screwed +20 per cent above 2 inch size
Regular Screwed +40 per cent below 2 inch size
Long Radius, Screwed +25 per cent
Regular Flanged +35 per cent
Long Radius, Flanged +30 per cent
45 Deg. Elbow Regular Screwed +10 per cent
Long Radius, Flanged +10 per cent
180 Deg. Bend Regular screwed +25 per cent
Regular Flanged +35 per cent
Long Radius, Flanged +30 per cent
Tee Screwed, Line or Branch Flow +25 per cent
Flanged, Line or Branch Flow +35 per cent
Globe Valve Screwed +25 per cent
Flanged +25 per cent
Gate Valve Screwed +25 per cent
Flanged +50 per cent
Check Valve Screwed +30 per cent
Flanged +200 per cent
- 8 0 per cent
Sleeve Check Valve Multiply flanged values by .2 to .5
Tilting Check Valve Multiply flanged values by .13 to .19
Drainage Gate Check Multiply flanged values by .03 to .07
Angle Valve Screwed +20 per cent
Flanged +50 per cent
Basket Strainer +50 per cent
Foot Valve +50 per cent
Couplings +50 per cent
Unions +50 per cent
Reducers +50 per cent
Notes on the use of Figures 2-12 A and B, and Table 2-3
1. The value of D given in the charts is nominal IPS (Iron Pipe Size).
2. For velocities below 15 feet per second, check valves and foot valveswill be only partially open and will exhibit higher values of K than that shown
in the charts.
3. Reprinted by permission Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data Handbook, 1st Ed., 1979, Cleveland, Ohio.

(text continued from page 72) Laminar Flow

Validity of K Values

W h e n the Reynolds n u m b e r is below a value of 2000,

E q u a t i o n 2-25 is valid for calculating the h e a d loss d u e
to valves a n d fittings for all c o n d i t i o n s of flows: laminar,
transition, a n d t u r b u l e n t [3]. T h e K values are a r e l a t e d
f u n c t i o n of the pipe system c o m p o n e n t i n t e r n a l d i a m e t e r
a n d the velocity o f flow for vZ/2g. T h e values in the stan-
d a r d tables are d e v e l o p e d using s t a n d a r d ANSI pipe,
valves, a n d fittings d i m e n s i o n s for e a c h s c h e d u l e or class
[3]. T h e K value is for the s i z e / t y p e of pipe, fitting, or
valve a n d n o t for the fluid, regardless of w h e t h e r it is liq-
uid or gas/vapor.
the flow r e g i o n is c o n s i d e r e d laminar. T h e pipe friction
factor is d e f i n e d as:
f = 64/R~ (2-17)
Between Re of 2000 a n d 4000, the flow is c o n s i d e r e d
u n s t e a d y or u n s t a b l e or t r a n s i t i o n a l w h e r e l a m i n a r
m o t i o n a n d t u r b u l e n t m i x i n g flows may a l t e r n a t e ran-
d o m l y [3]. K values can still be calculated f r o m the
78 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Reynolds number and the friction factor for all conditions

of flow using the appropriate f and K values.
i
.!;
,!I K = f (L/D) (2-25)

v hf - K(Vl - v2)2/2g (2-31)

LI,
0.4
i

t 'i\\ and:

hf --- (f L/D) (v2/2g), ft fluid for pipe (2-26)

9 \
.,a. -.~, - - ~
ooo2o
. 1 ooo15 I hf = (K) (v2/2g), ft fluid for valves and fittings (2-27)
~ ~ o.ooos ID
L ----" ~_~
L
SMOOTHJ AP/100 eq. ft* = 0.0668 (~v/d 2) - 0.0273 ~ Q / d 4,
psi/100 eq. ft (2-32)

0.0 ~
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 AP = (AP/IO0) (Leq), psi (2-33)
,, R
D
*Equivalent feet of straight pipe; i.e., straight pipe plus
Note: 1 .) U s e 0.00085 ft for ~r for uncoated cast iron and cast steel elbows.
2.) Not reliable when R / D < 1 . 0 . equivalents for valves, fittings, other system components
3.) R -- radius of elbow, ft
(except vessels, etc.). Therefore,
Figure 2-13A. Resistance Coefficients for 90 ~ bends of uniform
diameter for water. Reprinted by permission, Hydraulic Institute, AP/100 eq. ft = pressure drop (friction) per 100 equivalent
Engineering Data Book, I st Ed., 1979, Cleveland, Ohio. feet of straight pipe

0.30

0.25 9D
R,

0.20

K 0.15

0.10

0.05

7.5 15 22.5 30 37.5 45 52.5 60 67.5 75 82.5 90

| ii | i iii ,i , ,, (X ~

Figure 2-13B. Resistance coefficients for bends of uniform diameter and smooth surface at Reynolds number = 2.25 • 105. Reprinted by per-
mission, Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data Book, I st Ed., 1979, Cleveland, Ohio.
 Fluid F l o w 79

, , ,

K, = 0 . 0 1 6 K, = 0 . 0 3 4 K, = 0 . 0 4 2 K, = 0 . 0 6 6 K, = 0 . 1 3 0 K = . - 9
K, = 0 . 0 2 4 K, = 0 . 0 4 4 K, = 0 . 0 6 2 K~ = 0 . 1 5 4 K, = 0 . 1 6 5 K, = 0 . 3 2 0 K, = 0 . 6 8 4 K, = 1 . 1 2 9
K, = 1 . 2 8 5

1.t7D 30 ~ 1.23D 30 ~ 2.37DI ~ 30 1.23D ,,r,o 2.37D o 1.44D 1.44D

22.5 ~ / - - - ~"; T-"~.23D 30
J ,

i
, o 9 30 ~

. . . .=. u.~'u~' V 30:

p~, K, = 0.400 K, = 0.400
K, = 0.112 K, = 0.150 K, = 0.143 K, = 0.108 K, = 0.188 u 300
K, = 0 . 2 8 4 K, = 0 . 2 6 8 K, = 0 . 2 2 7 K, = 0 . 2 3 6 K, = 0 . 3 2 0 Kr = 0 . 3 2 3 Kr -- 0 . 5 3 4 K~ = 0 . 6 0 1

,,/D I K, I K, F 22.5o , , / D ~ ~ ~ K . K, ,,/D.23T: 0.T95-K'1 K , ,,/D K, K,

o ~.7~:. o.~-~7--F-o-~b, ~.~Y~ 30~ ~ o.~71 1T23"~: ' 0157: ~O-.3-60!

"~IIl"~'~'~/L1"50*';O'280'O:'3~76"L"'~~ ~:87~ ~oi~56":0:378

45 lo.g:4~ !I 0.350 10.415 ;1:40 ; 0.320!
I'JL174 0.333 I0.384 1.50: :!0.250 !.67~.~ :'0:150 0.300 2:37.~ '~0,143' :0.264
_ ~ (x 11~,42;'.: 0.261..:110,377 1:63:; :!'0:i"24'i;0.266 "1.70', ~3.T/.',~LoX6o:-o:.24z
~ 3 1"91~ "!0"1~9"
6;! 0.342!
0"299 '~
". ~ 45 ~ 11;86:~ :0.28910.390 2.325 "0.096"i0;317 :0.154 0.31210.3371
:2.56~. :0.356 10.429 2:40" "0.095
,,, 0:,26 'o.=, i oo 4.11~, .i0.190-t
. . . : 0.354i
I:3.72"; ~0.356 '0:460 3.49~ ;.0.130" -:0.318", r4:70~: :0.192 '1 0.360!
IV l ['~.89.~ 0.389"."0:455 '4.65 ~" ]0,148"0.310 ~ 1 ~ :0,201~O.360~ , 30 ~
D ~-- '5.59.' 0.392 0.~44 6,05~-0,142 -0.313~
, -I I ~.~0.399:0.444_. ~ 22.5 o

9 i ill
K, = RESISTANCE COEFFICIENT FOR SMOOTH SURFACE *OPTIMUM VALUE OF a INTERPOLATED
Kr = RESISTANCE COEFFICIENT FOR ROUGH SURFACE, ---( -= 0.0022
D

Figure 2-14. Resistance coefficients for miter bends at Reynolds number = 2.25 x 105 for water. Reprinted by permission, Hydraulic Institute
Engineering Data Book, I st Ed., 1979, Cleveland, Ohio.

I I I I 1 "
ii' '' J i
~I
0.4 ,-
i i
K 0.3
= " ~ D= Dz V=
t Vl
!. i
_ f, = i,

0.1 h=K
v,,
2g
I ' ..... t
0.0 1 I I i ! I
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

DI
..,,,,,
D2 -'--

RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS FOR R E D U C E R S

Figure 2-15. Resistance coefficients for reducers for water. Reprinted by permission, Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data Book, I st Ed., 1979,
Cleveland, Ohio.
80 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

1.2 Ji'i'i'l'l'l'l'l'l' !' ",'' ' '['I'i'I'I'I'i'I'I'I'_L!!'i'I'I'I'I'I'I'-I

_,,, O.lO op,,j,,,,~,, ,i -'~.U~P~R2L'":'T! I I i I i ! I I I 1 I ! I !-t
1.1 i' ','"l 'D2- D,)/2
""1"i
~ / "~l-4. J I ! ! i i I I I !!11111-1
i I l-'l-+g..IJ I i i1111111-t

i ;!. i,,.,I ! [ M - I i '~' , Ill Ill =lilllllli~ ,I,i,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,-!

70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

V,
GIBSON: m,m =real m

04[
i ;_I_L_I_
I
RUSSELL:
L=6" .
L = 12"-- ......
" .--

L = 18" . . . . . . .
0.3
tan 012 = (D2 - D,)/2L
0.2 =

h=K I \D,/ J "~" =KL\D-'~,/ - 1 2g

0.1 [D2- D')/2 L
;)'~';"J"~j!;;"J 040 o.,-
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o IN DEGREES
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS FOR INCREASERS AND DIFFUSERS

Figure 2-16. Resistance coefficients for increasers and diffusers for water. Reprinted by permission, Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data
Book, I st Ed., 1979, Cleveland, Ohio.

Sudden Enlargement or Contraction [2] For sudden pipe system contractions as represented in
Figure 2-12A through 2-16, the values of the resistance
For sudden enlargements in a pipe system when there coefficient, K, can be read from the charts. For more
is an abrupt change from a smaller pipe flowing into a details for various angles of enlargements and contrac-
larger pipe, the resistance coefficient, K, is given by: tions, see References [3] and [2].

For sudden enlargement:

For sudden contractions:
K1 = (1 - O12/O22) 2 "- (1 - ~2)2 (2-28)

where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the smaller (upstream)

K 1 0 , 5 (1 - d 1 2 / d 2 2 ) - 0 . 5 (1 - ~2) (2-36)
and larger pipes respectively [3],
or,

hf - K (v2/2g), ft of fluid, friction (2-27) Note: Subscripts 1 and 2 indicate small and large pipes
respectively.
hf = Ka [1 - (812/822)2] 2 (v21/2g), ft of fluid (2-34)

K 1 -- (1 - 812/822) 2 (2-35) Then, hf = K1 ( v 1 2 / 2 g ) , ft (2-27)

 Fluid Flow 81

Piping Systems for 0 ~ 45 ~ as enlargements:

T h e K coefficient values for each of the items of pipe, K2 = 2.6 [(sin 0/2) ( 1 - [~2)2]/~4 (2-38)
b e n d s , valves, fittings, c o n t r a c t i o n s , e n l a r g e m e n t s ,
e n t r a n c e / e x i t s i n t o / f r o m vessels are additive as long as
they are on the same size basis (see Table 2-2 a n d Fig- for 0 N 45 ~ as contractions
ures 2-12A t h r o u g h 2-16). T h u s the resistance e q u a t i o n
is applicable to calculate the h e a d or pressure loss K2 - [0.8 (sin 0/2) (1 - ~2)]//~4 (2-39)
t h r o u g h the specific system w h e n the c o m b i n e d K value
is used.
For h i g h e r resistance valves, such as globes a n d angles,
hf = K (v2/2g) (2-27) the losses are less than s u d d e n e n l a r g e m e n t s or contrac-
tions situations. For these r e d u c e d seat valves the resis-
or, hf = f (L/D) (v2/2g) (2-26) tance coefficient K, can be calculated as [3]"

where K = s u m m a t i o n of all K values in a specific system, At 0 ~ 180, for sudden and gradual enlargements:
when all are on the same size (internal flow) basis. See dis-
cussion in " C o m m o n D e n o m i n a t o r " section.
K2 = [(1 - ~2)21/~4 (2-40)

Resistance of Valves
At ~ 180, for gradual contraction:
Figure 2-12B a n d Table 2-2 p r e s e n t several typical
valves a n d connections, screwed a n d flanged, for a variety K2 = [{0.5 (sin 0 / 2 ) 1/2} (1 -- ~ 2 ) ] / ~ 4 (2-41)
of sizes or internal diameters. These do not apply for mix-
tures of s u s p e n d e d solids in liquids; r a t h e r specific data
for this situation is r e q u i r e d (see [2]). Reference [3] pre- T h e use of these equations requires some assumptions or
sents data for specific valves. j u d g m e n t regarding the degree of o p e n i n g for fluid flow.
Even so, this is better than assuming a wide o p e n or full
Valves such as globes and angles generally are designed
flow condition, which would result in too low a resistance
with changes in flow direction internally, a n d thereby,
to flow for the design situation.
exhibit relatively high flow resistances. These same types
of valves exhibit even greater resistances when they are
throttled down from the "wide o p e n " position for control Flow Coefficients for Valves, Cv
of flow to a smaller internal flow path. For design purpos-
es, it is usually best to assume a 14 or g o p e n position,
Flow coefficients (not resistance) for valves are gener-
r a t h e r than wide open. Estimated K values can be deter-
ally available from the manufacturer. T h e Cv coefficient of
m i n e d [3] by reference to Figures 2-12A t h r o u g h 2-16 a n d
a valve is defined as the flow of water at 60~ in gallons
Tables 2-2 a n d 2-3.
per minute, at a pressure d r o p of one p o u n d per square
inch across the valve [3], regardless of w h e t h e r the valve
where K1 = refers to coefficient for smaller diameter ultimately will be flowing liquid or gases/vapors in the
K2 = refers to coefficient for larger diameter plant process. It is expressed:
13 = ratio of diameters of smaller to larger pipe size
0= angles of convergence or divergence in enlarge-
Cv = 29.9 d2/(K)1/2 (2-42)
ments or contractions in pipe systems, degrees.

From Reference [3], K values for straight-through valves, Cv = Q {p/(APc) (62.4)] 1/2 (2-43)
such as gate a n d ball (wide o p e n ) , can also be calculated.
These types of valves are not normally used to throttle Q = Cv [APc (62.4/9)] 1/2 (2-44)
flow, but are either o p e n or closed.
For sudden and gradual (Note: Sub 1 = smaller pipe;
= 7.90 Cv [APc/p]I/2 (2-44A)
Sub 2 = larger pipe)

K2 -- KI/~ 4, (2-37) AP = [ q / / C v ] 2 [9/62.4] (2-45)

82 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

N o z z l e s an d O r i f i c e s [3] [3 = ratio of small to large diameter orifices and noz-

T h e s e p i p i n g i t e m s s h o w n in Figures 2-17 a n d 2-18 are
i m p o r t a n t p r e s s u r e d r o p or h e a d loss items in a system
a n d m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d for to o b t a i n the total system pres-
sure loss. For liquids:
zles and contractions or enlargements in pipes
For d i s c h a r g i n g i n c o m p r e s s i b l e fluids to a t m o s p h e r e ,
take C values f r o m Figures 2-17 or 2-18 if hL or AP is t a k e n
as u p s t r e a m h e a d or g a u g e pressure.

q = C ' A ~ 2 g ( 1 4 4 ) ( A p ) / 9 = C'A[2ghL ]1/2 (2-46)

For flow o f c o m p r e s s i b l e fluids use the n e t e x p a n s i o n
factor Y (see later discussion) [ 3] :
where q = cubic ft/sec of fluid at f l o w i n g conditions

C' = flow coefficient for nozzles and orifices

C t = C d //5J 1 -- [34 , corrected for velocity of
approach
Note: C' = C for Figures 2-17 and 2-18, corrected for velocity
of approach.
Cd = discharge coefficient for nozzles and orifices
hL = differential static head or pressure loss across
flange taps when C or C' values come from Figures
2-17 and 2-18, ft of fluid. Taps are located one
diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter down from
the device.
A = cross section area of orifice, nozzle or pipe, sq ft
h = static head loss, ft of fluid flowing
AP - differential static loss, lbs/sq in. of fluid flowing,
under conditions of hL above
q = Y C ' A [2g (144) (AP)/p] 1/2 (2-48)
(2-47)
where Y = net expansion factor for compressible flow
through orifices, nozzles, and pipe.
C' = flow coefficient from Figures 2-17 or 2-18. When
discharging to atmosphere, P = inlet gauge pres-
sure. (Also see critical flow discussion.)
For e s t i m a t i n g p u r p o s e s in usual p i p i n g systems, t h e
values of p r e s s u r e d r o p across an orifice or nozzle will
r a n g e f r o m 2 to 5 psi. For m o r e e x a c t system p r e s s u r e
d r o p calculations, the loss across these devices s h o u l d be
c a l c u l a t e d using s o m e size a s s u m p t i o n s .

r dlld2 = p

,~0 i . . . . . . : ~ . " ~ ' ~ ' - - - - - ....... " "

1.18

. . . . i . l.. , = ,--
" +r ~ " - -
1.14 .... J: f ~ .m_

Flow 1.os i- ~ _ --" -~--. - _.=

,.o4 J " - " -~ " ~..........~.._ _ - -.-, ~o.m Z

c~ ..... ~_~ - ' : .... _.,- 0, z

1.02 . . . . o
c .v o ~ ....,..~.....im,~N0.45 ~.~

=Ci-~'

E x a m p l e : T h e flow coeffi-
c i e n t C for a d i a m e t e r ratio
of o.6o at a Reynolds
n u m b e r of zo,ooo (z x IO4) 0"94 / e l , " " - ~ i ~ - -

equals I.O3. 0.~ . _: A i

4 " ~s{o, 2 4 s s lo., 2 4 6 i lo,, 2
R,. - Revnolds Number based on d:,

Figure 2-17. Flow coefficient "C" for nozzles. C based on the internal diameter of the upstream pipe. By permission, Crane Co. [3]. Crane ref-
erence [9] is to Fluid Meters, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Part 1--6th Ed., 1971. Data used to construct charts. Chart not copied
from A.S.M.E. reference.
 Fluid Flow 83

,.2 84 _~-~- ~ ,
!i /f "~
~1 B ~.oo
,.o ,..~ i / ~ " i "~.

I~- ~'tv ,,
o., - '~@t,., - ~ -

i.-,.--i.~ 1 / mn.-~ = .4~-

0.5 "

T
1
o,~~, ~--:~j
3 4 6 810 20 40 608010 ~ 2 4 6 8101 2 4 6 8104

R,, - ReynoldsNumberbasedon dl
C ~ / ~ =0
FJoII~ . ~ e ~
~[ i lllll-.~]]]lllli I lIlll .

C I
C~ ooi l irtJl_ i JrJiJ
2.1II l llil ~ I i i][J
o.i I ! IfIl~Illiili I l l~]J J'"
.I l [ l ll~_J i~~.!~i. , ,~ i ,,,,,iiii" ,'~.
o.I ! l ll]~----.l_~iiil~ i -H,,,, l= ~

o.lii[lllil
2 4 6 8104 2
I TIIIII
4 6 110 s
I ]Iiiiiii
2 4 6 8106
i.)
Re - ReynoldsNumberbasedon d 2

Figure 2-18. Flow coefficient "C" for square edged orifices. By permission, Crane Co. [3], Technical Paper 410 Engineering Div. (1976) and
Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Application Part 1, 6th Ed., 1971, American Society of Mechanical Engineers and, Tuve, G. L. and Sprenkle,
R. E., "Orifice Discharge Coefficients for Viscous Liquids," Instruments Nov. 1933, p. 201.

Example 2-1: Pipe Sizing Using Resistance Coefficients, K Estimated flow velocity for assumed 2 in. Sch. 40 pipe (See
Appendix A-16)
A p l a n t decides to a d d a n i t r o g e n b l a n k e t (at 5 psig) to
a storage tank h o l d i n g u p to 25,000 gallons o f a hydro- (20 gpm ) (8.33 lb / gal ) (0.81 SpGr )
carbon mixture having kerosene-like properties and (62.3 • 0.81) (3.355 in 2 ) (60 sec/min )/144
p u m p s this m a t e r i a l into a process r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g at 30 = 1.91 ft/sec
psig. (See Figure 2-19)

Velocity head v2 __ (1.91) 2

= 0.05664 ft of fluid
2g 2(32.2)
T h e flow rate n e e d s to be 20 g p m . C o n n e c t i o n s o f
p i p e a n d valve are flanged, with the 60-90 ~ elbows a d d e d 50.6 Q9
in the line. Reynolds number = (2-49)
dg

50.6 (20)(0.81 • 62.3)

(2.06)(1.125 cp)
Pump suction velocity = 2 ft/sec (Selected low in accordance
with good pump suction practice, R e = 22,036 (turbulent)
from Table 2-4 or Table 2-7). ~;/D = 0.00088, Figure 2 - 11
84 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

/ 30 psig
N2 pad

5 psig70~ 1 I_.. 2oo~

.J
. Normaloperatinglevel
r ......... i
Pressuregauge- - ~ ~ ICheckvalve/ ] [
Ill _/---6-90~ells) 1 ~ A
r ~Globevalve insystem, / , / \
Sharpexit valve welded / \ / \
j ~ G a t e valve [.~ L__, ~

I_. 15ft .=1

r I
Storage tank Centrifugal pump Reactor
Figure 2-19. Pipe sizing using resistancecoefficients,K. Illustrationfor Example 2-1.

From Figure 2-3 (friction factor), ft = 0.0205 Pump Discharge Line Sizing (only)

The p u m p discharge can flow at a higher velocity than

fLv 2 the suction line, due in part to NPSH conditions on the
hf = (2-2) suction side of any p u m p (which are not considered
D(2g)
directly in these pipe sizing calculations).
0.0205 (15)(1.91) 2 From Table 2-4, select 6 ft/sec as design velocity for
estimating pipe size.
2.067 in / 2(32.2)
For 20 gpm, cross-section area for flow required:
12

hf -- 0.101 ft of kerosene fluid, pipe friction, for 15 ft 2O

A
7.48 gal/cu ft (60 sec/min) (6 ft/sec)
Loss t h r o u g h p u m p suction fittings:
= 0.00742 sq ft
= (0.007427)(144) = 1.009 sq in.
a. Square edged inlet (tank to pipe), K = 0.5, Figure 2-
12A From A p p e n d i x A-16, Standard Schedule 40 pipe
For 1-in. pipe, A = 0.8640 sq in. (too small)
b. Gate valve flanged, open, in suction line, from Table
188 pipe, A = 1.495 sq in. (too large)
2-2, w i t h ~ = 1, K = 8 f T
Try 188 pipe, ID = 1.38 in.
K = 8 (0.0205) = 0.164
(Note: Usually do not select this size. Could go to 11//-
hf = Kv2/2g = (0.5 4- 0.164) (1.91)2/2 (32.2) = 0.0853 ft in. Velocity would be even slower.)
fluid
Actual velocity would be: (1g-in. pipe)
Total suction pipe side friction loss:
v = 20 (144)/[(60) (7.48) (1.495)] = 4.29 ft/sec

Zhf = 0.101 4- 0.0853 = 0.1863 ft kerosene

This is acceptable. Practical usage range is 3 ft/sec to
9 ft/sec, a l t h o u g h 188 pipe is n o t the best size for
Note: when used for p u m p system balance, this Zhf some plants.
must be used as a negative n u m b e r ( - 0 . 1 8 6 3 ) because it is
a pressure loss associated with the fluid flowing. For pipe Reynolds number, Re = 50.6Qg/d~ (2-49)
line sizing, the pressure head on the tank of 5 psig and any = 50.6 (20)(0.81 x 62.3)/1.38 (1.125)
elevation difference between tank outlet nozzle and p u m p = 32,894 (turbulent)
suction centerline do not enter into the calculations. For 188 e/D = 0.0014, Figure 2-11. (2-49A)
 Fluid Flow 85

T a b l e 2-4
S u g g e s t e d F l u i d Velocities in P i p e a n d T u b i n g : L i q u i d s , Gases, a n d V a p o r s at l o w / m o d e r a t e p r e s s u r e to 50 p s i g a n d
50 ~ to IOOOF

The velocities are suggestive only and are to be used to approxi- The final line size should be cuch as to give an economical balance
mate line size as a starting point for pressure drop calculations. between pressure drop and reasonable velocity

Suggested Trial Suggested Trial

Fluid Velocity Pipe Material Fluid Velocity Pipe Material
Acetylene (Observe Sodium Hydroxide
pressure limitations) 4000 fpm Steel 0--30 Percent 6 fps Steel
Air, 0 to 30 psig 4000 fpm Steel 30--50 Percent 5 fps and
Ammonia 5(}--73 Percent 4 Nickel
Liquid 6 fps Steel Sodium Chloride Sol'n.
Gas 6000 fpm Steel No Solids 5 fps Steel
Benzene 6 fps Steel With Solids (6 Min.--
Bromine 15 Max.) M onel or nickel
Liquid 4 fps Glass 7.5 fps
Gas 2000 fpm Glass Perchlorethylene 6 fps Steel
Calcium Chloride 4 fps Steel Steam
Carbon Tetrachloride 6 fps Steel 0-30 psi Saturated* 4000--6000 fpm Steel
Chlorine (Dry) 30-150 psi Satu-
Liquid 5 fps Steel, Sch. 80 rated or super-
Gas 2000--5000 fpm Steel, Sch. 80 heated* 6000-10000 fpm
Chloroform 150 psi up
Liquid 6 fps Copper & Steel superheated 6500-15000 fpm
Gas 2000 fpm Copper & Steel *Short lines 15,000 fpm
Ethylene Gas 6000 fpm Steel (max.)
Ethylene Dibromide 4 fps Glass Sulfuric Acid
Ethylene Dichloride 6 fps Steel 88--93 Percent 4 tps S. S.m316, Lead
Ethylene Glycol 6 fps Steel 93--100 Percent 4 fps Cast Iron & Steel,
Hydrogen 4000 fpm Steel Sch. 80
Hydrochloric Acid Sulfur Dioxide 4000 fpm Steel
Liquid 5 fps Rubber Lined Styrene 6 fps Steel
4000 fpm R. L., Saran, Trichlorethylene 6 fps Steel
Gas Haveg Vinyl Chloride 6 fps Steel
Methyl Chloride Vinylidene Chloride 6 fps Steel
Liquid 6 fp~ Steel Water
Gas 4000 fpm Steel Average service 3-8 (avg. 6) fps Steel
Natural Gas 6000 fpm Steel Boiler feed 4-12 fps Steel
Oils, lubricating 6 fps Steel Pump suction lines 1-5 fps Steel
Oxygen 1800 fpm Max. Steel (300 psig Max.) Maximum economi-
(ambient temp.) 4000 fpm Type 304 SS cal (usual) 7-10 fpsSteel
(Low temp.) Sea and brackish R. L., concrete,
Propylene Glycol 5 fps Steel water, lined pipe 5-8 fps ~3 asphalt-line, saran-
Concrete 5-12 fps ((Min.) lined, transite

Note: R. L. = Rubber-lined steel.

F r o m F i g u r e 2-3, r e a d , f = 0.0219 = fT 1 globe valve ( o p e n ) , ~ = 1" K = 340 fT = 340 (0.0219)

t h e n , p i p e only friction loss: = 7.446

hf = (f L/D) (v2/2g) (2-2)

6 90 ~ elbows, r / d = 1 . 8 8 / 1 . 3 8 = 1.36
D = pipe, I.D., in ft = 1.38/12 = 0.1150 ft

( 8 + 6 + 200) (4.29) 2 K = 30 fT = 30 (0.0219) = 0.657

h r - 0.0219
0.1150 (2)(32.2)
hf-- 11.64 ft of kerosene flowing (pipe only)
F o r 6 : 6 • 0.657 = 3.94
Loss t h r o u g h d i s c h a r g e fittings, valves, c o n n e c t i o n s ,
u s i n g K factors u s i n g Table 2-2"
2 c h e c k valves, swing, t h r e a d e d , 100 fT = 100 (0.0219) 1 s h a r p e d g e d e n t r a n c e ( s u d d e n e n l a r g e m e n t ) = 1.0
= 2.19 = 4.38 1 g a t e valve, o p e n , ~ = 1.0, K = 8 fT; K = 8 (0.0219)
(for 2) = 0.175
86 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Summation: Pressure drop = AP = 0.00001799 K9 Q2/d4 (2-52)

= 0.00001799 (52.48) (48.6)
K = [4.38 + 7.45* + 3.94 + 0.175" + 1.0] = 16.941 (350)2/(4.026) 4
AP = 21.2 psi friction pressure loss only
* T h r e a d e d , from Table 2-2. (no elevation change)
For fittings:
Alternate Calculation Basis for Piping System Friction
Head Loss: Liquids
16.941 (4.292 )
then, h = Kv 2//2g = = 4.84 ft kerosene
2(32.2) Pressure loss in a piping system (not including the
tanks, heat exchangers, distillation columns, etc.) is usu-
Total friction loss for discharge side p u m p due to fric- ally expressed in units of feet of flowing fluid, or the equiva-
tion: lent converted to pounds per square inch. Some published
pressure loss data is expressed as per 1 O0 equivalent feet of
h = 11.64 + 4.84 = 16.48 ft fluid kerosene the size pipe being used or estimated.
h f = Ap = 16.48/[(2.31)/(0.81)] = 5.77 psi
Equivalent Feet Concept for Valves, Fittings, Etc.
Example 2-2: Laminar Flow Through Piping System
With pipe of any specified size as the basis, the total
A heavy weight oil, No. 5 fuel oil, is to be p u m p e d footage of straight pipe in a system is just the m e a s u r e d
t h r o u g h 350 ft of existing 4-in. Schedule 40 pipe at 350 length (totaled).
gpm. Oil data: For fittings, valves, etc., in the same system, these can
be expressed as equivalent straight pipe, then a d d e d to the
Temperature = 100~ straight pipe described above, to arrive at a total equiva-
Viscosity = 150 cp lent straight length of pipe of the specific size in question.
Sp Gr = 0.78 = 48.6 lb/cu ft Figure 2-20 presents equivalent lengths of straight pipe
Pipe I.D. = 4.026 in. = 0.3355 ft (feet) for various pipe system c o m p o n e n t s . For example,
a standard t h r e a d e d 6-inch 90 ~ elbow is equivalent to
Reynolds number = 50.6 Q9/(d/t) adding 17 feet of straight pipe to the system. This 17 feet
= 50.6 [(350) (48.6) / (4.026) (150)] is additive to the lengths of n o m i n a l 6-inch straight pipe
= 1425 (2-50) in the system (dotted line). However, there is an impor-
tant consideration in the use of this chart, i.e., use only for
Flow is <2000, therefore, flow of viscous or laminar sys- t h r e a d e d or screwed pipe/fittings, a n d only for sizes
tem consists of friction factor, fw, for 4-in. pipe = 0.017 u n d e r 2-inch n o m i n a l size. It is not practical in c u r r e n t
(Table 2-2). industry practice to t h r e a d a process or utility system
m u c h greater in n o m i n a l d i a m e t e r than 2 inches. For spe-
1 gate valve = K = 8 fT = 8 (0.017) = 0.136, (Table 2-2) cial situations, the larger sizes can be used, but f r o m a
3 90 ~ = K = 20 fT = 20 (0.017) = 0.345 h a n d l i n g standpoint, sizes greater than 3 inches or 4 inch-
1 90 ~ = R / D = 5; 5 / D = 0.00045 (Figure 2-11); K = es are not practical.
0.1 (Figure 2-13A) For pipe sizes greater than 2 inches nominal, industry
1 pipe e n t r a n c e to tank projecting inward, K = 0.78 practice is to weld the pipe a n d fittings into one continu-
(Table 2-2) ous system, a n d then use flanged or special bolted con-
For 350 ft pipe, K = f ( L / D ) = 0.0449 (350/0.3355) = nections for attaching the valves, orifices, a n d connec-
51.12 tions to vessels or o t h e r e q u i p m e n t . For special lethal,
[For f, see calculations below] high pressure, a n d steam power plant high tempera-
t u r e / h i g h pressure utility systems, even the valves a n d
f = 64/Re connections to vessels are welded into the system (See
f = 64/1425 = 0.0449 (2-17) ASME a n d ANSI Codes). For these situations of a b o u t l~-
inch to 2-inch n o m i n a l pipe size a n d larger, use Figure 2-
Total K values =51.12 + 0.78 + 0.1 + 0.136 + 0.345 = 21 to d e t e r m i n e the equivalent pipe lengths for these fit-
52.48 tings, valves, etc. For example, a 45 ~ welding elbow, or an
o p e n 6-inch gate valve (see line on chart) have an equiva-
Velocity Vs = 0.408 Q / d 2 = 0.408 (350) / (4.026) 2 lent length of 6-inch pipe of four feet (straight), which is
= 8.8 ft/sec (2-51) an addition to the actual straight pipe in the system. In
 Fluid Flow 87

Globe Valve, Open

3000

,~1/~ Closed 2000

- - - - - - ~ Closed
Fully Open
q

42
Angle Valve, Open Standard Tee 36
300
200
/ Square Elbow
i 100
20

Swing Check V a l v e , ~ / / ~ 16
F ully Open / I 0
0 14
J l ? o r d a Entrance -50
~
~, 12
30 a~ 10------- u~

i , o1=~
9~ U
Close Return Bend 20 ~ ~r 8------
ls2-dd~X~l~'g~'m~nt- -- gh
a--d/D- V4 O
O
.~ o 6"-"
10 ,..
" - - - - - d/D 3/4 ~ *" 5
Standard Tee E 4~------ O

Through Side Outlet 5 =

.I,,4
C~ 4 m
~

i.,.=1
~ 3 ~-------
Ordinary Entrance

Standard Elbow or run of 2 Z; 21/~ - - - - - -

Tee reduced 1/~

" Sudden Contraction

a/D-g 1 89
\ ,, - d / D - ~,~
Medium Sweep Elbow or , d/D-3 A 0.5
run of Tee reduced 1~
0.3 1-----[_ 1

0.2 3/4
45" Elbow

Long Sweep Elbow or

run of Standard Tee 0.l
0.5

Figure 2-20. Equivalent length resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids. Note: apply to 2 in. and smaller threaded pipe for process
applications (this author). By permission, Crane Co., Technical Paper #409, Engineering Div., 1942, also see [3].
 88 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

k"

rur valves: % closed 0 20 40 60 80

9 -

20 f
Le
5,000 -
i 4000 - d
~; 3,000 - 60-
..gr 2,000 - 50-
Globe valve, open} - - 40-
1,000 -
8": 800 = 30
7 60-
5~0- -24
6 eJl
m m m ~4 400- 20" - 20
3OO - -18
Angle valve, open -16
*Ball check valve, open 200 -_-.,.:
Swing check valve, open - ,=;
"45~ Globe valve, open 100 - "=-- I0- -I0 ~
--,.=4
180~ screwed return 80 - " .=_- 8
._~
Screwed or fabricated tee 60 ,,- 7
50- o t,.
-6
thru branch and 40- (D ,e,-

900 single- miler elbow 30- .= -5 ~

- O~
Welding tee lhru bronch'~
*Butterfly valve, open; ~
20 = -~,/~ .~
t
-.- . . .m
Submerged discharge}~"~~ -. I~
C
*3-Way p/ung~ cock, st. thru, open " ~ 1 ~ I I0-~ 0 .m
...., -21/2 _=
standard screwed or}......~l ~-. % 8> r
0
60 ~single- miter elbow 0.!~ 6-
=3
t-.
r
- 2 .=_
5 ,r162 G
45~ }
thru branch ~ - -0.8
L. _ll/z o
v~l |
.47_ z
-11/4
90~ or }..~0.~
90~ - miter elbow
*Plug cock, full port, open ...~ ~ ', 1 -I
Screwed or fabricoted~'~ ! -Z/4
tee or lateral thru run -; 0.8
0.7

45~
submerged entrance
;/
90 ~ triple-miler or]
miter elbow
/
....
~--.i
0.8-
0.6
0.5- 1
Enlarging } Sudden
0.6 ~z

180~ return o r } / / Contracting change

in seclion
45 ~ screwed el bow
J
Enlarging ~ ASA
reducer
Welding lee thru r u n / Controcting,I (to 12" size)
90= welding elb0w} ~
45~ elbow o r } / Note : d = Small Pipes dio. inches
gate valve, open d'= Large Pipe~dia. inches
O.08 R = Bend Radius ~inches
For Eccentric Reducers i
0.07 Increase Values of Concentric
Enlarging '~ Reducer
0.06 Controclingj with 20 ~ Reducers by 55 I/:5 %.
ao5
included angle Values for Tees and Laterals
Apply to Full Size Fittings~
0.04 - Losses Larger for Side Outlets.
\
*Added by author 1-76
3-Way plug cock opening is
0O3
80% of pipe size.
For partially closed globe-type valves,
For elbows ~ bends: Rid = 0 2 4 6 8 Multiply open Le by:
For contractions &
enlorgemenls: did'= 0 (3.2 0.4 0.6 0,8 3/4 open 3.25
1/2 open 12.0
1/4 open 72.0

Figure 2-21. Equivalent length of fittings for pipe systems. Note: preferred use for 189 in. and larger pipe butt-welded or socket-welded con-
nections (this author). By permission, Tube Turns Div., Chemitron Corp. Bull. TT 725, 1952, reference now to Tube Turns Technologies, Inc.
 Fluid Flow 89

summation, these equivalent lengths for all the compo- Table 2-5
nents d e t e r m i n e the total pipe length to use in the pres- Typical Design Vapor Velocities* (ft/sec)
sure loss (pressure drop) equations to be described later.
Line Sizes
Fluid _<6" 8"-12" >__14"
Friction Pressure Drop for Non-Viscous Liquids
Saturated Vapor
The only significance in differentiating between water 0 to 50 psig 30-115 50-125 60-145
Gas or Superheated Vapor
and liquids of different densities and viscosities is the con-
0 to 10 psig 50-140 90-190 110-250
venience in having a separate simplified table for water. 11 to 100 psig 40-115 75-165 95-225
101 to 900 psig 30- 85 60-150 85-165
1. Using known flow rate in gallons per minute and a
suggested velocity from Tables 2-4 to 2-8 or Figure 2- * Values listed are guides, and final line sizes and flow velocities
must be determined by appropriate calculations to suit circum-
22, estimate first pipe size. Mean velocity of any liq- stances. Vacuum lines are not included in the table, but usually
uid flowing in a pipe [3] is given by Figure 2-22 and tolerate higher velocities. High vacuum conditions require careful
pressure drop evaluation.
Equation 2-51.

v = 0.408 Q,/d 2 = 0.0509 W/(d 2) (9), ft/sec (2-51)

Table 2-6
d = (0.408 Q/v)1/2 - - (0.0509 W/v9)1/2, in. (2-53) Usual Allowable Velocities for Duct and Piping Systems*

v = q/A = ws/A 9 = 183.3 (q/d2), ft/sec (2-54) Service/Application Velocity, ft./min.

Forced draft ducts 2,500- 3,500
2. Estimate or otherwise d e t e r m i n e the linear feet of Induced-draft flues and breeching 2,000 - 3,000
straight pipe in the system, L. Chimneys and stacks 2,000
3. Estimate (or use actual tabulation) n u m b e r of fit- Water lines (max.) 600
High pressure steam lines 10,000
tings, valves, etc. in system. Convert these to equiva-
Low pressure steam lines 12,000 - 15,000
lent straight pipe using Figures 2-20 or 2-21, Leg, or
Vacuum steam lines 25,000
head by Figures 2-12 t h r o u g h 2-16 and Table 2-2. Compressed air lines 2,000
Refrigerant vapor lines
Note preferred pipe size type for charts. High pressure 1,000- 3,000
Low pressure 2,000- 5,000
4. Determine expansion or contraction losses, if any, Refrigerant liquid 200
including tank or vessel entrance or exit losses from Brine lines 400
Figures 2-12A, 2-15, or 2-16. Convert units to psi, Ventilating ducts 1,200- 3,000
head loss in feet times 0.4331 = psi (for water), or Register grilles 500
adjust for Sp Gr of other liquids. *Bypermission, ChemicalEngineer'sHandbook,3rd Ed., McGraw-HillBook
Co., New York, N.Y., p. 1642.
5. Estimate pressure d r o p t h r o u g h orifices, control
valves, and other items in the system, but not equip-
ment. For control valves, estimate AP from para-
graph to follow.
lish piping system friction pressure d r o p (loss),
6. Determine pressure d r o p per unit of length. liquids (Figure 2-23)"
a. Calculate Reynolds n u m b e r [3]

Re = 50.6 QO/(dg) = 6.31 W/(dg) (2-16) For turbulent flow: AP/100 ft = 0.0216 f pQ2/d5 (2-55)

b. From Reynolds Number-Friction Factor Chart, = 0.000336 fW2/(d 5) (9) (2-55A)

Figure 2-3, read friction factor, f, at 8 / d value
taken from Figure 2-11.
For laminar flow: AP/100 fl = 0.0668 (g) v/d 2 (2-56)
c. Calculate pressure d r o p per 100 feet of (straight
a n d / o r equivalent) pipe [3] as psi/100 ft. Estab- = 0.0273 (g) Q / d 4 (2-56A)
90 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

r o u n d e d values to no m o r e than one decimal place are

Table 2-7
limits for such head loss calculations.
Typical Design* Velocities for Process System
The head losses calculated using K coefficients by these
Applications
figures can be a d d e d directly to the total friction h e a d loss
for the straight pipe portions of a system. W h e n equiva-
Service Velocity, ft./sec.
lent lengths are d e t e r m i n e d , they must be a d d e d to the
Average liquid process 4 - 6.5 straight pipe before d e t e r m i n i n g the total h e a d loss, as
Pump suction (except boiling) 1-5 shown in the example calculations for a water system.
Pump suction, boiling 0.5- 3
Friction loss in rubber-lined pipe is usually considered
Boiler feed water (disch., pressure) 4-8
equivalent to that in new steel pipe of one-half to one
Drain lines 1.5 - 4
2-7 nominal size smaller, with little or no change due to
Liquid to reboiler (no pump)
Vapor-liquid mixture out reboiler 15 - 30 aging, unless known conditions can be interpolated. For a
Vapor to condenser 15 - 8O given inside diameter, the friction loss is the same (or
Gravity separator flows O.5- 1.5 slightly less) than clean steel pipe.
In the t u r b u l e n t flow range, friction loss in glass pipe is
* To be used as guide, pressure drop and system environment govern 70 to 85 percent of clean steel.
final selection of pipe size.
For heavy and viscous fluids, velocities should be reduced to about For 2-inch (nominal) and larger vinyl, saran, or h a r d
Y2 values shown. r u b b e r pipe, the friction loss does not exceed clean steel.
Fluids not to contain suspended solid particles.
With saran and rubber-lined pipe the loss is a b o u t equal
to clean steel at the 2.5-inch size, increasing to 2 to 4 times
Table 2-8 the loss at the 1-inch size.
Suggested Steam Pipe Velocities in Pipe Connecting to
Steam Turbines Estimation of Pressure Loss across Control Valves:
Liquids, Vapors, and Gases
Service--Steam Typical range, ft./sec.
Despite the n e e d for good control in many process sys-
Inlet to turbine 100- 150
tems, most engineers do not allow the p r o p e r pressure
Exhaust, non-condensing 175 - 200
500 - 400 d r o p for the control valves into their calculations. Many
Exhaust, condensing
literature sources ignore the problem, a n d many plant
operators and engineers w o n d e r why the actual plant has
control problems.
7. Total pressure d r o p for system: Rather than assuming a pressure d r o p across the con-
trol as 25%, 33%, or 40% of the o t h e r friction losses in the
AE psi = (L + ]ELeq ) (AP/100 ft from 6 c above) system, a logical a p p r o a c h [9] is summarized here. The
+ 4 above + 5 above (2-57) control valve pressure d r o p has n o t h i n g to do with the
valve size, but is d e t e r m i n e d by the pressure balance (See
N o t e : Leq is from 3 above.
Equation 2-59 [9]).
Control valve pressure drop:
If this pressure d r o p is too large or too small, recheck
the steps using larger or smaller pipes as may be indicat- Ps = Pe + FD + Pc (2-58)
ed. The tables in C a m e r o n [57], Table 2-22, or Figure 2-
24 are very convenient to use, although they give m u c h Available APc = (Ps - P e ) - FD, psi (2-59)
more conservative results (about twice unit head loss)
than the m e t h o d outlined above. W h e n using Figure 2-24, where Ps = total pressure at beginning (higher pressure) of
the results agree acceptably well with tests on 15 to 20 year system, psig, including any static heads to reach
old steel pipe. Also see Table 2-22. final pressure, Pe.
Pe = pressure at lower end of system, psig
For brine, Table 2-9 gives multipliers to use with the
FD = friction loss at design basis, total, for the system,
water unit losses of Figure 2-24. Figure 2-25 gives direct-
psi, including equipment and piping, at QD rate
reading values with D o w t h e r m | liquid.
QM = maximum anticipated flow rate for system, gpm,
It is i m p o r t a n t to note that comparison of results from or ACFM
these charts does n o t yield exact checks on any particular FM = friction pressure drop at maximum flow rate
fitting. Calculations should never be represented as being QM, psi
m o r e accurate than the basic information. Therefore, QD = design flow rate, gpm, or ACFM
 Fluid Flow 91

v : O. 408 Old 2 - 0.0509 W/d2p d

3/I - -.s
q
-100
-80 I/2-
"60 -3
-40 -.8
-30
--.9
-20 - 1.o
1-
p
-10
-8 37
|i 4 ,1

-6
-L5
-4 -40
23
-2
-2
"o
-g) o
- ~
c
3 ,., 2~i- '2.5 ~
-30 _=
-1 'Y' 'o . ~ ~
-20 o .~ - .=_ ;
- ~ 15 ,,," ~"
_._~..._o. --'3":-- -- 3 u-
121 ._~ ~~
-.6 ~_ - ~0_--~. ~- - ~. .g
,,-, o

"6 ~ "9, 3~z- 3.s _~ .s

-.3 = ~ -3 ~ ~ 4-- "4 e
.m
-
:~
o
- "~ c~
-.2 ~-.

Ilg !

7.1 , L6 ~
-.08 ~ A
-- ~
- ,06
-.2 -7
- ,04 -65
-.1 8-- -8
.03
-9
!0-
- .02
I0-- -lO -70

12-
".01
14--
3- -
- ,006
16-- -15
~- , . ~
II--
- .003
20--
I- -2O
Figure 2-22. Velocity of liquid in pipe. By per- - -.1112
.8-
mission, Crane Co., Technical Paper #410, .6-
"'.4
Engineering Div., 1957. Also see 1976 edition.
-.001
",3

APc = p r e s s u r e drop across control valve Allowing 10% factor of safety, expected maximum
FM = f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e drop at maximum flow rate, psi increase in friction pressure drop allowance:

= 1.1 [ ( Q M / Q D ) 2 - 1](FD) (2-61)

Friction loss or drop at higher flow rates than design:

Increased pressure drop = [F D ( Q M / Q o )2 -- FD ],

At maximum flow rate, QM, the friction drop will
become:
(2-60)
FM = F o ( Q M / Q D ) 2 (2-62)
92 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

q 0
- 20 000
Index 2
A P//O0feet = ~176176 ~176176176 --65
d5 dSp .

-10 000
20-_ .05
" 8 000 .06
.
- 6 000 d .os
I ) - -4000 ~30 .1
8- " -60
"24
- 3 00(] 24-
6-
Index I ,,...
.2
-2O0O 20----~ ,

4- : 16- - 15
! 3-
. _ "14
" 12 - -- 12
.-'.05 - 1000 10 - -- 10 -5s ~
-8O0 -9
~, .6-
- .04 " S --
~
-4O0 5 - - 6 ~2 =o 1
.

-3oo s - - s r. a,, -

-.03 (I) 4---4

.-.-20g
/ n
~, 2-2
: -50 .=_ u_

~ 2!2-" ~
o
3-
2) ,.'I00 e-

-80 2- -2 o,,..,,
2
. -6O I,~- - ._~
-- ]I 4 - -
-.0s --40
" S.2
!

-30 l- -I , lO-
.
-45 Q.
.

-20--.
"~ 3/4- _.8 i "
. = -.7
-.01 . ~ 1/2-- 6
. ~. !

7 lO ~ Y8-- .- .5
- 8 =, '-.4 40-o

- "- -.3 m
-4 ~ t+/8~.
. _ -40 w-
-3~ -o+ 1111.2
o ,, ~- - . 2
N
Figure 2-23. Pressure d r o p in l i q u i d .--

lines. By permission Crane Co., , O:: " ~

.003 , -~
Technical Paper #410, Engineering
Div., 1957. A l s o s e e 1 9 7 6 e d i t i o n . -1 ~ ~ -r . 1

The friction loss or pressure drop, FD, is determined at where Pe = s y s t e m e n d p r e s s u r e = 22 + 15 = 3 7 p s i g ( n o t

the design flow rate, Q D, for the piping, valves, and fric- friction)
tion producing e q u i p m e n t (such as tubular heat exchang- P i p i n g s y s t e m p i p e f r i c t i o n @ Q D f l o w r a t e - 6 psi
ers, tubular furnaces/heaters), orifice or other meters, H e a t e r , f r i c t i o n = 65 psi
S e p a r a t o r , f r i c t i o n = 1 psi
and control valves. Because the system friction pressure
Preheaters, 10 + 12 ( f r i c t i o n ) = 22 psi
loss changes with flow rate through the system, recogni-
O r i f i c e , allow, f r i c t i o n = 2 psi
tion must be given to the changes in flow rate (increase or
Total friction, excluding c o n t r o l valve, FD = 9 6 psi
decrease) as it affects the pressure loss through the con-
trol valves. For any design, the beginning and end points Assume pressure loss through control valve = 35 psi
of the system should be relatively constant for good
process operations. Then APe = ( P s - Pe) - FD, psi (2-59)
For good control by the valve, the pressure drop across
35= (Ps-37) - 9 6
(or through) the valve must always be greater than the fric-
tion losses of the system by perhaps 10% to 20% (see [9] ).
Ps = 168 psi, at pump discharge, using assumed control
valve pressure drop of 35 psi
Example 2-3: Establishing Control Valve Estimated
Note that Pe = 22 psig + 15 psi static H d . = 37 psig
Pressure Drop, using Connell's Method [9].
Assume that allowances must be made for a 10%
Refer to Figure 2-26 for an example to determine the increase in process flow rate, above design, QD. Pressure
pressure loss (drop) through the control valve. drop varies as the square of the flow rate.
 Fluid Flow 93

Correction Factors[ Factors to consider in evaluating the control valve pres-

vol=, of c 160170[ 80190 Iloo[,loll20l~oll401 sure d r o p are"
Multiplier to Correct Chart 12.57lz.9311.5011.221I. 01.e41.71 1.621.541

A. Mlowance for increase in friction drop

7~
5~
3~
Establish the ratio of the maximum anticipated flow rate
2~ for system, QM, to the design basis rate, QD or Q M / Q D .
W h e n QM is not known, n o r can it be anticipated, use:
Q M / Q D of 1.1 for flow control a n d 1.25 for level pressure
7(]
5C
a n d t e m p e r a t u r e control valves to anticipate the flow rate
=l transients as the control loop recovers f r o m a distur-
.-= 3C
=E bance [9].
2c
I/I
At the m a x i m u m flow rate QM, the friction d r o p will
! Ic become:
r~

.1
FM = FD (QM//Q) 2 (2-62)
o ,.
1,1.

T h e increase in pressure d r o p will be:

AFM = FD (QM/QD) 2 - FD (2-63)

or, AFM = FD [(QM/QD) 2 - 1] (2-64)

FD may not necessarily be very accurate at the design stage

Pressure Loss in Feet of Water per I00 Feet
Figure 2-24. Friction loss for flow of water in steel pipes. Note C =
pipe roughness factor. See Tables 2-9 and 2-22. Courtesy of Carrier
Corp.
New flow rate = 110% (QD)
where final drawing dimensions for the system are being
estimated. For this reason a 10% increase allowance is
suggested to AFM.
B. Allowance for possible falloff in: overall system pres-
sure drop, Ps - Pe
If there is an increase in system flow rate

Friction pressure d r o p will increase to 121% of FD; Overall system pressure drop = PF (all) = 0.05 PS (2-65)

1.21 (96) = 116 psi = FM

C. Allowance for control valve (base pressure d r o p at
full-open position [9]

Friction increase = 116 - 96 = 20 psi a d d e d for rela- This varies with the type a n d design of valve and can be
tively constant Ps a n d Pe o b t a i n e d from the manufacturer. It is identified here as
base pressure drop B for the valve itself. Using average
line velocities a n d assuming that the control valve will be
Available APe = ( 1 6 8 - 37) - 116
one pipe size smaller than the pipe line it is c o n n e c t e d to,
APc = 15 psig through the control valve, which
means that the valve has to open more and using average B values over a range of sizes, the B values
reduce its sensitivity of response, from its for estimating purposes are [9] :
design APe of 35 psig
Control Valve Type B, psi
For design purposes, the assumed 35 psi for the control Single Plug 11
valve could be used; however, decreasing the pipe friction Double Plug 7
of 6 psi to perhaps 5t or g by increasing the line size will Cage (unbalanced) 4
help the control of the valve. It would be better to have Cage (balanced) 4
the available valve pressure d r o p equal to or greater than Butterfly 0.2
the assumed. V-Ball 1
94 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

20
15

10
8

~ 4

o 3

~
ID
2.
__.1

J 1.5
a.

0
,.~ 1.0
w 0.8
~ 0.6
IIC

0.4
0.3

0.2
0.15

10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000 2000 4000 8000
DOWTHERM FLOW---GPM AT AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

Figure 2-25. Pressure drop for Dowtherm | liquid in schedule 40 pipe. By permission, Struthers Wells Corp. Bull. 4-45, 1956.

T h e n , i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f A, B, a n d C A s s u m e , QM = 120% o f Q
above, t h e e s t i m a t e d overall c o n t r o l valve d r o p is:
QM/QD = 1.2

Required APe = 0.05 Ps + 1.1 [ (QM/QD) 2 - 1] Use cage type valve, B = 4

FD + B, psi (2-66)
From Equation 2-59,

B = base pressure drop for control valve with valve in wide- Available APc = ( P s - Pe) - FD
open position, psi. (see list above). = (Ps-37) -96=Ps- 133

F r o m E q u a t i o n 2-66,
Example 2-4: Using Figure 2-26, Determine Control
Valve Pressure Drop and System Start Pressure (See Required AP = 0.05Ps + 1.1 [QM/QD) 2 - 1] FD + B
Example 2-3) = 0.05 (PG) 4- 1.1 [(1.2) 2 -- 1] (96) + 4
= 0.05 Ps + 46.5 + 4 = 0.05Ps + 50
To d e t e r m i n e Ps, t h e v a l u e o f AP t h r o u g h t h e c o n t r o l
valve m u s t be k n o w n . Substituting:

P s - 133 = 0.05Ps + 50
Pe = 37 psi 0.95Ps = 183
FD = 96 psi (all except control valve), psi Ps = 192 psi, start pressure at the p u m p
 Fluid Flow 95

T a b l e 2-9
Brine Pipe Friction Multiples
For Use With Water Friction Data, Figure 2-24

BRINE TEMPERATURE, OF
Specific
BRINE Gravity 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

1.10 1.23 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.14 1.13 1.12

Sodium Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15 1".43 1.33 1.29 1.26 1.24 1.22 1.21 1.20
1.20 1.53 1.44 1.38 1.35 1.32 1.30 1.28 1.27
,

1.05 1.15 1.12 1.10 1.08 1.07 1.06

1.10 1.2k 1.23 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.14 1.12
1.15 l'.,~i 1.35 1.31 1.28 1.25 1.22 1.21 1.20
Calcium Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.20 1.49 1.43 1.39 1.36 1.33 1.30 1.28 1.27
1.25 1.56 1.53 1.49 1.45 1.42 1.40 1.38 1.37
1.30 1.65 1.61 1.58 1.55 1.52 1.50 1.49 1.48

NOTE: To find brine friction loss, multiply loss from Fig. 2-10 by multiplier from above Table.
By permission, Crocker, S., PipingHandbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Charge liquid

Gate valve Flow orifice Control valve Gate valve

~:~ ~ 2 psi 2 psi ~P = ? Preheater 1 psi Preheater
~t~-'-7 ~ , s t , t 10 psi 12 psi
Charge pump
22 psig~

i--~
t I ,Trays this area
\/
tt II To vent control system

"
t I
A, /
(
(
j~ or
(
d-.L

~ Head = 15 psi (static)

i I
Distillation column Fired heater 65 psi

Figure 2-26. Establishing control valve estimated pressure drop.

C o n t r o l valve p r e s s u r e d r o p : p r o p e r l y e s t i m a t i n g t h e valve p r e s s u r e d r o p . F r o m Shin-

sky [10],
APe = 0.05 Ps + 50 = 0.05 (192) + 50 = 59.6 psi

GPM = a ' ( C v' ) ~ / A P e / S p G r (2-66)

Use this as e s t i m a t e d c o n t r o l valve p r e s s u r e d r o p f o r
t h e system d e s i g n .
where a' = fractional opening of control valve, generally
assume 60% = 0.60
The Direct Design of a Control Valve C'v = standard valve coefficient from manufacturer's
catalog
T h i s d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t h e system b a l a n c e as o u t l i n e d in APc = pressure drop across valve, psi
A t h r o u g h C above; h o w e v e r , w i t h o u t first p r e p a r i n g a SpGr = specific gravity of fluid, relative to water at
pressure balance, the designer cannot be confident of same temperature
96 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
or, from [ 11], for gases or vapors:
Flow, SCFH * t
42.2 C~5/(P 1 - P2 )(P1 + P2)
qh-- (2-67)
Flow, SCFH (temperature corrected) t
963 C~ 5/(P1 - P2 )(P1 + P2 )
t
qh--
m
(2- 67A)
~/SGT
where Sg = specific gravity relative to air = 1.0
P1 = inlet pressure (14.7 + psig)
P2 = outlet pressure (14.7 + psig)
qh = flow rate, standard cu ft./hr (SCFH)
T = flowing temperature, ~ abs, (~ + 460)
C'v = valve coefficient of flow, full open (from manufac-
turer's tables)
*The effect of flowing temperatures on gas flow can be
disregarded for temperatures between 30~ and 150~
Corrections should apply to other temperatures above or
below [ 11 ].
J-When outlet pressure P2 is less than g inlet pressure P1
the square root term becomes 0.87 P1 [11]-
Friction Loss For Water Flow
Table 2-10 is quite convenient for reading friction loss
in standard schedule 40 pipe. It is based u p o n Darcy's
rational analysis (equivalent to Fanning).
Suggested procedure:
1. Using known flow rate in gallons/minute, and a
suggested velocity from Tables 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7 and 2-
8 select an approximate line size.
2. Estimate (or use actual drawing or measured tabula-
tion) total linear feet of pipe, L.
3. Estimate (or use actual tabulation) n u m b e r of
elbows, tees, crosses, globe valves, gate valves and
other fittings in system. Convert these to equivalent
straight pipe using Figure 2-20 or 2-21, Leq, or to
head loss using Figures 2-12 through 2-16. Note pre-
ferred pipe size/type for charts.
4. Determine expansion and contraction losses (if any)
from Figures 2-12, 2-15, and 2-16. Convert units:
head loss in feet times 0.4331 = psi. (This term can
usually be neglected for most liquids at reasonable
velocities < 10'/sec.)
5. Estimate pressure drop through orifices, control
valves and other items that may be in system, per
prior discussion.
6. Total pressure drop.
AP = (L + Y~Leq) (AP/100' from Table 2-10)
+ Item (4) + Item (5) (2-57)
If this pressure drop is too large (or too small), recheck
the steps using larger or smaller pipe as may be indicated.
Table 2-22 [53] or Figure 2-24 are convenient to use,
although they give much more conservative results (about
twice unit head loss) than the m e t h o d and figures just ref-
erenced. When using Figure 2-24 the results agree accept-
ably well with tests on 15-20-year-old steel pipe.
Example 2-5: Water Flow in Pipe System
The system of Figure 2-27 consists of 125 feet of
unknown size schedule 40 steel pipe on the discharge side
of a centrifugal pump. The flow rate is 500 gallons per
minute at 75~ Although the tank is located above the
pump, note that this elevation difference does n o t enter
into the pipe size-friction drop calculations. However it
will become a part of selection of the p u m p for the service
(see Chapter 3). For quick estimate follow these steps:
1. From Table 2-4, select 6 fps as a reasonable and usu-
ally economical water rate.
From Table 2-10, a 6-inch pipe has a velocity of 5.55
fps at 500 gpm and a head loss of 0.720 psi/100 ft.
The 5-inch pipe has a velocity of 8.02 fps and might
be considered; however 5-inch pipe is not common-
ly stocked in many plants, and the velocity is above
usual economical p u m p i n g velocities. Use the 6-inch
pipe (rough estimate).
2. Linear feet of straight pipe, L = 125 feet.
3. From Figure 2-20, the equivalent length of fitting is:
6 inch-90 ~ ell ~_ 14 feet straight pipe (using m e d i u m
sweep elbow to represent a welding ell). Note that
this is given as 6.5 feet from Figure 2-21. This illus-
trates the area of difference in attempting to obtain
close or exact values.
3 90 ~ ells = 3 (14) = Leq = 42 ft (conservative)
1 tee = 1 (12) = Leq = 12 (Run of std. tee)
1 6" open Gate Valve = (1) (3.5) = Leq = 3.5
1 sudden enlargement in tank @ d / d ' = 0; = 10',
Figure 2-21
Total Leq = 67.5 feet
4. Neglect expansion loss at entrance to tank, since it
will be so small.
5. No orifices or control valves in system.
6. From Table 2-10, at 500 gpm, loss = 0.72 psi/100 eq ft.
98 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

_f--,. T h e pressure that can develop from the shock wave can
be destructive to the containing system hardware, partic-
ularly in long pipe. Examples of conditions that can devel-
op water h a m m e r are:

125 feet 1. start, stop, or an a b r u p t c h a n g e in a p u m p ' s speed

Straight pipe 90* Elbow 2. power failure
6:
~ 90* Elbow ~Tee
(Welding Type) 3. rapid closing of a valve (usually a control valve,
which can slam shut in one or two seconds)

T h e m a g n i t u d e of this shock wave can be expressed

v~
II Open [19, 20]:
Suction 9
Line
i

Centrifugal 4660 (v w)
Pump hwh = a w (Vw)/g = (2-69)
g ~ l + KhsB r
Figure 2-27. Example 2-5, pipe system for pipe sizing calculations.
For water:

Total pressure d r o p f r o m face of discharge flange on aw = 4660/(1 + Khs Br) 1/2, ft/sec (2-70)
p u m p to nozzle c o n n e c t i o n on tank:
where hwh = maximum pressure developed by hydraulic
shock, ft of water
AP = (125 + 67.5) [(0.720)/100] + 0
Vw = reduction in velocity, ft/sec (actual flowing veloc-
AP = 1.386 psi
ity, ft/sec)
AP = 1.386 psi (2.31 feet/psi) = 3.20 feet water
g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec
Khs = ratio of elastic modulus of water to that of the
Note that a somewhat m o r e accurate result may be pipe material (See list below)
obtained by following the detailed loss coefficients given B r "- ratio of pipe diameter (I.D.) to wall thickness
in Figures 2-12 t h r o u g h 2-16. However, most preliminary aw = velocity of propagation of elastic vibration in the
e n g i n e e r i n g design calculations for this type of water sys- discharge pipe, ft/sec
tem do not w a r r a n t the extra detail.
Some typical Khs values for w a t e r / m e t a l are [ 19]:
Flow of Water from Open-End Horizontal Pipe

T h e equation of Brooke [36] is useful in estimating Metal I~

water or similar fluids flow f r o m the e n d of o p e n pipes: Copper 0.017
Steel 0.010
GPM = 1.04 a (1) (2-68) Brass 0.017
Wrought iron 0.012
Malleable cast iron 0.012
where GPM = flow rate, gallons per minute
Aluminum 0.030
a = internal cross-sectional area for flow in pipe, sq in.
1 -- horizontal distance from pipe opening to point
where flow stream has fallen one ft, in. T h e time interval ts, r e q u i r e d for the pressure wave to
travel back a n d forth in the pipe is:
Water Hammer [ 19]
t~ = 2 L/aw, sec (2-71)
Water h a m m e r is an i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m that occurs in
some liquid control systems. It is defined as hydraulic
L = length of pipe, ft (not equivalent ft)
shock that occurs w h e n a non-viscous liquid flowing in a
pipe experiences a s u d d e n c h a n g e in velocity, such as the
fast closing of a valve. T h e kinetic energy of the moving W h e n the actual a b r u p t closing of a device to stop the
mass of liquid u p o n s u d d e n stoppage or a b r u p t c h a n g e of flow has a time shorter than ts, then the m a x i m u m pres-
direction is t r a n s f o r m e d into pressure energy, thereby sure, hwh , will be e x e r t e d on the closed device a n d line.
causing an a b r u p t pressure rise in the system, often result- Note that the value of, hwh, is a d d e d to the existing static
ing in severe m e c h a n i c a l d a m a g e [53]. pressure in the system.

Example 2-6: Water Hammer Pressure Development
An 8-inch process pipe for transferring 2000 GPM of
m e t h a n o l of Sp Gr = 0.75 from the m a n u f a c t u r i n g plant
site to a user plant location is 2,000 feet long, a n d the liq-
uid is flowing at 10.8 ft/sec.
M a x i m u m pressure developed (preliminary solution)
when an e m e r g e n c y control valve suddenly closes:
hwh = aw (vw ) / g
Since m e t h a n o l has m a n y properties similar to water:
aw = 4660/(1 + Khs Br) 1/2
= 4660/[1 + 0.01 (24.7*)] 1/2 = 4175 ft/sec
*For 8-inch std pipe, B r = 7.981/0.322 = 24.78
Time interval for pressure wave travel:
t~ = 2L/aw = 2 (2000)/4175 = 0.95 sec
If the shutoff time for the valve (or a p u m p ) is less than
0.95 seconds, the water h a m m e r pressure will be:
hwh = 4175 (10.8)/32.2 = 1400 ft of methanol
= (1400)/[(2.31)/0.75)] = 454 psi hydraulic shock
T h e n total pressure on the pipe system
= 454 + (existing pressure from process/or pump)
This pressure level would most likely r u p t u r e an 8-inch
Sch. 40 pipe. For a m o r e exact solution, refer to specialty
articles on the subject.
Example 2-7: Pipe Flow System With Liquid of Specific
Gravity Other Than Water
This is illustrated by line size sheet, Figure 2-28.
Figure 2-29 represents a liquid reactor system discharg-
ing crude p r o d u c t similar to glycol t h r o u g h a flow control
valve and orifice into a storage tank. T h e reactor is at 350
psig and 280~ with the liquid of 0.93 specific gravity a n d
0.91 centipoise viscosity. T h e r e is essentially no flashing of
liquid across the control valve.
Flow rate: 11,000 lbs/hr
GPM actual = 11,000/(60) (8.33) (0.93) = 23.7
Design rate = 23.7 (1.05) = 25 gpm
Fluid Flow 99
1. From Table 2-4, selected velocity = 6 fps.
Estimated pipe diameter, d = (0.408 Q/v)1/2
= [(0.408) 25/6] 1/2 = 1.3 inch
Try l ~ i n c h (i.d. = 1.61), since 188 (i.d. =
1.38) is not stocked in every plant. If it is an accept-
able plant pipe size, then it should be considered
a n d checked, as it would probably be as good pres-
sure drop-wise as the 1g-inch. T h e s u p p o r t of 188
(2-69)
inch pipe may require shorter support spans than
the lg,-inch. Most plants prefer a m i n i m u m of lJ4-
inch valves on pressure vessels, tanks, etc. T h e valves
at the vessels should be 1~ inch even t h o u g h the
pipe m i g h t be 1'/4 inch T h e control valve system of
gate a n d globe valves could very well be 11/4inch. For
this example, use l ~ i n c h pipe, Schedule 40:
2. Linear length of straight pipe, L = 254 ft.
3. Equivalent lengths of fittings, valves, etc.
(2-71)
Estimated Eq. Feet
Fittings Type (from Figure 2-20)
10 1~A"-90~ Elbows 4' (10) = 40
8 lg"-Tees 3' (8) = 24
4 11,4"-Gate Valves 1' (4) = 4
68 ft. Use 75 ft.
4. No expansion or contraction losses (except control
valve).
5. Pressure d r o p allowance assumed for orifice plate =
5 psig.
Control valve loss will be by difference, trying to
maintain m i n i m u m 60% of pipe friction loss as min-
i m u m d r o p t h r o u g h valve, but usually not less than
10 psi.
6. Reynolds number, Re = 50.6 Q g / d g (2-49)
= 50.6 (25) [0.93 (62.3)]/
(1.61) (0.91)
= 50,025 (turbulent)
7. From Figure 2-11, e / d = 0.0012 for 1g-inch steel pipe.
From Figure 2-3, at Re = 50,025, read f = 0.021
8. Pressure drop per 100 feet of pipe"
AP/100' = 0.0216 f9 Q2/d5 (2-72)
= 0.0216 (0.021)(62.3) (0.93) (25)2/(1.61) 5
= 1.52 psi/lOO ft equivalent
100 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

l SHI[IrT NO.

LUDWIG CONSULTING ENGINEERS

By ABC LINE SIZE SHEET Job No.

Date Charge No.

LP - 51
Line No. Flow Sheet Drowi,ng N o .

Line Description Reactor D i scha rge

Fluid in line Crude Product Temperature 280 oF

GPM (Cole.) 23.7 GPM (des.) 25 Pressure 350 psi9

CFM (Calc.) C FM (des.) Sp. Gr. O" 93

L bs./hr. (C alc.) L bs./hr. (des.) Sp. Vol. cu.ft./Ib.

Recommended Velocity 6.0 S Viscosity 0.91

• _ cp

Straight pipe, fittings, valves Pressure. Drop

expansion, contraction, etc. Item in- ps I
Item No. Unit E q. Ft. Total Eq. Ft. Pipe & Equivalent
F ipe 254 1 254
5)
Orifice 5) =1(~
90~ IO 4 .
4O Motor Valve ( ' c o n t r c ) l ) ~40
_

- -
Tee 8 3 24 Miscellaneous
Gate Va. 4 l 4

Total 350
Total 329
Estimated line size l~" ( v e r i f i e d )
* Rounded total to 75 feet
** By difference Actual V e l o c i t y 3.9 fp S

Inlet = 350 psig; Outlet = 0 psig

Unit Loss per 100 f t . ~ . 5 2 psi (sEe b e l o w )
Friction Loss = IO (includes orifice loss)
Balance for Valve = 340 psi Total head loss
in feet of liquid 86~)
Total pressure
drop in psi 350

Selected pipe size I~" Material & Weight Schedule 40 steel

Calcutations:_Re = 50.6 Q.D/dJL.= 5 0 . 6 ( 2 5 ) ( 0 . 9 3 x 6 2 . 3 ) / ( 1 . 6 1 ) ( 0 . 9 1 ) = 50,025

7 /
~'/d = 0.0C)12; f = 0.021 (Figures 2-3 and 2-II)

.~P/100' = 0.0216 f/OQ 2 / d 5 = 0 . 0 2 1 6 ( 0 . 0 2 1 ) ( 6 2 . 3 ) ( 0 . 9 3 ) ( 2 5 ) 2 / ( 1 . 6 5 ) 5

= 1.52 p s i / l O 0 ft.

Total Pipe System Friction ~P =((329)(1.52/I00)) + 5* = lO psi for friction; *Orifice

Total Loss, Feet Liquid 350(2.31ft./psi)(l/O.93) = 869 feet of Liquid

Checked by: Date:

Figure 2-28. Line sizing sheet for example problem, Example 2-7.
 Fluid Flow 101

Flow a piping or process system, there may be (1) adiabatic

Orifice Gate Control Gate
Plote Valve Valve Valve flow where for practical purposes there is no exchange of
heat into or from the pipe. This is expressed by:
Gate Valve
Gate Valve Globe
Valve ( ) P' ga k -- constant (adiabatic) (2-73)

Reactor at 350 psig Crude Product Storage or, (2) isothermal flow, which is flow at constant tempera-
Tank at Atmospheric ture (often close to practical experience) and:
Pressure

Figure 2-29. Liquid flow system, Example 2-7. P' V a -- constant (isothermal) (2-74)

9. Total Pressure Drop Often for a large variety of process gases, some relation-
ship in between expresses the pressure-volume relation-
The control valve must be sized to take the residual ship by:
pressure drop, as long as it is an acceptable minimum.
Pressure drop accounted for:
P' Va n -- constant (polytropic) (2-75)

Total psi drop = (245 + 75) (1.52/100) + 5 = 10 psi

For gases/vapors flowing in a pipe system from point 1
Drop required across control valve" with pressure P1 and point 2 with pressure P2, the PI - P2
is the pressure drop, AP, between the points [3].
Reactor = 350 psig
Storage = 0 psig Velocity of Compressible Fluids in Pipe
Differential = 350 psi
AP = 10 psi (sys. friction)
Control Valve AP = 340 psi
3.06 WV 3.06W
V m = -- (2-76)
d2 d2p
Note that this control valve loss exceeds 60 per-
cent of this system loss, since the valve must take the
difference. For other systems where this is not the sit- where vm - - mean velocity in pipe, at conditions stated for V,
uation, the system loss must be so adjusted as to ft/min.
assign a value (see earlier section on control valves)
W = flow rate, lbs/hr
of approximately 10 to 20 psi or 25 to 60 percent of
m
the system other than friction losses t h r o u g h the V = fluid specific volume, cu ft/lb, at T and P
valve. For very low pressure systems, this m i n i m u m
value of control valve d r o p may be lowered at the sac- d = inside pipe diameter, in.
rifice of sensitive control. p = fluid density, lbs/cu ft, at T and P
P' = pressure, pounds per sq foot absolute
Friction Pressure Drop For Compressible Fluid Flow
k = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv
Vapors and Gases
Note that d e t e r m i n i n g the velocity at the inlet condi-
The flow of compressible fluids such as gas, vapor,
tions to a pipe may create significant e r r o r when results
steam, etc., is considered in general the same as for liq-
are c o n c e r n e d with the outlet conditions, particularly if
uids or non-compressible fluids. Specific semi-empirical
the pressure d r o p is high. Even the average of inlet and
formulas have been developed which fit particular sys-
outlet conditions is not sufficiently accurate for some sys-
tems and have been shown to be acceptable within engi-
tems; therefore conditions influenced by pressure d r o p
neering accuracy.
can p r o d u c e m o r e accurate results when calculations are
Because of the importance of the relationship between p r e p a r e d for successive sections of the pipe system (long
pressure and volume for gases and vapors as they flow in or high pressure).
102 Applied Process D e s i g n for C h e m i c a l and Petrochemical Plants

Friction Drop for Flow of Vapors, Gases, and Steam q'h = rate of flow, cu ft/hr at standard conditions (14.7
Figure 2 - 3 0 psia and 60~ SCFH.

A. The Darcy rational relation for compressibleflow [3] is: 1. W h e n calculated AP total < 10 p e r c e n t inlet pres-
sure, use P or V based on inlet or outlet conditions.
0.000336 fW2V 2. W h e n calculated AP total > 10 p e r c e n t inlet pres-
AP / 100 ft = (2-77)
d5 sure, but < 40 percent, use average P or V based on
inlet a n d outlet conditions.
p 2
0. 000001959 f (q h )2 Sg
or, AP / 100 ft = (2-78) 3. W h e n calculated AP total, P] to P2 is > 40% of inlet
d5p pressure, primarily for long lines, use the following
choices, or break the line into segments a n d calcu-
T h e general p r o c e d u r e s outlined previously for han-
late AP for each as above.
dling fluids involving the friction factor, f, a n d the Re
chart are used with the above relations. This is applicable
to compressible flow systems u n d e r the following condi- Also use Babcock f o r m u l a given in a n o t h e r p a r a g r a p h
tions [3]. for steam flow.

where Sg = specific gravity of gas relative to air = the ratio of q'h = 24,700 [yd2/Sg] (AP pl/K) 1/2, CFH @ 14.7 psia
molecular weight of the gas to that of air. and 60~ (2-79)

ZXP,| w
=16o0
".4
A P / I O 0 ft. = 0.000 336 f W'/dap
P P
Index ! -10o0
.02- -50 .5 -800
,..=,

40 --.6 "6O0
"500
.03- L.7
30 Index 2 -400
-.8
-3O0
.04- -.9
.os- 20
-1.0 - 2O0
- 30~ ::
-15~ "~ 20 24 :
= 9 1.5~ 20 - 1O0
= -~16 '~' ,:- =
,., .l
,.o tO ~ '2 :1-]4
"1-12 _.=
= . ~~ 6o50 ~.too ~ "

E -6 :~ r.OS (i so-~
%

= ._ = .=~ = ,~

= - 3 - _ . , =-
- == '-" 10_=
,-. : "~ . 5 = =,-, ~ I t=" "
.r
'-' 5--2 "~ 70 = ~ -.0Z 5 "8 ~-
- => .- 4
B._
=
.7"--l-" 1.5~
I :9
Ck.l.
-+
~

:;"8 I
15:-3 ~
9 .:.6
~
131

/
9 ~
O=

I
15~i
~
'-"--

ms= .
~
-~
=
"-
~0
"

:.oz
.015

I; -
- 1
-.8
-
2

. . . . ~= " .6
2-: -.5 20 .4 j .5
L. 4 - ..~'A - .4
3_=" .3 "-- .3
-:-.3 30 ..~ 1/=
4-~ .2 .2
52L.2 40

L50 .~
Figure 2-30. Pressure drop in compressible flow lines. B y permission, Crane Co., Technical Paper #410, E n g i n e e r i n g Div. 1957. Also see 1 9 7 6
edition.

q'h = 40,700 Yd 2 [(AP) (P'I)/(KT1Sg)] 1/2
same units as Equation 2-79 above
where Y = net expansion factor for compressible flow through
orifices, nozzles, or pipe
K = resistence coefficient, ft
P' = pressure, lbs/sq in. absolute
Ws = flow rate, lbs/sec.
Isothermal conditions, usually long pipe lines [3]"
144gA 2 E (P1)2
p __ (P2)2
/
WS ~ ~_ p p
gl O e P2
lbs/sec
plus the conditions listed. The equation is based on steady
flow, perfect gas laws, average velocity at a cross section,
constant friction factor, and the pipe is straight and hori-
zontal between end points.
D = pipe ID, ft
L = pipe length, ft
A = cross-sectional area for flow for pipe, sq ft
B. Alternate Vapor~Gas Flow Methods
Note that all specialized or alternate methods for solv-
ing are convenient simplifications or empirical proce-
dures of the fundamental techniques presented earlier.
They are not presented as better approaches to solving
the specific problem.
Figure 2-31 is useful in solving the usual steam or any
vapor flow problem for turbulent flow based on the mod-
ified Darcy relation with fixed friction factors. At low
vapor velocities the results may be low; then use Figure 2-
30. For steel pipe the limitations listed in (A) above apply.
1. Determine C1 and C 2 from Figure 2-31 and Table 2-11
for the steam flow rate and assumed pipe size respec-
tively. Use Table 2-4 or Table 2-8 to select steam veloc-
ity for line size estimate.
2. Read the specific volume of steam at conditions,
from steam tables.
3. Calculate pressure drop (Figure 2-31) per 100 feet of
pipe from
AP/100 feet = C 1 C 2 g (2-81)
4. From Figure 2-20 or 2-21 d e t e r m i n e the equivalent
lengths of all fittings, valves, etc.
Fluid Flow 103
(2-80) 5. Determine expansion and contraction losses, fittings
and at vessel connections.
6. Determine pressure drops through orifices and con-
trol valves.
7. Total system pressure drop
AP Total = (L + Leq ) (AP/100) + Item 5 + Item 6 (2-57)
8. If pressure drop is too large, re-estimate line size and
repeat calculations (see paragraph (A) above) and
also examine pressure drop assumptions for orifices
and control valves.
C. Air
,
For quick estimates for air line pressure drop, see
Tables 2-12A and 2-12B.
(2-3)
D. Babcock Empirical Formula for Steam
Comparison of results between the various empirical
steam flow formulas suggests the Babcock equation as a
good average for most design purposes at pressure 500
psia and below. For lines smaller than 4 inches, this rela-
tion may be 0-40 percent high [56].
Pl - P2 = AP = 0.000131 (1 + 3.6/d) w 2L (2-82)
9d 5
AP/100 feet = w2F/9 (2-83)
Figure 2-32 is a convenient chart for handling most in-
plant steam line problems. For long transmission lines
over 200 feet, the line should be calculated in sections in
order to re-establish the steam specific density. Normally
an estimated average 9 should be selected for each line
i n c r e m e n t to obtain good results.
Table 2-13 for "F" is convenient to use in conjunction
with the equations.
Darcy Rational Relation for Compressible Vapors and
Gases
1. Determine first estimate of line size by using sug-
gested velocity from Table 2-4:.
2. Calculate Reynolds n u m b e r R e and d e t e r m i n e fric-
tion factor, f, using Figure 2-3 or Figure 2-33 (for
steel pipe).
3. Determine total straight pipe length, L.
4. Determine equivalent pipe length for fittings, valves,
Leq.
5. Determine or assume losses through orifice plates,
control valves, equipment, contraction and expan-
sion, etc.
104 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

V e l m dr

W c,
" -- ~00

--" mOO
.de-

=,
1900
W W .."
=,

10-- - . I .1 - 1000-- - 1000

-.---.18 - NO
9-- --.0l NO-- 800
I ~ - .07 .IS-
. --,0i . NO--_" m
. =_" =.
-IS
.
-~
"= = ' U

6"-
m-"
Pressure Drop per 100 feet Pipe: =u ! .:_.. "-- l -=
APloo = C~C=V = C1 C= t 5"--.015 .4~
P !-= .,-
C, = APloo : APlooP C= = APloo =APlooP
- 4~-'~ @
.6--"
.7"
:., i
c,v o, C,v c,
C1 --Discharge Factor from Chart -= Z_= ~,
C2 = Size Factor, from Table 2-11 =--'-- l
For AP>40% P1, do not use this method.
o --.007 L,- " ro -'70
u. 2.S- ".~6
-e
"
-=" ~ - "
O - -
m
For Ap between 10% and 40% of P1, use average for V. i -,M =- " ,~ "--SO
For AP<10% P1, use V at P~ or P=.
AP~oo = Psi, pressure drop per 100' pipe. ~,
e 2
. .
.QIN 2.S~ --50
" ~
. 21)0---
--
40
m

V = Specific Volume, cu R/lb. 3

_:-3)
,,q
"-GO "
"" ,mS 4-
Note: For quick estimates; not as accurate as friction ].S--:
- .002 S " --70 " 20
loss calculations
l.--

. - ~]s "-
7 .
no
"-
- IS
m
"m 8 --gO --.
=,
9--_-
L0-- .O01 10----- 1O0 1 0 0 - - - 10
9s - - - Jool
"--Jo07
.8--

Figure 2-31. Simplified flow formula for compressible fluids. By permission, Crane Co., Technical Paper #410, 1957. Also see 1976 edition.

6. Calculate pressure drop, AP/100 ft (or use Figure 2-34). ing pipe size. Consider reducing losses through
items in step 5 above. Recheck other pipe sizes as
0.000336 fW 2
may be indicated.
AWl00 feet = (2-77)
pd 5
0.000000726 fTSg (%')2 Example 2-8 Pressure Drop for Vapor System
(2- 77A)
p'd 5
The calculations are presented in Figure 2-35, Line
7. Total pressure drop, AP total Size Specification Sheet.

= (L + Leq) (AP/100) + Item 5 (2-57) Figure 2-36 is convenient when using Dowtherm vapor.

8. If total line or system drop is excessive, examine the Alternate Solution to Compressible Flow Problems
portion of drop due to pipe friction and that due to
other factors in the system. If the line drop is a small There are several good approaches to recognizing the
portion of the total, little will be gained by increas- effects of changing conditions on compressible flow [44, 47].
 Fluid Flow 105

T a b l e 2-11
S i m p l i f i e d F l o w F o r m u l a F o r C o m p r e s s i b l e F l u i d s P r e s s u r e D r o p , R a t e o f F l o w a n d P i p e Sizes*

( U s e W i t h F i g u r e 2-31 )

Values of C2
Nominal Schedule Value l[ N o m i n a l Schedule Value Nominal Schedule Value
Pipe Size Number of C2 Pipe Size Number of C2 Pipe Size Number of C~
Inches Inches Inches
% ~0 s 7 920 000. 40 s 1.59 16 10 0.004 63
80 x 26 200 000. 80 x 2.04 20 0.004 21
120 2.69 30 s 0.005 04
88 40 s 1 590 000. 160 3.59 40 x 0.005 49
80 x 4 290 000. . . . XX 4.93 60 0.006 12
90 40 s 319 000. 40 s 0.610 80 0.007 00
80 x 718 000. 80 x 0.798 100 0.008 04
120 1.015 120 0.009 26
89 40 s 93 500. 160 1.376 140 0.01099
80 x 186 100. . . . XX 1.861 160 0.012 44
160 4 300 000.
. . . X X 11 180 0 0 0 . 20 0.133
30 0.135 18 10 0.002 47
40 s 0.146 20 0.002 56
90 40 s 21 200. 60 0.163 9 . S 0.002 66
80 x 36 900. 80 x 0.185 30 0.002 76
160 100 100. 9 . X 0.002 87
9 . . XX 627 000. ioo 0.211 40 0.002 98
120 0.252
40 s 5 950. 140 0.289 60 0.003 35
80 x 9 640. 0.317 80 0.003 76
160 22 500. 160 0.333 100 0.004 35
9 . . XX 114 100. 120 0.005 04
10 2O O. 039 7 140 0.005 73
z 88 40 s 1 408. 3O O. 042 1 160 0.006 69
80 x 2110. 40 s O. 044 7
160 3 490. 6O x 0.051 4
9 . . XX 13 640. 8O O. 056 9 20 10 0.001 41
20s 0.001 50
100 0.066 1 30x 0.001 61
1% 40 s 627. 120 0.075 3 40 0.001 69
80 x 904. 140 0.090 5 60 0.001 91
160 1 656. 160 0.105 2
. . . XX 4 630. 80 0.002 17
20 0.015 7 100 0.002 51
40 s 169. 3O 0.016 8 120 0.002 87
80 x 236. 0.017 5 140 0.003 35
160 488. 4O 0.018 0 160 0.003 85
. . . XX 899. 9 . 9 X 0.019 5
6O 0.020 6
289 40 s 66.7 24 10 0.000 534
80 x 91.8 8O 0.023 1 20s 0.000 565
160 146.3 100 0.026 7 9 . X 0.000 597
9 . . XX 380.0 120 0.031 0 3O 0.000 614
140 0.035 0 40 0.000 651
160 0.042 3 60 0.000741
40 s 21.4
80 x 28.7 14 10 0.009 49 8O 0.000 835
160 48.3 2O 0.009 96 100 0.000 972
. . . XX 96.6 3O s 0.010 46 120 0.001 119
4O 0.010 99 140 0.001 274
3% 40 s 10.0 9 . . X 0.011 55 160 0.001 478
80 x 37.7 6O 0.012 44
40 s 5.17 80 0.014 16 Note
80 x 6.75 100 0.016 57 The letters s, x, and xx in the col-
120 8.94 120 0.018 98 umns of Schedule Numbers indicate
160 11.80 140 0.021 8 Standard, Extra Strong, and Double
. . . XX 18.59 160 O. 025 2 Extra Strong pipe respectively.

By permission, Crane Co., TechnicalPaper #410, Engineering Div., 1957. See author's note at Figure 2-31.
 T a b l e 2-12A
F l o w o f Air T h r o u g h S c h e d u l e 40 P i p e *
(Use f o r e s t i m a t i n g ; f o r d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n s use f r i c t i o n factors, f)
For lengths of pipe other than
100 feet, the pressure drop is Free Air [ C o m - Pressure Drop of Air
proportional to the length. q'm [pressed A i r I n P o u n d s per S q u a r e I n c h
Thus, for 50 feet of pipe, the Per 100 F e e t of S c h e d u l e 40 Pipe
Cubic Feet ICubic Feet
pressure drop is approximately Per Minute [Per Minute For Air at 100 Pounds per
one-half the value given in the at 60 F and[at 60 F and Square Inch Gauge Pressure
t a b l e . . , for 300 feet, three 14.7 psia I I00 psig and 60 F Temperature
times the given value, etc.
The pressure drop is also in-
versely proportional to the 0.128
absolute pressure and directly 0.256 O. 020
~proportional to the absolute 0.384 0.042
temperature. 0.613 0.071
0.641 O. 106
Therefore, to determine the 6 0.769 O. 148
pressure drop for inlet or aver- 8 1.025 O. 255
age pressures other than 100 10 1.282 O. 356 1%" 1%"
psi and at temperatures other 15 1.922 0.834
20 2.563 1.43 0.02
than 60 F, multiply the values
given in the table by the ratio: :IS 3.204 2.21 0.03 0.019
30 3.845 3.15 0.05 0.026
100 + 14.7 (460 + t~ 35 4.486 4.24 0.07 0.035
40 5.126 5.49 0.09 0.044
45 5.767 6.90 0.11 0.055 2~
where: 50 6.408 8.49 0.14 0.067 0.019
60 7.690 12.2 O. 20 0.094 0.027
" P " is the inlet or average 70 8.971 16.5 O. 27 0.126 0.036
gauge pressure in pounds per 80 10.25 21.4 O. 35 0.162 0.046
square inch, and, 90 11.53 27.0 O. 43 0.203 0.058

"t" is the t e m p e r a t u r e in ioo 12.82 33.2 0.53 0.247 0.070

125 16.02 . . . 0.82, 0.380 0.107
degrees F a h r e n h e i t u n d e r 150 19.22 . . . 1.17 0.537 0.151
consideration. 176 22.43 . . . 1.58 0.727 0.205
200 25.63 . . . 2.05 0.937 0.264
The cubic feet per minute of 225 28.84 2.59 1.19 0.331
compressed air at any pres- 250 32.04 3.18 1.45 0.404
sure is inversely proportional 275 35.24 3.83 1.75 0.484
38.45 4.56 2.07 0.573
to the absolute pressure and 32S 41.65 5.32 2.42 0.673
directly proportional to the 4~
absolute teml~erature. 350 44.87 6.17 2.80 0.776
375 48.06 0.030 7.05 3.20 O. 887
To determine the cubic feet 400 51.26 0.034 8.02 3.64 1.00
425 54.47 0.038 9.01 4.09 1.13
per minute of compressed air 450 57.67 0.042 10.2 4.59 1.26
at any temperature and pres-
sure other than standard con- 475 60.88 0.047 11.3 5.09 1.40
500 64.08 0.052 12.5 5.61 1.55
ditions, multiply the value of 550 70.49 0.062 15.1 6.79 1.87
cubic feet per minute of free 600 76.90 0.073 . . . J8.0 8.04 2.21
air by the ratio: 600 83.30 1,04 0.086 21.1 9.43 2.60

14.7 460+ 700 89.71 [.19 0.099 ( 032 24.3 0.9 3.00
750 96.12 [.36 2.6 3.44
,20) 800
850
102.5
108.9
t.55
t.74
0.113
0.127
0.144
(
(
(
036
041
0i6 .
27.9
31.8
35. q
4.2
6.0
3.90
4.40
9OO 115.3 [.95 0.160 ( 051 40.2 8.0 4.91
950 121.8 P,.18 0.178 ( 057 0.023 0.0 5.47
I000 128.2 ~.40 0.197 ( 053 0.025 2.1 6.06
I 100 141.0 ~.89 0.236 ( 075 O, 030 6.7 7.29
1 200 153.8 ;.44 0.279 ( 039 0.035 1.8 8.63
1300 166.6 t.01 0.327 ( 1~3 O. 041 7.3 10.1
1400 179.4 t.65 0.377 ( 119 O. 047 11.8
I 500 192.2 ;.31 0.431 ( 136 O. O54 . 13.5
1600 205.1 i.04 0.490 ( 154 0.061 15.3
Calculations for Pipe 1 800 230.7 v.OS 0.616 ( 1)3 O. 075 19.3
2000 256.3 ).44 0.757 ( 237 O. 094 0.023 23.9
Other ~han Schedule 40 10"
2 500 320.4 14.7 1.17 ( 356 O. 143 0.035 37.3
To d e t e r m i n e t h e v e l o c i t y of 3000 384.5 21.1 1.67 ( SZ4 O. 204 0.051 0.016
3 500 448.6 28.8 2.26 (7)9 O. 276 0.06~ 0.022
water, or the pressure drop 4000 512.6 37.6 2.94 ( g19 O. 358 0.08~ 0.028
of w a t e r o r air, t h r o u g h p i p e 4 500 576.7 47.6 3.69 ] 15 O. 450 0. I I I 0.035 12"
o t h e r t h a n S c h e d u l e 40, u s e
SO00 640t . . . 4.56 I 4Z 0.552 0.135 0.043 0.018
the following formulas: 6000 769.~ . . . 6.57 I 03 O. 794 0.195 0.061 0.025
7000 897.1 . . . 8.94 1.07 0.26~ 0.082 0.034
d40 2 8000 1025 . . . 11.7 1.39 0.339 0.107 0.044
9000 1153 . . . 14.9 4 St 1.76 0.427 0.134 0.055
10 000 1282 . . . 18.4 ! fi) 2.16 0.525 0.164 0.067
11 000 1410 . . . Z2.2 (73 2.62 0.633 0.197 0.081
12 000 1538 . . . Z6.4 3.09 0.753 0.234 0.096
13 000 1666 . . . 31,0 c. 4V 3.63 0.884 0.273 0.112
SubscripL "'a" refers to the 14 000 1794 . . . 36.0 I 0 4.21 1.02 0.316 0.1"29
Schedule of pipe t h r o u g h IS 000 1922 4.84 1.17 0.364 0.148
which velocity or pressure
. . .

16 000 2051 . . . 4 3 5.50 1.33 0.411 0.167

drop is desired. 18 000 2307 . . . 6.96 1.68 0.520 0.213
20 000 2563 . . .
2 4 8.60 2.01 0.642 0.260
Subscript "40" refers to the 22 000 2820 . . . 7 l 10.4 2.50 0.771 0.314
v e l o c i t y or p r e s s u r e drop 24 000 3076 2 t 12.4 2.9Z 0.918 0.371
through Schedule 40 pipe, as
. . .

26 000 3332 . . . 7 14.5 3.49 1.12 0.435

given in the tables on these 28 000 3588 . . . 16.9 4.04 1.25 O.SOS
facing pages. 30 000 3845 . . . 19.3 4.64 1.~ 0.520

*By p e r m i s s i o n Technical Paper N o 410, C r a n e C o , E n g i n e e r i n g Div, C h i c a g o , 1 9 5 7

 Fluid Flow 107

Table 2-12B
Discharge of Air Through an Orifice*
In c u b i c f e e t of free air per m i n u t e at s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e of 14.7 lb. per sq. in. a b s o l u t e a n d 70 ~ F.

Gauge DIAMETER OF O R I F I C E
Pressure
b e f o r e Orifice ~. i- ~,, 1 1,,
1-~ 1A" I ~" I 3A" 89 t 5A" N" 7A" I--
i w
in P o u n d s
per sq. in. D i s c h a r g e in C u b i c f e e t of free air per m i n u t e

1 ............. 028 .112 .450 1.80 7.18 16.2 28.7 45.0 64.7 88.1 115
2 ............. 040 .158 .633 2.53 10.1 22.8 40.5 63.3 91.2 124 162
3 ............ 048 .194 .775 3.10 12.4 27.8 49.5 77.5 111 152 198
4 ............ 056 .223 .892 3.56 14.3 32.1 57.0 89.2 128 175 228
5 ............ 062 .248 .993 3.97 15.9 35.7 63.5 99.3 143 195 254
9

6 o68 1272 1.09 4.34 17.4 39.1 69.5 109 156 213 278
7 073 .293 1.17 4.68 18.7 42.2 75.0 117 168 230 300
9 083 .331 1.32 5.30 21.2 47.7 84.7 132 191 260 339
12 095 .379 1.52 6.07 24.3 54.6 97.0 152 218 297 388
15 105 .420 1.68 6.72 26.9 60.5 108 168 242 329 430
20 .123 .491 1.96 7.86 31.4 70.7 126 196 283 385 503
25 .140 .562 .25 8.98 35.9 80.9 144 225 323 440 575
30 .158 .633 .53 10.1 40.5 911 162 253 365 496 648
35 .176 .703 2.81 11.3 45.0 101 180 281 405 551 720
40 .194 .774 3.10 12.4 49.6 112 198 310 446 607 793
45 .211 .845 3.38 13.5 54.1 122 216 338 4s7 662 865
50 .229 .916 3.66 14.7 58.6 132 235 366 528 718 938
60 .264 1.06 4.23 16.9 67.6 152 271 423 609 828 1082
70 .300 1.20 4.79 19.2 76.7 173 307 479 690 939 1227
80 .335 1.34 5.36 21.4 85.7 19,3 343 536 771 1050 1371
90 .370 1.48 5.92 23.7 94.8 213 379 592 85a 1161 1516
100 .406 1.62 6.49 26.0 104 234 415 ~49 934 1272 1661
110 .441 1.76 7.05 28.2 113 254 452 705 1016 1383 1806
120 .476 1.91 7.62 30.5 122 274 488 762 1097 1494 1951
125 .494 1.98 7.90 31.6 126 284 506 790 1138 1549 2023

Table is based on 100% coefficient of flow. For well rounded entrance multiply values by 0.97. For sharp edged orifices a multiplier of
0.65 m a y be used for a p p r o x i m a t e results.
Values for pressures from 1 to 15 lbs. gauge calculated by s t an d a r d adiabatic formula.
Values for pressures above 15 lb. gauge calculated by approximate formula proposed by S. A. Moss.
aCP1 Where:
= W8 = discharge in lbs. per sec.
W8 .5303 , ~ T1 a = area of orifice in sq. in.
C = Coefficient of flow
P1 = U p s t r e a m total pressure in lbs. per sq. in. absolute
Tx -- U p s t r e a m t e m p e r a t u r e in ~ abs.
Values used in calculating above table were" C = 1.0, Pt - gauge pressure + 14.7 lbs./sq, in. T1 = 530 ~ F. abs.
Weights (W) were converted to volumes using density factor of 0.07494 Ibs./cu. ft. This is correct for dry air at 14.7 Ibs. per so. i n
absolute pressure and 70 ~ F.
F or m u la cannot be used where Pt is less than two times the barometric pressure.
*By permission "Compressed Air Data," F. W. O'Neil, Editor, CompressedAir Magazine, 5th Edition, New York, 1939 [49].

Friction Drop for Air Example 2-9: Steam Flow Using Babcock Formula

Table 2-12A is convenient for most air problems, not-
ing that both free air (60~ and 14.7 psia) and com-
pressed air at 100 psig and 60~ are indicated. The cor-
rections for other temperatures and pressures are also
indicated. Figure 2-37 is useful for quick checking. How-
ever, its values are slightly higher (about 10 percent) than
the rational values of Table 2-11, above about 1000 cfm of
free air. Use for estimating only.
Determine the pressure loss in 138 feet of 8-inch
Schedule 40 steel pipe, flowing 86,000 pounds per hour
of 150 psig steam (saturated).
Use Figure 2-32, w = 86,000/60 = 1432 lbs/min
Reading from top at 150 psig, no superheat, down ver-
tically to intersect the horizontal steam flow of 1432
lbs/min, follow diagonal line to the horizontal pipe size
108 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Table 2-13 Sonic velocity will be established at a restricted point in

Factor "F" For Babcock Steam Formula* the pipe, or at the outlet, if the pressure drop is great
Nominal Pipe Size *Standard Weight ~Extra Strong enough to establish the required velocity. Once the sonic
Inches Pipe Pipe
89 velocity has been reached, the pressure drop in the system
955.1 x l 0 -3 2.051x
184.7 x 10 -3 340.8 x 10 -3 will not increase, as the velocity will remain at this value
1 45.7 x 10 -3 77.71 x 10 -S even though the fluid may be discharging into a vessel at
9 . 4 3 2 x 10 -8 14.67 x 10 -s a lower pressure than that existing at the point where
3 . 9 1 4 x 10 -s 5 . 8 6 5 x 10 -s
sonic velocity is established.
2 951.9 x 10 -6 1.365 x 10 -s

2 89 351.0 x l 0 -6 493.8 x l 0 -6 In general, the sonic or critical velocity is attained for an

3 104.7 x 10 -6 143.2 x 10 -6 outlet or downstream pressure equal to or less than one
46.94 x l 0 -6 62.95 x l 0 -6
half the upstream or inlet absolute pressure condition of a
4 2 3 . 4 6 x 10 -6 31.01 x 10 -6
5 6 . 8 5 4 x 10 -~ 8 . 8 6 6 x 10 -6
system. The discharge through an orifice or nozzle is usu-
6 2 . 5 4 4 x 10 -6 3 . 3 5 4 x 10 -6 ally a limiting condition for the flow through the end of a
8 587.1 x 10 -9 748.2 x 10 ..9 pipe. The usual pressure drop equations do not hold at
10 176.3 x 10 -9 225.3 x 10 -9 the sonic velocity, as in an orifice. Conditions or systems
12 70.32 x 10 -9 90.52 x 10 -9
exhausting to atmosphere (or vacuum) from m e d i u m to
14 O . D . 42.84 x 10 -9 55.29 x 10 -9 high pressures should be examined for critical flow, other-
16 O . D . 21.39 x 10 -9 27.28 x 10 -9
18 O . D . 11.61 x 10 -9 14.69 x 10 -9 wise the calculated pressure drop may be in error.
20 O . D . 6.621 x 10 -9 8 . 4 6 9 x 10 -9 All flowing gases and vapors (compressible fluids)
24 O . D . 2.561 x 10 -9 3.278 • 10 -9
including steam (which is a vapor) are limited or
*Factors are b a s e d u p o n I.D. listed as S c h e d u l e 40. a p p r o a c h a m a x i m u m in mass flow velocity or rate, i.e.,
# F a c t o r s are b a s e d u p o n I.D. listed as S c h e d u l e 80. lbs/sec or l b s / h r t h r o u g h a pipe d e p e n d i n g u p o n the
tBy p e r m i s s i o n T h e W a l w o r t h Co.
specific upstream or starting pressure. This m a x i m u m
rate of flow c a n n o t be exceeded regardless of how m u c h
the downstream pressure is further r e d u c e d [3]. To
of 8 inches, and then vertically down to the pressure drop
d e t e r m i n e the actual velocity in a pipe, calculate by
loss of 3.5 psi/100 feet.
m

For 138 feet (no fittings or valves), total AP is 138 (3.5/ 3.06 W V
v= or use Figure 2-34.
100) = 4.82 psi. d 2

For comparison, solve by equation, using value of F =

587.1 • 10 -9 from Table 2-13.
AP/100 ft= (1432) 2 (587.1 • 10-9)/0.364
= 3.32 psi/100 ft
AP total = (3.32/100) (138) = 4.75 psi
These values are within graphical accuracy.
Sonic Conditions Limiting Flow o f Gases and Vapors
The sonic or critical velocity (speed of sound in the
fluid) is the m a x i m u m velocity which a compressiblefluid
can attain in a pipe [3].
Vs = [(Cp/Cv) ( 3 2 . 2 ) ( 1 5 4 4 / M W )
= 6 8 . 1 [(Cp/Cv) P'/p] 1/2, f t / s e c
where the properties are evaluated at the condition of
sonic flow.
This applies regardless of the downstream pressure for
a fixed upstream pressure. This limitation must be evalu-
ated separately from pressure drop relations, as it is not
included as a built in limitation.
( 4 6 0 + t)] 1/2
This m a x i m u m velocity of a compressible fluid in a
pipe is limited by the velocity of propagation of a pressure
wave that travels at the speed of sound in the fluid [3].
This speed of sound is specific for each individual gas or
vapor or liquid and is a function o f the ratio of specific
heats of the fluid. The pressure reduces and the velocity
increases as the fluid flows downstream through the pipe,
with the m a x i m u m velocity occurring at the downstream
end of the pipe. When, or if, the pressure drop is great
enough, the discharge or exit or outlet velocity will reach
the velocity of sound for that fluid.
If the outlet or discharge pressure is lowered further,
the pressure upstream at the origin will not detect it
(2-84) because the pressure wave can only travel at sonic veloci-
ty. Therefore, the change in pressure downstream will not
be detected upstream. The excess pressure drop obtained
by lowering the outlet pressure after the m a x i m u m dis-
charge has been reached takes place beyond the end of
the pipe [3]. This pressure is lost in shock waves and tur-
bulence of the jetting fluid. See References 12, 13, 24, and
15 for further expansion of shock waves and detonation
waves through compressible fluids.
 Fluid Flow 109

AVERAGE PRESSURE -LB. PER SO. IN. ABSOLUTE

~ I% o t=

I.,..I T"X'~r'~aLXJX-"'t~ ~ ' ~t O:

:r

I I I I~ I~ I Xll IC1l';:k,O.7"~P'-q~, ! vXT+P'Ih-I~.. Xl ~ x !Xl Xlq~ mo

I I I II I l l l l l l l l II II ~ iX-T't'l-'rl-~_V ~ X l WI ,. mo,o
~ ~ I " 1 " ~ 1 " t " ~ l"l"~~l"l'~ l't'~~_~=: .....
~ ~ ~ i " l " ~ l " t ' - L . J " f ~ I-'I-~r"N,S"t~ ~ 4oooo
- ~l-'l-~l~l-'f,~l-t.-~ 1-'l-~~~l-'.f-~l-'l-~E- =oooo
, 0 - -_ ~ ~ ~ I~--
30-- -"I"-~ l ' t " . ~ - ' l " q J " l " 4 L l - ' l " L __,-.~,oooo
" " t ' - k j " l ' ~ J " t ' - ~ - " l ' - 4 L l - " t " 4 J - " t " 4 ~ - " t ' - . ~ - ' l ' 4 J - ' t ' - ~ l - ' l ' ~ l . , ~ 60oo
-"t'-~ I " I ' - L S " B ~ l"t'-~l"'H-_ l'l"-+.J-"b~ ~ l'l'q~ ~~-- +too
=o-- .... ~l'b-~l"l"~l'b-~-"l'-~l"'l"~ l"t"~l--
,+-- -...f.,~ l~.t..4.A-.t.~ F ~ . . ~ L I - . ~ ~ I-..,F.~I..1...Lj-..I~LI...I~~_.. =ooo
-' 1 4 - - _ " t - . , 1 . A - l ~ l ~ ' , , -" , L Y " 1"- 4 ~ ~ r ' - l - q ~ ~ ~ l ' - l - ~ l - - t - , - . l , . . _ ~ ,ooo
1~ 12-- ,~__ ' " t - - , ~ ~ ~l"'f-~l"-f.-~ r ' 1 - ~ l---i-,A~F ' 1 - . ~ m = ~
,o-- ~ ~ I ~ ' ~ , , , . ~ I - + ~ ~ I".I....~-I',,I,.,,,~l " t ' ~ ~ - - ~ o
,_.. ;:

4--
< 3.5-- 35"--
0:: 3 - " m 3--"
I,,-
X ~ 2.5--"
Y"I"4.J-'t'-4-S'~~~~'"!-A'"I"4~~~ - , !
W 2-" I l~= " -'l'-~lz:: ~
c~ -- ~ !.5----_ z
-- ~ 1.25---
~-- L25--
0
I'- < , --l-.,l.q~ r,,.l...~ l-.t.,~ r..l..~l --.t..~ r . . t . . . ~ ~ i-.i..~ l-..l.q~ i.,.,i.,~ _~=+
35" - o.+ - r " ' ~ . ~ ~ ~~-'t".-~J"'t'4,.~~l""t".4.,Y'tN,,A~+
36"---
- ~ ~ ~ - 4 . J - ' I - 4 - J " ~ ' - ~ ~ P I - . ~ F - "
- ~ i~%.Li-"l---~ ~ l " f - - . L i"l--Li~oPY.,~r-*~.~r. ~,=,-~ ~-"
--
+.I i "I"+.+n+lq'lil'l'l'l'l
I I I I IIII
mmm i ,,,;,I'I'l'lil'l'Pli:.! I
l l l l IIII IIII IIII
II 'l'llil' i I ,Ii I I I I I IIII
"-
0.1

PRESSURELOSS IN LB. PER SO. INCH PER I00 FEET

w2L.
B0sed on Bobcock Formulo 9 - P - 0 . 0 0 0 1 3 1 (I-I- ~ 6 i
' pd5

Figure 2-32. Steam flow chart. (By permission, Walworth Co. Note: use for estimating only (this author).)

The maximum possible velocity of a compressible fluid P' = pressure, Psi abs (Psia)
in a p i p e is s o n i c ( s p e e d o f s o u n d ) velocity, as: Vs = sonic or critical velocity of flow of a gas, ft/sec
V1 = specific volume of fluid, cu f t / l b at T and P'
g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2 f t / p e r / s e c
0.000001959t" (q "h) 2S g 2
or, Ap / 100 ft = (2-78)
dSp T h u s t h e m a x i m u m flow in a p i p e o c c u r s w h e n t h e v e l o c -
where k = ratio of specific heat for gas or vapor at constant ity at t h e e x i t b e c o m e s s o n i c . T h e s o n i c l o c a t i o n m a y b e
pressure o t h e r t h a n t h e exit, c a n b e at r e s t r i c t i v e p o i n t s in t h e sys-
R = individual gas constant = M R / M = 1 5 4 4 / M t e m , o r at c o n t r o l / s a f e t y r e l i e f valves.
M = molecular weight
MR = universal gas constant = 1544 S h o c k waves t r a v e l at s u p e r s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s a n d e x h i b i t
T = t e m p e r a t u r e of gas, R, = (460 + ~ a n e a r d i s c o n t i n u i t y in p r e s s u r e , density, a n d t e m p e r a -
110 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

W d
0oo - Index Re = 6.31 W/d,=
F
= 0.482q'-hSg/d,= 0.3--
800 - =...,
0.008 --
60O
500 --
0.009 --
400-- 0.5--
Inlernol pipe diometer, in.
3oo- o.oto- 0.6--
0.7--
200 ~6
0.8-- - 9 0
0.9--
1.0 --I

0.0,,- -lh
1.5--
60 R, ! I I,~ ' ' ~ ~ 6 Q015-- - .=_-
50 I f I f ~ . 5 =,
O0 ~ ,,, /% C
v.016--
-- 2 "~-
0
Q.
30 -- ~ 0.018- ,m -2h ~"
O.
I/; 3,000 le-,
_T
O _~ 0.019 0 --3 - (I)
o
20-- .r162 t.,

(3) 0.620 e.-, 3h ~'

O
t,000 .o --4 0

O
8OO (I)

10-- "O 60O 0

m
O
C
0 I=
I=-
--5
e-
O
Or
0
#/) 400 0
I=
--,,..
0
,,r
300 < 0.025 C
-- 6 "~
0
6 ,,i,--
2OO
5--
l=
4-- l=
t00
80 0.030
3-- 60 lOTtO
0
.=
C
4O
2 CE 30 4
0.035
20 6
=,.
8
t0 0.040
1-- 8.
6
( 1 8 -e.. (4) --
==,.. 4 0.045
0.6 3
0.5 2 0.0 0.02 0.03 0.04 Q05 0.050
0.4--
[-Friclion foctor for r 40
0.?- =feel =nd wrOughl iron pipe

Figure 2-33. Reynolds number for compressible flow, steel pipe. By permission, Crane Co., TechnicalPaper #410, Engineering Div., 1957. Also
see 1976 edition.

ture, and a great potential exists for damage from such the speed of sound. The ratio of the actual fluid velocity
waves [15]. A discussion of shock waves is beyond the to its speed of sound is called the Mach number [38].
scope of this chapter.
The velocity of sound at 68~ in air is 1126 ft/sec.
Velocity considerations are important in rotating or For any gas, the speed of sound is:
reciprocating machinery systems, because, if the com-
pressible fluid velocity exceeds the speed of sound in the
fluid, shock waves can be set up and the results of such v s = ~ kgp"/9, ft/sec (2-86)
conditions are much different than the velocities below (equation continued on page 113)
 Fluid Flow 111

3.06 WV 3.06W
V - -

d2 d2p

IT='~~I! l't i i ! l'tl I I II!i~!11111| El I IIil Ii'tlllili~i

[ !il !!!-,tli IltlINlilPi~I
~tl IHII

I~[i Iiilltl I 1~1! ! I rtl b~lil~liiIIIi1~111~

ii~illillli~l
I:'~:~1! 11,41111111~liliilI~IIIN llllb.~lllili~A_:--a_-.'~>tl_o<~~'.~l I I I ! ,ili,~r
i ii',,,!i\ ~l~
IillllG~IIIlilTII %~\1~'~ r
<'I 'I I'! II ~'"ill
"1 'i'
i ~<
i,,iI l, i'ti~! iI iItl~,iili'i ,,,,
I,~I III I!111
NiI'II '~[Itl !'\1~i \!, "\1 ,~lltl'%'l'lt'
I !,.,
i i iii

!i~,,, '"'li,,I I@
! I i i~
I@~ =
=
=~r
I I I 1
!ilili!Iii!ii!11111111111111111111111111111111111111
I I I I I i I I I I I I I I I
llillllllllllllll~
I I i I
1 ltl~l I
Itlkl]illl]~llillll,l~<"
I I I
9 ,el"9 I Z t9 ~ 9 I,~l M'l ~ I~ ,m" lU'~ U'l I~:i I'~ O0 tTI ,--i
~ ,--i
I.iri ~ in il~
r
9- ~ ~ ~'~ C~ ~ ~1" l

saqoul u! 'ltd!d lo illllame!(i leUlelUl - io

inoH Jad spunod jo sputsnoq.L u! 'MOI:I io aletl - ,,tl_

~=_!il -~ !!l=~ ~ I1 -~ -~= ~e/~ ~ -~ -~.~ ==., ~ ~ -~. -
,1,,,,111 1.1,1,1, I,,,,I,,,,1,,,,1111 1,1,1 ~l~illl~l,,l~,,llll 1,i,I, 1,,,,1,,,,I,,,,I

II1"1"1" !171"l'1" II Ill I I " I

elnU!lli i~d lae:li i spuesnoqs u! ',q!:iOlltA -

X
ill

loo.,-I :l!qn3 J
a spunod u!t'.(l!SU~(] lill!~M - d

punod J~d ta:l

t o!qn3 u! 'emnloA o!l!oeds - A
, , ~ ~. ~ ,~-
~1-~1 .: -=.
t
'1
I
ft

~~~`~~=`~~~~~i~~~~~i~i~i~~~i~~i~i~~~~~~`~~~=~~~~~~i~~i~!1111111111111 i~~~i~i~~i~i~~~~~~~i
I',, ~~~~!~
Iili i!11111111"
`~~~i~~~~~~~~i~~~i~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~i~~~~~~~~~i~~~i~~~~~~. ,li-~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~
IlilllllllllNIIIIIllllllllllllillli!llilllillllllllllllili! l.I t-'.Ltt~l.liij,
I iilllllllllll ~
,llli!ll~liltlIIllili<tllllllllitIIIii,!ll~llilllllll~~~~]n/lllllllill!!liilllllll!llll "~|lli~--
-.,.-
Illlllillillll"~ llll~lilllilill~!I~lll--'ilt,:~llli~t,lt,l~l~llllJ,l~,,,~,,:..,,,.,,,llll
,I Ill i~i~ i~ I
I,~,~ J',,,,,,,,,~,, i': ' ' ' ' il il ~I ~ 'ill'Ill

IIIIi!lllllllill!,~/llilj~i~1,1%~i,'
' I ,I
I ~, "~'i]'il
I' '''''''''''''''''''=i,ill
'
Illllllllllilll
lllli"'" ' '
I'| iilllllllllllllllllllll

il!llli=llillll/"~1~~~i111111t111!iI!ilIIIItl /.;,,~ilililllllllllllllllilllllllllllll
IIl~lll/li,/llllllllll!~l!INIIllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll i
~ ~ 117]!iIIlillli]IIIIIIITIriJI I11111111
! I I IIJillllllilIIllllII]SIII1o
Figure 2-34. Pressure drop in compressible flow lines. By permission, Crane Co., TechnicalPaper #410, Engineering Div., 1957. Also see 1976
edition.
112 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

I,, $ H [ [ ' r NO.

LUDWIG CONSULTING ENGINEERS

By LINE SIZE SHE,ET" Job do.

Date Charge No.

Line N o . LP - 61 , Flew Sheet Drawi,ng No.,

Line Description Vent through Exchanger for Tower T - 3

N2 + Hydrocarbon
Fluid in line T emperature 140 oF

GPM (Cole.) GPM (des.) Pressure 5- 3 pslg

CFM ( t a l c . ) 2060 CFM (des.) 2270 Sp. Gr. 0.975

11.3
L bs./hr. ( C o l e . ) 1 0 ~841 Lbs./hr.(des.) 12,000 Sp. Vol. cu.ft./Ib.

Recommended Velocity f p ~ Viscosity 0 . 0 1 9 cp

Straight pipe, fittings, valves Pressure Drop

expansion, contraction, etc. Item in-
Item ,,
No. Unit E q. Ft. Total E q. Ft. ,pipe & E quivalent O. 06.17 _
St- L i n e 5 Orifice
R a t e V. I 11 1 1 Motor Valve
,I 6 6 Miscellaneous
Tee- SO I 50 ~0 l:xchanaer ...
droo 1 .So

Total 1.56 J

Total 72
Estimated line s i z e I0" (existing)

Cross-sect. area, 10" pipe=0.547 s q . f t . Actual Velocity 41 ~;0

_
fp

Velocity = 227010.547 = 4150 Feet/Min. Unit Loss per 100 ft. 0.0857 psi
Total head loss
in feet of liquid
Total pressure
drop in psi 1.56

Selected pipe size 10" Schedule 40, Steel

Material & Weight..
6.31 W = (6.31)(12~000) = 3.98 x 105
Calculations= Re = d ~
/
--('10.02) ( 0 . 0 1 9 )

f = 0.0158 .... .)~:)= !IV

(o.ooo336} (f} (w}* = (o.ouu~6) (o.oi58) (]z,ooo)= .......
A P / } O 0 f e e t =-- dS/ '(9 (1)11.:})

= 0.0857 Psi/100 equivalent feet of pipe(as p i p e , f i t t i n g s , v a l v e s , etc)

. . . . . . . . I iiiii i ii ii i i ii i i i i i

_~P Total (friction) = (0.08~;7/100)(72) = 0.0617 Psi

Checked by: D ate:

Figure 2-35. Example of pressure drop for a vapor system, Example 2-89
 Fluid Flow 113

80

50
40
30

20
.H 15
0
o 10
8.0
Z
d 5.0
r
~. 4.0
CQ
-., 3.0
I
~. 2.0
0
~"
a 1.5
LLI
~" 1.0
'u')
~ 0.8
I,M
Q~
gL.
0.5
0.4
0.3

0.2

2 3 5 8 10 20 30 50 80100 200 300 500 8001000 2000 5000 10,000

DOWTHERM VAPOR FLOW--- LBS./HR. x 10 =

Figure 2-36. Pressure drop, Dowtherm "A ''| vapor in steel pipe. By permission, Struthers Wells Corp., Bull. D-45.

(equation continuedfrom page 110) For nozzles and orifices (vapors/gases)"

k = ratio of specific heat of gas, at constant pressure to that at
constant volume, = Cp/Cv. See Table 2-14
g = 32.2 ft/sec squared W s
= 0.525 Y d~ C' ,/AP_ (2-88)
p" = pressure, pounds per sq ft, abs (Psf abs) (note units) vl
P = the specific weight, lb/cu ft (see Appendix) at T and p"
For valves, fittings, and pipe (liquids)"
This sonic velocity occurs in a pipe system in a restrict-
ed area (for example, valve, orifice, venturi) or at the out-
let end of pipe (open-ended), as long as the upstream
w s = 0.525 d~ I APK(pl) (2-89)
pressure is high enough. The physical properties in the
above equations are at the point of m a x i m u m velocity.
For the discharge of compressible fluids from the end For nozzles and orifices (liquids)"
of a short piping length into a larger cross section, such as
a larger pipe, vessel, or atmosphere, the flow is considered
w s = 0.525 d~ C' ~/Ap (Pl) (2-90)
adiabatic. Corrections are applied to the Darcy equation
to compensate for fluid property changes due to the
expansion of the fluid, and these are known as Y net where V1 = upstream specific volume of fluid, cu ft/lbs
expansion factors [3]. The corrected Darcy equation is: ws = rate of flow, lbs/sec
For valves, fittings, and pipe (vapors/gases): AP = pressure drop across the system, psi (inlet-dis-
charge)
K = total resistance coefficient of pipe, valves, fittings,
w s = 0.525 Y d~ 5/AP / (KV1), lbs / sec (2-87) and entrance and exit losses in the line
114 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Fluid Flow

iSllil/~ramli~-=qmls/Kl/l, mMllr.~!!l

mlliSllSl.li=MllQSlli./li=llJr.=l
.Ei=WiE,,~~::'.:* ~.
MImQ_q/i~/~

iSlillllii=ql/q,.li=_lll.2.1ii.llli'I ~
~.,m/sl=i=mm-=,lKlll, m,msl/,~ ~

uP.~mi~mmiP.M m Q s m . = mmm r m i s l :]

' . . . .

.( a ItA , . )
I~BmlIE OltOPull I=ERII~ men I=BII00 RILrr
01025 LV
Bosed on Horris Formula , ~ p :
d s'sl Rc , psi
L = Pipe Length, feet
Re= Ratio of Compression(from free oir)ot Entronce of Pipe
d = I.D.,Inches
Y = Air Flow,cu. ft./sec.(free oir)

Figure 2-37 Compressed air flow chart By permission, Walworth Co Note: use for estimating only (this author)

Y = net expansion factor for compressible flow
through orifices, nozzles, and pipe [3] (see Fig-
ures 2-38A and 2-38B)
AP = pressure drop ratio in AP/P', used to determine
Y from Figures 2-38A and 2-38B. The AP is the
difference between the inlet pressure and the
pressure in the area of larger cross section.
d i = pipe inside diameter, in.
C' = flow coefficient for orifices and nozzles (Figures
2-17 and 2-18)
For example, for a line discharging a compressible fluid
to a t m o s p h e r e , the AP is the inlet gauge pressure or the
difference between the absolute inlet pressure a n d atmos-
pheric pressure absolute. W h e n AP/P 1' falls outside the
limits of the K curves on the charts, sonic velocity occurs
at the point of discharge or at some restriction within the
pipe, a n d the limiting value for Y a n d AP m u s t be deter-
m i n e d from the tables on Figure 2-38A, a n d used in the
velocity equation, Vs, above [3].
 Fluid Flow 115

Table 2-14 For flow of gases a n d vapors t h r o u g h nozzles a n d orifices:

Typical Ratios of Specific Heats, k
Compound k = Cp/Cv YC'A ~ 2g (144)AP
q , cu ft/sec flow (2-48)
Air 1.40 V P
Ammonia 1.29
Argon 1.67 where 13 - ratio of orifice throat diameter to inlet diameter
Carbon Dioxide 1.28 C' - flow coefficient for nozzles and orifices (see Fig-
Carbon Monoxide 1.41 ures 2-17 and 2-18), when used as per ASME speci-
Ethylene 1.22 fication for differential pressure
Hydrochloric acid 1.40 9 = fluid density, lb/cu ft
Hydrogen 1.40 A = cross-sectional flow area, sq ft
Methane 1.26
Methyl Chloride 1.20
Note" the use of C' eliminates the calculation of velocity of
Nitrogen 1.40
Oxygen 1.40 approach. The flow coefficient C' is C' = CdAj 1 -- [34 > V
Sulfur dioxide 1.25 C d = discharge coefficient for orifices or nozzles [3].

For compressible fluids flowing t h r o u g h nozzles a n d ori-

Figures 2-38A a n d 2-38B are based on the p e r f e c t gas
laws a n d for sonic c o n d i t i o n s at the o u t l e t e n d of a pipe.
For g a s e s / v a p o r s t h a t deviate f r o m these laws, such as
steam, the s a m e a p p l i c a t i o n will yield a b o u t 5% g r e a t e r
flow rate. For i m p r o v e d accuracy, use the charts in Figures
2-38A a n d 2-38B to d e t e r m i n e the d o w n s t r e a m p r e s s u r e
w h e n sonic velocity occurs. T h e n use the fluid p r o p e r t i e s
at this c o n d i t i o n of p r e s s u r e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e in:
v s = ~/kgRT, ft / sec = (kg (144)P'V)a/2 (2-85)
rices use Figures 2-17 a n d 2-18, using hL or AP as differen-
tial static h e a d or pressure differential across taps located
o n e d i a m e t e r u p s t r e a m at 0.5 d i a m e t e r s d o w n s t r e a m f r o m
the inlet face of orifice plate or nozzle, w h e n values of C are
taken f r o m Figures 2-17 a n d 2-18 [3]. For any fluid:
q = C'A ([2g (144) AP]/9) 1/2, cu ft/sec flow (2-48)
N o t e for liquids AP is u p s t r e a m g a u g e pressure.
For e s t i m a t i n g p u r p o s e s for liquid flow with viscosity
similar to water t h r o u g h orifices a n d nozzles, the follow-
ing can be u s e d [53] :

to d e t e r m i n e the flow rate at this c o n d i t i o n from"

Q = 19.636 C'd 12 ~ /
/do/4
1

v = q/A = 183.3 q / d 2 = 0.0509 W/(d2) (9) (2-91)

d
where o is greater than 0.3 (2- 92)
d= internal diameter of pipe, in. d. 1

A= cross section of pipe, sq ft

q= cu ft/sec at flowing conditions
T= temperature, R Q = 19.636 C'd 02 4 h where do is less than 0.3 (2- 93)
k= ratio of specific heats di
P'= pressure, psi abs
W= flow, lbs/hr or [3], W = 157.6 do 2 C'~JhL9 2
v= velocity, mean or average, ft./sec = 1891 d02 C' ~JAP9 (2-94)

T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s are similar to flow t h r o u g h orifices, where Q = liquid flow, gpm

nozzles, a n d venturi tubes. Flow t h r o u g h nozzles a n d ven- do = diameter of orifice or nozzle opening, in.
turi devices is limited by the critical p r e s s u r e ratio, rc = d i -- pipe inside diameter in which orifice or nozzle is
d o w n s t r e a m p r e s s u r e / u p s t r e a m p r e s s u r e at sonic condi- installed, in.
h'L = differential head at orifice, ft liquid
tions (see Figure 2-38C).
C' = flow coefficient (see Figure 2-39 for water and
For nozzles a n d venturi meters, the flow is limited by crit- Figure 2-18 and 2-19 for vapors or liquids)
ical pressure ratio and the m i n i m u m value of Y to be used. (text continued on page 118)
116 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

k= 1.3
,k =~,ppr,,xim;,zcly i.3 for COm. SO=, !1~0, II=S. N! I~, N=O, CI=, Ci-i,, (l=ll=, and C~FI4)
l.O~~ j ~ Limiting Factors
For Sonic Velocity
0.95 . . . . . . ~ . . . .
k= 1.3

0.90
I K 'p, [ Y
0.85
1.2 .525 .612
1.5 .550 .631
0.80
2.0 .593 .635
} t

{
0.75 3 .642 .~8
4 .678 .670
6 .722 .685
0.70 \ 8 .750 .698
10 .773 .705
0.65 15 .807 .718

0.60 ,~-: ,~ , , , , ,
20 .831 .718

0.55
,;o' [ 40
100
.877
.920
,,
.718
.718
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
L~P
P;

k= 1.4
(k =approximatcly 1.4 for Air, H=, O=, N=, CO, NO, and HCl)
1.0 ~ " " l 1 ~ l 1 Limiting Factors
For Sonic Velocity
0.99 I\ " . . . . . ! k= 1.4

0.90 ! ~P
K Y
P'l
1
0.85
1.2 ,552 .588
1.5 .576 .6O6
0.80 2.0 .612 .622

3 ,662 .639
0.75 i

I \.\ ~",2 4
6
,697
,737
.649
.671
0.70 I
8 .762 .685
10 .784 .695
0.65 * \\=%. \ ~ ~.~oo 15 .818 .702

20 .839 .710
0,60 F ,r ~ o 40 .883 .710
I00 .926 .710
0.55
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
L~P
P;

Figure 2-38A. Net expansion factor, Y, for compressible flow through pipe to a larger flow area. By permission, Crane Co., Technical Paper
#410, Engineering Div., 1957. Also see 1976 edition.
 Fluid Flow 117

Exponsion
Foctor
Y
1.00

0.95 ~ . . . . Squore edge orifice'

do.
dl
0.90 ~

0.65 9 m m m

:.:
0.80. . ~. ~ -
" Nozzle or i "~. ~-- 0'8
9 venturi meter,
9 = 0 to 0.2-
0.75

0.70
: =o.t- ~
iii
m m m

" ==0.75' " % %'i,

0.65 ~
9.. ,. . . . . -
-,
0.60 " ,. ,, ~ .. r ~ , %, '%_ q%,
. . , ~%
=
= %~ %= qqt=
0.5~ - ~ . . . . 9
-" ~ %%
P
0.50 . . . . . .
b
. \
9 ~,
0.45 . - "-- . . . . "%

9 '%
0.40
D
.
9 . . .

0.35 . . . . .

k= 1.45-IJ ,,, I, ,, ,I, ,, ,I ,ililllil liiil liiilll li i.J i l l I I,I II|

0 .2 .4 .6 '8 1.0
p , ; .I; 0
~ =I 9 ~5 =..,,I..,; "i i I I | i , i il | i " i i | , i i " ii | I I I I | . I I I I | I I I | | , I i I I
9~ .6 .1B 1.0
k=i.3OL" ' , 'I ,. , . I 9 . , 9 I,, , , I , i it I, , , , I ,, , , l.i I , ,I.. , . I , ,', , I
0 .2 .4 .5 .8 1.0
k=1.25 t, ,, , I ,, , , I,,,, 1,,., I,, L,l,l, , I,,l , I,, , i llxlZ I.,,, I
0 .2 .4 .5 .8 1.0
Pressure ratio, A P/P,'

Figure 2-38B. Net expansion factor, Y, for c o m p r e s s i b l e flow through nozzles and orifices. By permission, Crane Co., Technical Paper #410,
Engineering Div., 1957. Also see 1976 edition and Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Application, Part 1, 5th Ed., 1959 and R. G. C u n n i n g h a m ,
Paper #50-A-45, A m e r i c a n Society of M e c h a n i c a l Engineers.
118 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

(text continued from page 115) Flow o f gases a n d v a p o r s ( c o m p r e s s i b l e fluids) t h r o u g h

q = cu ft/sec at flowing conditions (Figure 2-37) Coef- n o z z l e s a n d orifices. ( F o r flow field i m p o r t a n c e see Refer-
ficient from Reference [22] for liquids discharge e n c e s [31]). F r o m [3]"

rc = critical pressure ratio for compressible flow, =

P'2/P'I Y C ' A / 2 g (144)AP
q = , cu f t / s e c
P
(at flowing conditions ) (2-48)

Y = net expansion factor from Figures 2-38A or 2-38B

AP = differential pressure (equal to inlet gauge pressure when
i discharging to atmosphere)
P = weight density of fluid, lbs/cu ft at flowing conditions
A = cross section of orifice or nozzle, sq ft
C' = flow coefficient from Figures 2-38A or 2-38B

G,, or, W = 1891 Yd 12 C t /A__p_P,l b s / h r (2- 95)

V1

where do = internal diameter of orifice, in

V1 = specific volume of fluid, cu ft/lb
.~. ~ ~~ ~ ~

I A P PI'
or, q t = 11.30Yd o2 C' T 1Sg , cu ft/sec
"~" . ~~----~
at 14.7 psia and 60 ~ F (2- 96)
. l ~
where Sg = Sp Gr gas relative to air, = mol wt. gas/29

i.25 i13 1.35 1"4

I1 11$
T 1 = absolute temperature, ~
P'I = pressure, psi abs
= Cp/'C v
P' = psia Procedure
B = ratio small-to-large diameter in odfices and nozzles,
and contractions or enlargements in pipes
A. How to determine pipe sizefor given capacity and pressure
drop.
Figure 2-38C. Critical Pressure Ratio, rc, for compressible flow
through nozzles and venturi tubes. By permission, Crane Co., Tech- 1. A s s u m e a p i p e d i a m e t e r , a n d c a l c u l a t e velocity in
nical Paper #410, 1957. Also see 1976 edition. See note at Figure 2-
f e e t / s e c o n d u s i n g t h e given flow.
18 explaining details of data source for chart. Note: P' = psia 13= ratio
of small-to-large diameter in orifices and nozzles, and contractions or 2. C a l c u l a t e sonic velocity f o r f l u i d u s i n g E q u a t i o n s 2-
enlargements in pipes. 84 o r 2-85.

. s . ~XrnA/vr $NARP " $OUARE Ra ' ENTRANT 3QUARE WELL

?USI 8DG~FD GDGED T U B .= , noG~,o ROUNOEO..
I

m
L, m i m

m o

UlIG'11ii.alss=tlltA. i
Ir~ ctz~lB~s = t - t A INA. i
i iii ,,

C = .52 C = .61 C = .61 C = .78 C = .82 C=.~

Figure 2-39. Discharge coefficients for liquid flow. By permission, Cameron Hydraulic Data, Ingersoll-Rand Co., Washington, N.J., 1979.
 Fluid Flow 119

3. If sonic velocity of step 2 is g r e a t e r than calculated F r o m Figure 2-38, Y = 0.97; f r o m Figure 2-18.
velocity of step 1, calculate line pressure d r o p using
usual flow equations. If these velocities are equal,
t h e n the pressure d r o p calculated will be the maxi- Ca
C' (assumed turbulent) = (2-47)
m u m for the line, using usual flow equations. If [1 - (do/d I )4 ]1/2
sonic velocity is less than the velocity of step 1, reas-
sume line size a n d r e p e a t calculations. where C d - orifice discharge coefficient, uncorrected for
velocity of approach
B. How to determine flow rate (capacity) for a given line size
and fixed pressure drop. C' = 0.74 at est. Re > 2000
Temperature = 460 + 50 = 510~
This is also a trial a n d e r r o r solution following the pat-
tern of (A), except capacities are a s s u m e d a n d the pres-
sure drops are calculated to find a m a t c h for the given 144P 144 (54.7)
Density = 9 -
conditions of inlet pressure, calculating back f r o m the RT (96.4) (510)
outlet pressure. = 0.1602 lb/cu ft

C. How to determine pressure at inlet of pipe system forfixed W = 1891Ydo2C (APp) 1/2 (2-95)
pipe size and flow rate. W = 1891 (0.97) (0.750) 2 0.74 [(3) (0.1602)] 1/2
W = 529.2 lbs/hr methane
D e t e r m i n e sonic velocity at outlet conditions and
check against a calculated velocity using flow rate. If
C h e c k a s s u m e d Re to verify turbulence; if n o t in rea-
sonic is the lower, it must be used as limiting, and capac-
sonable a g r e e m e n t , recalculate C' a n d balance of solu-
ity is limited to that corresponding to this velocity.
tion, checking:
Using the lower velocity, a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g capaci-
ty, calculate pressure d r o p by the usual equations.
Viscosity of methane = 0.0123 centipoise
For g r e a t e r accuracy start at the outlet e n d of the
line, divide it in sections using the physical p r o p e r - = 6.31 W/d~t
ties of the system at these points, backing u p to the = 6.31 (502)/(0.750) (0.0123)
inlet e n d of the line for the friction loss calculations. Re = 343,373
This p r o c e d u r e is r e c o m m e n d e d particularly for
steam t u r b i n e a n d similar e q u i p m e n t e x h a u s t i n g to This is t u r b u l e n t a n d satisfactory for the assumption.
a t m o s p h e r e or vacuum. T h e pressure at the inlet of For helpful quick r e f e r e n c e for discharge of air t h r o u g h
the line is t h e n the sum of the discharge or outlet an orifice, see Table 2-12B.
line pressure a n d all the i n c r e m e n t a l section pres-
sure losses. In the case of a turbine, this would set its Example 2-11: Sonic Velocity
outlet pressure, which would be h i g h e r than the
pressure in the c o n d e n s e r or e x h a u s t system. Water v a p o r (4930 l b s / h r ) is flowing in a 3-inch line at
730~ T h e outlet pressure is less than o n e half the inlet
Example 2-10: Gas Flow Through Sharp-edged Orifice absolute pressure. W h a t is m a x i m u m flow that can be
expected?
A 1" S c h e d u l e 40 pipe is flowing m e t h a n e at 40 psig
a n d 50~ T h e flange taps across the orifice (0.750 inch Cp/C v -- 1.30
diameter) show a 3 psi pressure differential. D e t e r m i n e
the flow rate t h r o u g h the orifice. MW vapor = 18.02
Solution:
CH4; Sp Gr = Sg = 0.553 Vs = [(1.30) (32.2) (1544/18.02) (730 + 460)] 1/2
= 2,065 ft/sec
Gas constant = R = 96.4
Ratio Sp. ht. = k = 1.26 Cross section of 3-inch pipe = 0.0513 sq ft
Absolute system pressure = P = 40 + 14.7 = 54.7 psia
A P / P 1 = 3.0/54.7 = 0.0549 Volume flow = (2,065) (0.0513) = 105.7 cu ft/sec
Pipe ID = 1.049 in.
d o / d l = 0.750/1.049 = 0.7149 Vapor density = 4930/(3600) (105.7) = 0.01295 lb/cu ft
120 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Pressure at end of line Table 2-15

= 0.01295 (379/18.02) (14.7) (1190/520) Dry-Gas Flow Transmission Factors
= 9.16 psia (below atmos.)
Title Transmission Factor (fi/f')--- Ref.*
Weymouth ll.2D 0.167
Blasius 3.56Re 0.125
Friction Drop for Compressible Natural Gas 6.87Re 0.07s
Panhandle A
in Long Pipe Lines Modified Panhandle 16.5Re 0.0196
Smooth pipe law 4 log (Re VT) - 0.4
Tests of the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of the Interior, B u r e a u (Nikuradse)
of Mines, r e p o r t e d in M o n o g r a p h 6 Flow of Natural Gas Rough pipe law
Through High-Pressure Transmission Lines [43] indicate (D)
(Nikuradse) 41og~ + 3.48
that the W e y m o u t h f o r m u l a gives g o o d results on flow (2~)
m e a s u r e m e n t s o n lines 6 inches in d i a m e t e r a n d larger
w h e n o p e r a t i n g u n d e r steady flow c o n d i t i o n s of 30 to
600 psig.
Colebrook D + 3 . 4 8 - 4 l o g [ 1 + 9.35
4log -2e
2Re
O 1
Note: D = inches
L o n g gas transmission lines of several miles length *See listing of source references in Reference [15]. By permission,
are n o t c o n s i d e r e d the same as process lines inside Hope, P. M. and Nelson, R. G., "Fluid Flow, Natural Gas," McKetta,J. J.
Ed., Encyclopediaof Chemical Processing and Design, vol. 22, 1985, M.
p l a n t c o n n e c t i n g process e q u i p m e n t where the lengths Dekker, p. 304 [15].
usually are m e a s u r e d in feet or h u n d r e d s of feet. Some
plants will transfer a m a n u f a c t u r e d gas, such as oxygen,
c a r b o n dioxide, or h y d r o g e n , f r o m one p l a n t to an adja- sure base of 14.4 psia is to be used with the B u r e a u of
cent plant. H e r e the distance can be from o n e to fifteen Mines multipliers [43].
miles. In such cases, the previously discussed flow rela-
tions for compressible gases can be applied in incre-
m e n t a l segments, recalculating e a c h segment, a n d t h e n
1/2
the results can be c h e c k e d using o n e of the f o r m u l a s qh (atl4"4psia & 60~ = 36"926d2"667[P12]-L m
P22
that follow. However, there are m a n y variables to evalu-
scfh (2 - 97)
ate a n d u n d e r s t a n d in the W e y m o u t h , P a n h a n d l e , Pan-
handle-A a n d modifications as well as o t h e r flow rela- q'h (at 14.4 psia and 60~
tionships. T h e r e f o r e , they will be p r e s e n t e d for
reference. However, the e n g i n e e r s h o u l d seek o u t the
specialized flow discussions on this type of flow condi- 1/2
tion. T h e above m e n t i o n e d e q u a t i o n s are derived some- , scfh (Ref. 8) (2-98)
what empirically for the flow of a n a t u r a l gas c o n t a i n i n g Sg 'm
some e n t r a i n e d liquid ( p e r h a p s 5% to 12%), a n d the
results vary accordingly, even t h o u g h they are n o t two-
Weymouth's formula [57] has friction established as a
phase flow equations.
function of diameter a n d may be solved by using align-
m e n t charts.
Table 2-15 [ 15] tabulates the transmission factors of
The Weymouth f o r m u l a is also expressed (at standard
the various equations. Most of these are established as
conditions) as:
c o r r e c t i o n factors to the c o r r e l a t i o n of various test data.

qa = 433.49E ( T s / P s ) [ P ' I 2 - P ' 2 2 ] / S g T 1 L m Z ] 1 / 2 d 2"667 (2-99)

D u n n i n g [40] r e c o m m e n d s this f o r m u l a (from Ref-
e r e n c e [43]) for 4 to 24-inch d i a m e t e r lines with specif-
E = transmission factor, usually taken as: 1.10 • 11.2 d 0"167
ic gravity of gas n e a r 0.60, a n d actual m e a n velocities (omit for pipe sizes smaller than 24 in.)
f r o m 15 to 30 feet p e r s e c o n d at t e m p e r a t u r e n e a r 60~ d = pipe I.D., in.
Ts = 520~
T h e B u r e a u of Mines r e p o r t states that m i n o r cor- Ps = 14.7 psia
rections for bends, tees, a n d even compressibility are T 1 = flowing temperature of gas, ~
u n n e c e s s a r y d u e to the g r e a t e r u n c e r t a i n t i e s in actual qd = cu ft/day gas at std conditions of Ps and Ts
line conditions. T h e i r checks with the W e y m o u t h rela- P ' I = inlet pressure, psia
tion o m i t t e d these corrections. T h e relation with pres- P'2 = outlet pressure, psia
 Fluid Flow 121

Z = compressibility factor For b e n d s in p i p e a d d to l e n g t h [38]"

L m --pipe length, miles

or f r o m R e f e r e n c e [3]" Bend Radius Add*, as pipe diameters, de

1 Pipe dia. 17.5
qh = 28.0 d 2"667{[((P'I) 2 - (P'2)2)/Sg Lm] [520/T]} 1/2 (2-100) 1.5 Pipe dia. 10.4
2 Pipe dia. 9.0
Example 2-12: Use of Base Correction Multipliers 3 Pipe dia. 8.2
*These must be converted to the unit of length used in the formula.
Tables 2-16, 2-17, 2-18, a n d 2-19 are set u p with base ref-
e r e n c e conditions. In o r d e r to c o r r e c t o r c h a n g e any base
c o n d i t i o n , the a p p r o p r i a t e multiplier(s) m u s t be used. If a line is m a d e u p o f several d i f f e r e n t sizes, these may
A flow o f 5.6 million cu f t / d a y has b e e n calculated be resolved to o n e , a n d t h e n the e q u a t i o n solved o n c e for
using W e y m o u t h ' s f o r m u l a [57], with these conditions: this total e q u i v a l e n t length. If these are h a n d l e d o n a p e r
m e a s u r i n g base o f 60~ a n d 14.4 psia; flowing t e m p e r a - size basis, a n d t o t a l e d o n the basis o f the l o n g e s t l e n g t h o f
ture o f 60~ a n d specific gravity o f 0.60. S u p p o s e for com- o n e size o f line, t h e n the e q u i v a l e n t length, Le, for any
p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s the base c o n d i t i o n s m u s t be c h a n g e d to: size d, r e f e r e n c e d to a basic diameter, de.
m e a s u r i n g base o f 70~ a n d 14.7 psia; flowing t e m p e r a -
ture o f 80~ a n d specific gravity o f 0.74. Le = Lm (de/d) 4854 (2-103)

Multipliers f r o m the tables are"

where Lm is the length of pipe of size d to be used.
Pressure base: 0.9796
Le is the equivalent length of pipe size d, length L m
T e m p e r a t u r e base: 1.0192
after conversion to basis of reference diameter, d e .
Specific gravity base: 0.9005
Flowing t e m p e r a t u r e base: 0.9813
New base flow The calculations can be b a s e d o n d i a m e t e r d e a n d a
length o f all the various Le values in the line plus the
= (5,600,000)(0.9796)(1.0192)(0.9005)(0.9813)
length o f line o f size de, giving a total e q u i v a l e n t l e n g t h
= 4,940,000 cu f t / d a y
for the line system.

Panhandle-A Gas Flow Formula [3]

Modified Panhandle Flow Formula [ 15]
This f o r m u l a is c o n s i d e r e d to be slightly b e t t e r t h a n
the +10 p e r c e n t accuracy o f the W e y m o u t h f o r m u l a . qDS = 737.2 E ( T o / P o ) 1"02 [ { P l 2 (1 + 0.67 Z P 1 )
-- P22 (1 + 0.67 ZP2)}/T L m G~ 0"51 (d) 2"53 (2-104)

2_ p22 ] 0.5394 where miles length

I
p Lm =
q ds = 435.87 E(T s / Ps ) 1.07881 1 d =
inside diameter, in.
Sg~ rnZ
_

T =
flowing temperature, R
d 2.6182 (2- 101) Z =
gas deviation, compressibility factor
To =
base temperature, (520 R)
or E = 0.92, usually 0.8539 G =
gas specific gravity
Z =
compressibility correction term
I 0.4606 ] 1B539 P =
pressure, psi, absolute
2 Sg Po =
base pressure, (14.73 psi, absolute)
Pl 2 -- P 2 = 435.87 (Ts/P)1.07881 d 2.6182 TL m q 1.8539
E =
"efficiency factor," which is really an adjustment
to fit the data
f = fanning friction factor
(2-102)
qDS = flow rate, SCF/day
where T = gas flowing temperature, ~ = 460~ + t
E = efficiency factor for flow, use 1.00 for new pipe
without bends, elbows, valves and change of pipe American Gas Association (AGA) Dry Gas Method
diameter or elevation
0.95 for very good operating conditions See R e f e r e n c e [16] AGA, Dry Gas Manual. S o m e tests
0.92 for average operating conditions indicate that this m e t h o d is o n e o f the m o s t reliable above
0.85 for poor operating conditions a fixed Reynolds n u m b e r .
122 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Complex Pipe Systems Handling Natural Example 2-14: Looped System

(or similar) Gas
The m e t h o d suggested in the Bureau of Mines Mono-
graph No. 6 [43] has f o u n d wide usage, and is outlined
here using the W e y m o u t h F o r m u l a as a base.
1. Equivalent lengths of pipe for different diameters
L1 = L2 ( d l / d 2 ) 16/3
D e t e r m i n e the equivalent length of 25 miles of 10-in.
(10.136-in. I.D.) which has a parallel loop of 6 miles of 8-
in. (7.981-in. I.D.) pipe tied in near the midsection of the
10-in. line.
Figure the looped section as parallel lines with 6 miles
of 8-in. and 6 miles of 10-in. The equivalent d i a m e t e r for
one line with the same carrying capacity is:
(2-105)

where L1= the equivalent length of any pipe of length L2 and do = [(7.981) 8/3+ (10.136)8/3] 3/8= 11.9-in.
diameter, d 2, in terms of diameter, dl.
This simplifies the system to one section 6 miles long of
d 1 = d 2 ( L 1 / L 2 ) 3/16 (2-106) 11.9-in. I.D. (equivalent) pipe, plus one section of 25
minus 6, or 19 miles of 10-in. (10.136-in. I.D.) pipe.
where dl = the equivalent diameter of any pipe of a given
diameter, d 2, and length, L 2, in terms of any other Now convert the 11.9-in. pipe to a length equivalent to
length, L1. the 10-in. diameter.

2. Equivalent diameters of pipe for parallel lines L1 = 6(10.136/11.9) 5.33 = 2.58 miles

do = (dl 8/3 + d2 8/3. 9 9 + dn8/3) 3/8 (2-107)

where do is the d i a m e t e r of a single line with the same
delivery capacity as that of the individual parallel lines of
diameters d 1, d 2 . . . and dn. Lines of same length.
This value of do may be used directly in the W e y m o u t h
formula.
Total length of 10-in. pipe to use in calculating capaci-
ty is 19 + 2.58 = 21.58 miles.
By the principles outlined in the examples, gas pipe
line systems may be analyzed, paralleled, cross-fled, etc.
Example 2-15: Parallel System: Fraction Paralleled

Example 2-13: Series System D e t e r m i n e the portion of a 30-mile, 18-in. (17.124-in.

I.D.) line which must be paralleled with 20-in. (19.00-in.
D e t e r m i n e the equivalent length of a series of lines: 5
I.D.) pipe to raise the total system capacity 1.5 times the
miles of 14-in. (13.25-in. I.D.) c o n n e c t e d to 3 miles of 10-
existing rate, keeping the system inlet and outlet condi-
in. (10.136-in. I.D.) c o n n e c t e d to 12 miles of 8-in (7.981-
tions the same.
in. I.D.).
Select 10-in. as the base reference size.
T h e five-mile section of 14-in. pipe is equivalent to: (qda /qdb )2-1
x = - 1 (2-108)
1
L 1 -- 5(10.136/13.25) 5.33 = 1.195 miles of 10-in. [l+(db/d a )2.667 ]2

T h e 12 mile section of 8-in. is equivalent to:

For this example, qab -- 1.5 qaa
L1 = 12(10.136/7.981) 5"33 = 42.8 miles of 10-in.

(1//1.5) 2 _ 1
Total equivalent length of line to use in calculations is: x = = 0.683

1.195 + 3.0 + 42.8 = 46.995 miles of 10-in. (10.136-in. I.D.). E 1

[1 + (19.00/17.124) 2.667 ]2 11
An alternate p r o c e d u r e is to calculate (1) the pressure
drop series-wise one section of the line at a time, or (2) This means 68.3 p e r c e n t of the 30 miles must be paral-
capacity for a fixed inlet pressure, series-wise. lel with the new 19-in. I.D. pipe.
 Fluid Flow 123

Table 2-16 Table 2-17

Pressure-Base Multipliers For Q u a n t i t y * Temperature-Base Multipliers For Q u a n t i t y *
14.4 460 + new temperature base, ~ F.
Multiplier - - Multiplier - -
New pressure base, Lbs./sq. in. abs. 460 -+- 60

New Pressure Base, Lbs./sq.in. abs. Multiplier New Temperature Base, o F. Multiplier
12.00 1.2000 45 0.9712
13.00 1.1077 50 0.9808
14.00 1.0286 55 0.9904
14.40 1.0000 60 1.0000
14.65 0.9829 65 1.0096
14.7 0.9796 70 1.0192
14.9 0.9664 75 1.0288
15.4 0.9351 80 1.0385
16.4 0.8780 85 1.0481
90 1.0577
*By permission, Johnson, T. W. and Berwald, W. B., Flow of Natural Gas 95 1.0673
Through High Pressure Transmission Lines, Monograph No. 6, U.S. Dept. of 100 1.0769
Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC.
*By permission, Johnson, T. W. and Berwald, W. B., Flow of Natural Gas
Through High Pressure Transmission Lines, Monograph No. 6, U.S. Dept. of
Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.

Table 2-18
Specific G r a v i t y M u l t i p l i e r s F o r Q u a n t i t y *

0.600 1 89
Multiplier ffi Iactual
Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.5 1.0954 1.0847 1.0742 1.0640 1.0541 1.0445 1.0351 1.0260 1.0171 1.0084
0.6 1.0000 0.9918 0.9837 0 9759 0.9682 0.9608 0.9535 0.9463 0.9393 0.9325
0.7 0.9258 0.9193 0.9129 0.9066 0.9005 0.8944 0.8885 0.8827 0.8771 0.8715
0.8 0.8660 0.8607 0.8554 0.8502 0.8452 0.8402 0.8353 0.8305 0.8257 0.8211
0.9 0.8165 0.8120 0.8076 0.8032 0.7989 0.7947 0.7906 0.7865 0.7825 0.7785
1.0 0.7746 0.7708 0.7670 0.7632 0.7596 0.7559 0.7524 0.7488 0.7454 0.7419
1.1 0.7385 0.7352 0.7319 0.7287 0.7255 0.7223 0.7192 0.7161 0.7131 0.7101

*By permission, Johnson, T. W. and Berwald, W. B., Flow of Natural Gas Through High Pressure Transmission Lines, Monograph No. 6, U.S. Dept. of Inte-
rior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC.

Table 2-19
Flowing-Temperature Multipliers For Quantity*

I 460 + 60 ] 89
Multiplier . . . . . .
460 + actual flowing temperatured

Temp. ~
1.0632 1.0621 1.0609 1.0598 1.0586 1.0575 1.0564 1.0552 1.0541 1.0530
io 1.0518 1.0507 1.0496 1.0485 1.0474 1.0463 1.0452 1.0441 1.0430 1.0419
20 1.0408 1.0398 1.0387 1.0376 1.0365 1.0355 1.0344 1.0333 1.0323 1.0312
30 1.0302 1.0291 1.0281 1.0270 1.0260 1.0249 1.0239 1.0229 1.0219 1.0208
40 1.0198 1.0188 1.0178 1.0167 1.0157 1.0147 1.0137 1.0127 1.0117 1 0107
5O 1.0098 1.0088 1.0078 1.0068 1.0058 1.0048 1.0039 1.0029 1.0019 1.0010
60 1.0000 0.9990 0.9981 0.9971 0.9962 0.9952 0.9943 0.9933 0.9924 0.9915
70 0.9905 0.9896 0.9887 0.9877 0.9868 0.9859 O.985O 0.9841 0.9831 0.9822
8O 0.9813 0.9804 0.9795 0.9786 0.9777 0.9768 0.9759 0.9750 0.9741 0.9732
90 0.9723 0.9715 0.9706 0.9697 O.9688 0.9680 0.9671 0.9662 0.9653 0.9645

*By permission, Johnson, T. W. and Berwald, W. B., Flow of Natural Gas Through High Pressure Transmission Lines, Monograph No. 6, U.S. Dept. of Interi-
or, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC.
124 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
Parallel System: New Capacity after Paralleling
Solve this relation, rearranged conveniently to [43]"
q da
q ab = 1/2
x -1 +1
[1 + ( d b / d ~ )2.667 ]2
Two-phase Liquid and Gas Flow
The concurrent flow of liquid and gas in pipe lines has
received considerable study [33], [35], [37], [41]. How-
ever, pressure drop prediction is not extremely reliable
except for several gas pipe line conditions. The general
determinations of pressure drop for plant process lines
can only be approximated.
The latest two-phase flow research and design studies
have broadened the interpretation of some of the earlier
flow patterns and refined some design accuracy for select-
ed situations. The method presented here serves as a fun-
damental reference source for further studies. It is sug-
gested that the designer compare several design concept
results and interpret which best encompasses the design
problem under consideration. Some of the latest refer-
ences are included in the Reference Section. No one ref-
erence has a solution to all two-phase flow problems.
y,G/X
I00,000
Wove Flow
~o,ooo
Strotified Flow
1,000
I000.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0J1.0 2 4 6 810
Figure 2-40, Flow patterns for horizontal two-phase flow. (Based on data from I-in., 2-in., and 4-in,, pipe). By permission, 0. Baker, 0 / / a n d
Gas Journal, Nov, 1 O, 1958, p, 156,
If two-phase flow situations are not recognized, pres-
sure drop problems may develop which can prevent sys-
tems from operating. It requires very little percentage of
vapor, generally above 7% to 8%, to establish volumes and
flow velocities that must be solved by two-phase flow analy-
(2-109) sis. The discharge flow through a pressure relief valve on
a process reactor is often an important example where
two-phase flow exists, and must be recognized for its back
pressure impact.
Flow Patterns
Six or seven types of flow patterns (Figure 2-40) are
usually considered in evaluating two-phase flow. Only one
type can exist in a line at a time, but as conditions change
(velocity, roughness, elevation, etc.) the type may also
change. The unit pressure drop varies significantly
between the types. Figure 2-40 illustrates the typical flow
regimes recognized in two-phase flow.
Figure 2-41 [17] typically represents a graphical illustra-
tion of the various flow patterns of Figure 2-40 as the two-
phase mixture flows through the piping. Long gas trans-
port lines may have hydrocarbon or other liquids form
(condense) as the fluid flows, and this becomes a real prob-
lem for offshore or long buried onshore raw gas transmis-
sion (see section dealing with calculation methods).
Dispersed Flow
Annulor Flow Bubble or Froth Flow
Slug Flow
Plug Flow
2 4 6 8100 2 4 6 81,000 2 4 6 810,000
x = WmX~IG
 Fluid Flow 125

Type of Flow For Horizontal Pipes Total System Pressure Drop

Bubble or Froth: Bubbles dispersed in liquid The pressure drop for a system of horizontal and verti-
Stratified: Liquid and gas flow in stratified layers cal (or inclined) pipe is the sum of the horizontal pres-
Wave: Gas flows in top of pipe section, liquid sure drop plus the additional drop attributed to each ver-
in waves in lower section tical rise, regardless of initial and final elevations of the
Slug: Slugs of gas bubbles flowing through line [33].
the liquid
Annular: Liquid flows in continuous annular APTp h = APpT (horizontal pipe) + nhFe pL/144 (2-110)
ring on pipe wall, gas flows through
center of pipe A. To determine most probable type of two-phase flow
Plug: Plugs of liquid flow followed by plugs using Figure 2-40.
of gas
Dispersed: Gas and liquid dispersed
1. Calculate W m )~y/G
2. Calculate G/)~
3. Read intersection of ordinate and abscissa to identi-
fy probable type of flow. Since this is not an exact,
clear-cut position, it is recommended that the adja-
cent flow types be recorded also. Note: See Example
2-16 for definitions of ~, and ~t.

B. Calculate the separate liquid and gas flow pressure

drops.

1. For general process application both APL and APg

may be calculated by the general flow equation"
APL or APg (using proper values respectively)

3.36fLW 2 ( 10-6 )
Intermittent (2-111)
d5p

where f is obtained from Reynolds-Friction Factor

P~ chart (Figure 2-3) for an assumed line size, d.

2. For gas transmission, in general form [33]

(q d14.65 ) LS g TZf
AP = (2- 112)
Dlatdbuted g 20,000 d 5p avg
where qd 14.65 is the thousands of standard cubic feet
of gas per day, measured at 60~ and 14.65 psia, and
Pavg is the average absolute pressure in the pipe sys-
Ilubtde tem between inlet and outlet. This is an estimated
value and may require correction and recalculation
of the final pressure drop if it is very far off.
For oil flow in natural gas transmission lines [33]
k

Figure 2-41. Representative forms of horizontal two-phase flow pat-

fLQ2bp
terns; same as indicated in Figure 2-40. By permission, Heim, H., Oil APL = (2- 113)
and Gas Journal, Aug. 2, 1982, p. 132. 181,916d 5
126 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

3. Calculate value times 1.1 to 2.0, d e p e n d i n g u p o n critical

n a t u r e of application.
X = (APL/APg)I/2 (2-114)
APTph = APTp L + n h FeJ3L/144 (2-118)
4. Calculate 0 for types of flow selected f r o m Figure
2-40 [33].
where DL is the density, l b / c u ft, of the liquid flowing
in the line, a n d Fe, elevation factor using gas veloci-
Type Flow Equation for OGTr ty, v.
Froth or Bubble 9 = 14.2 X0"75//Wm0"l
Plug 9 = 27.315 X0"855/Wm0"17 Fe = 0.00967 Wm0"5/v0"7,for v > 10 (2-119)
Stratified 9 = 15,400 X/Wm 0"8
Slug 9 = 1,190 X0"I85/Wm0"5
or as an alternate: Fe = 1.7156 gg -0"702 (2-120)
Annular* 9 = ( 4 . 8 - 0.3125d) X~ -0.021d
*Set d = 10 for any pipe larger than 10-in.
X = [APLiq./APgas ] 1/2 Use Figure 2-42 for v less than 10. Most gas trans-
mission lines flow at from 1-15 ft/sec.
5. Calculate two-phase pressure drop, horizontal por- For fog or spray type flow, Baker [33] suggests using
tions of lines. For all types of flow, except wave a n d Martinelli's correlation and multiplying results by two [46].
fog or spray:
(a) For gas pipe line flow, the values of r may be
APTp -- APG$2GTT, psi per foot (2-115) converted to "efficiency E" values a n d used to cal-
culate the flow for the horizontal portion using a
For wave [52]. fixed allowable pressure d r o p in the general flow
equation [33]. T h e effect of the vertical compo-
A P T p = fTP (G'g)2/193.2 dPg, psi/foot (2-116) n e n t must be a d d e d to establish the total pressure
d r o p for the p u m p i n g system.
where

fTP = 0.0043 (Wm~L/G~g) 0"214 (2-117)

q d14.65 =
E38.7744 T s ( P] 2 _ p22 )d5
1000 Ps L m Sg "Ti
1~ E
~g (2-1 21)
6. Total two-phase p r e s s u r e d r o p , i n c l u d i n g horizon-
tal a n d vertical sections of line. Use c a l c u l a t e d where 14.65 refers to reference pressure Ps.

Liquid Head
Factor, Fe
1.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
0.9 ~ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
0.8 -\I _ 9 Noturol Gos Condensole in 16" P.ipeline
o Natural Gas,Oil and Water in 2 Oil Well Tubing
O.7 i, 9 Air and Water in I.~ V.er=t!caJ.Tubing..
9 Air and Lube Oil in z incllnea /uolng
0.6 ~l l P . r
0.5 ~x~[U.
''
0.4 "~dL
A =+ IL
0.3
0.2
0.1
9 ~ i9 ~-
0"00 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
Superficial Gas Velocity, ft./sec.

Figure 2-42. Estimating pressure drop in uphill sections of pipeline for two-phase flow. By permission, O. Flanigan, Oil and Gas Journal, Mar.
10, 1958, p. 132.
 Fluid Flow 127

or W m ) ~ t / G = 19,494 (1.017) (4.86)/58,482 = 1.641

APTp =
qd1465 LSgTZ/fg) (2- 122)
G/)~ = 58,482/1.017 = 57,500

20,000 d 5 Pavg "~ R e a d i n g Figure 2-40 type flow p a t t e r n is p r o b a b l y

annular, b u t c o u l d be wave or dispersed, d e p e n d i n g
w h e r e E = 1/~)GTT on m a n y u n d e f i n e d a n d u n k n o w n conditions.

(b) For the P a n h a n d l e equation, Baker [33] summarizes: 2. Liquid Pressure d r o p

q d14.65
//1~
0.43587 -~s
P1 P22/~
ZTLm
APL = 3.36 fLW 2 (10-6)/d59 (2-124)

D e t e r m i n e Re for 3-in. pipe:

- -

F r o m Figure 2-11; e / d = 0.0006 for steel pipe

(2- 123)
S g 0.4606
1000
v = = 0.086 ft / sec
63 (3600) (0.0513)
w h e r e E ( P a n h a n d l e ) = 0.9/(~GTT 1"077
lae = 1 cp/1488 = 0.000672 lbs/ft sec
Example 2-16: Two-phase Flow D = 3.068/12 = 0.2557 ft
9 = 63.0
A liquid-vapor m i x t u r e is to flow in a line having 358 Re = D vg/ge = 0.2557 (0.086) (63.0)/0.000672
feet of level pipe a n d t h r e e vertical rises of 10 feet e a c h Re = 2060 (this is borderline, and in critical region)
plus o n e vertical rise of 50 feet. Evaluate the type of flow
a n d e x p e c t e d p r e s s u r e drop. R e a d i n g Figure 2-3, a p p r o x i m a t e f = 0.0576
Vapor = 3,000 l b s / h r Substituting:
Liquid = 1,000 l b s / h r
Density: l b s / c u ft; Vapor = 0.077 APL = 3.36 (10 -6) (0.0576) (1000) 2 (1 foot)/(3.068) 5 (63)
Liquid = 63.0 = 1.1 (10 -5) psi/foot
Viscosity, centipoise; Vapor = 0.00127
Liquid = 1.0 Gas p r e s s u r e d r o p
Surface t e n s i o n liquid = 15 d y n e s / c m
Pipe to be s c h e d u l e 40, steel 3000
v = = 211 f t / s e c
Use m a x i m u m allowable vapor velocity = 15,000 f t / m i n . 0.077 (3600) (0.0513)

lae = 0.00127/1488 = 0.000000854 lbs/ft sec

1. D e t e r m i n e p r o b a b l e types of flow:

Re = Dv 9/ge = 0.2557 (211) (0.077)/0.000000854

= 4,900,000
= [(
)~ = 1.017 R e a d i n g Figure 2-3, f = 0.0175

APG = 3.36 (10 -6) (0.0175)(1 foot)(3000)2/(3.068)5(0.077)

= 0.0254 psi/foot
gt = (73/'f)[g L ( 6 2 . 3 / g L ) 2 ]1/3=

lit = 4.86
~
I 1. \63.0
3. X = (APL/APg) 1 / 2 = (1.1 (10-5)/2.54 X 10-2) 1/2
= 2.10 (10 -2)
Try 3-in. pipe, 3.068-in. I.D., cross-section area =
0.0513 sq. ft. 4. For a n n u l a r flow:

W m -- 1,000/0.0513 = 19,494 lbs/hr (sq ft) ~Gyr = ( 4 . 8 - 0.3125d) X 0"343- 0"021d

= [4.8 - 0.3125 (3.068)](2.10 • 10-2) 0"343-0"021 (3.068)
G = 3,000/0.0513 = 58,482 lbs/hr (sq ft) = 1.31
128 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

5. Two-phase flow for horizontal flows: lent flow, (b) sub-atmosphere pressure, (c) pressure d r o p
is limited to 10% of the final pressure (see c o m m e n t to
ZXPTp = APGO2GTT = (0.0254) (1.31) 2 = 0.0438 psi/ft follow), and (d) the lower limit for application of the
m e t h o d is
6. Fe = 0.00967 (Wm)0"5/v0"7
= 0.00967 (19,494)~176
= 0.032 W/d 7 20 (2-125)

Vertical elevation pressure d r o p c o m p o n e n t :
= n h FeOL/144 = [(3) (10) + (1) (50)](0.032)(63)/144
= 1.125 psi total
Total:
APTp h = (0.0438) (358) + 1.125
= 16.7 psi, total for pipe line
Because these calculations are somewhat uncertain
due to lack of exact correlations, it is best to calculate
pressure d r o p for o t h e r flow patterns, and apply a gener-
ous safety factor to the results.
Table 2-20 gives calculated results for o t h e r flow pat-
terns in several different sizes of lines.
where W is the flow rate in l b s / h r and d is the inside pipe
diameter in inches. If the above ratio is less than 20, the
flow is "streamlined" and the data does not apply.
If the pressure d r o p is greater than 10% of the final
pressure, the pipe length can be divided into sections and
the calculations made for each section, maintaining the
same criteria of (c) a n d ( d ) a b o v e .
Method [ 54]
The m e t h o d solves the equation (see Figure 2-43)
(F1CD1CT1) + (F2CD2CT2)
APvac = (2-126)
P,

where APvac = pressure drop, in. water/100 ft of pipe

Table 2-20
Two-Phase Flow Example Pl = initial pressure, inches mercury absolute
F1 = base friction factor, Figure 2-43
Horizontal Flow Pattern F2 = base friction factor, Figure 2-43
Eleva-
Strati- tion CT1 = temperature correction factor, Figure 2-43
Pipe I . D . Annular fled Wave Factor, Ft./sec.,
Inches Psi/Ft. Psi/Ft. Psi/Ft F, Gas Vel. CT2 = temperature correction factor, Figure 2-43
3.068 0.0438 0.00036,71 0.131 0.032 210.9 CDa = diameter correction factor, Figure 2-43
4.026 0.0110 0.0002431 0.0336 0.0465 122.5
6.065 0.00128 0.0001311:0.0043 0.0826 53.9
CD2 = diameter correction factor, Figure 2-43
7.981 0.00027 0.0000871 0.0011 0.121 31.1
10.020 o.oooo62 o.oooo621 0.0003 o.~66 ~9.7
Example 2-17: Line Sizing for Vacuum Conditions

D e t e r m i n e the p r o p e r line size for a 350 equivalent

Pressure Drop in Vacuum Systems
Vacuum in process systems refers to an absolute pressure
that is less than or below the local barometric pressure at
the location. It is a measure of the degree of removal of
atmospheric pressure to some level between atmospheric
b a r o m e t e r a n d absolute v a c u u m (which c a n n o t be
feet vacuum jet suction line drawing air at 350~ at a rate
of 255 l b s / h r with an initial pressure at the source of 0.6
in. Hg. Abs. Assume 10-in. pipe reading Figure 2-43. Note:
watch scales carefully.
F 1 = 0.0155
F 2 -- 0.071

attained in an absolute value in the real world), but is Cm = 0.96

used for a reference of m e a s u r e m e n t . In most situations, CD2 "- 0 . 9 6
a vacuum is created by p u m p i n g air out of the container
CT1 -" 1.5
(pipe, vessels) and thereby lowering the pressure. See Fig-
CT2 = 1.67
ure 2-1 to distinguish between vacuum gauge and vacuum
absolute. APvac = [(0.0155) (0.96) (1.5) + (0.071) (0.96) (1.67)]/0.6
This m e t h o d [54] is for applications involving air or = (0.02232 + 0.1138)/0.6
steam in cylindrical piping u n d e r conditions of (a) turbu- = 0.2269 in. water/100 ft.
 Fluid Flow 129

Total line pressure drop: T h e majority of industrial chemical a n d p e t r o c h e m i c a l

AP = ( 0.2269 ~ (350) = 0.794 in. water (for 350')
vac ~, 1 0 0 )
= (0.794/13.6) = 0.0584 in. Hg
Final calculated pressure = 0.6 + 0.0584 = 0.6584 in. Hg
10% of 0.658 = 0.0658 in. Hg
T h e r e f o r e the system is applicable to the basis of the
m e t h o d , since the calculated pressure d r o p is less than
10% of the final pressure, a n d w / d = 25.5, which >20.
Low Absolute Pressure Systems for Air [54]
For piping with air in streamline flow at absolute pres-
sures in the range between 50 microns a n d 1 millimeter
of mercury, the following is a r e c o m m e n d e d m e t h o d . Cal-
culation p r o c e d u r e s in pressure regions below atmos-
pheric are very limited a n d often not generally applicable
to broad interpretations.
For this m e t h o d to be applicable, the pressure d r o p is
limited to 10% of the final pressure.
Method [54]
Refer to Figure 2-44 for low pressure friction factor a n d
air viscosity of Figure 2-45 to c o r r e s p o n d to Figure 2-44.
, , 4f Lpv 2
P1 - P2 = , psi
2 gD ( 144 )
where P'I = upstream static pressure, psi abs.
P ' 2 - - downstream static pressure, psi abs.
f = friction factor, from Figure 2-44.
L = length of pipe (total equivalent), ft, incl. valves
and fittings
P = average density, lbs/cu ft
v = average velocity, ft/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec-sec
D = inside diameter of pipe, ft
= abs. viscosity of air, lbs/ft-sec
plants' v a c u u m o p e r a t i o n s are in the range of 100
microns to 760 torr. This is practically speaking the r o u g h
v a c u u m range n o t e d above. For reference:
1 torr = 1 m m m e r c u r y ( m m H g )
1 in. m e r c u r y (in. Hg) = 25.4 torr
1 m i c r o n (gm Hg) = 0.0010 torr
For o t h e r conversions, see Appendix.
In general, partially due to the size and cost of maintain-
ing vacuum in a piping system, the lines are not long (cer-
tainly not transmissions lines), and there is a m i n i m u m of
valves, fittings, and bends to keep the resistance to flow low.
T h e p r o c e d u r e r e c o m m e n d e d by Reference [18] is
based on the conventional gas flow equations, with some
slight modifications. T h e i m p o r t a n c e in final line size
d e t e r m i n a t i o n is to d e t e r m i n e what is a reasonable pres-
sure loss at the absolute pressure r e q u i r e d a n d the corre-
sponding pipe size to balance these. In some cases a
t r i a l / e r r o r a p p r o a c h is necessary.
M e t h o d [ 18], by permission:
1. Convert mass flow rate to volumetric flow rate, qm.
qm = W ( 3 5 9 / M ) ( 7 6 0 / P t ) ( T / ( 3 2 + 460)(1/60),
cu ft/min (2-128)
where Pt =pressure, torr
T = temperature, ~
W = mass flow, lbs/hr
M = molecular weight
(2- 127)
2. Calculate section by section from the process vessel to
the vacuum p u m p (point of lowest absolute pressure).
3. Assume a velocity, v, f t / s e c consistent with Figure 2-
46. Use Table 2-21 for short, direct c o n n e c t e d con-
nections to the v a c u u m p u m p . Base the final specifi-
cations for the line on p u m p specifications. Also the
d i a m e t e r of the line should m a t c h the inlet connec-
tion for the p u m p . General good practice indicates
that velocities of 100 to 200 ft/sec are used, with 300
to 400 f t / s e c being the u p p e r limit for the r o u g h vac-
u u m classification.

Vacuum for other Gases and Vapors Sonic velocity, Vs = (kg [ 1544/M] T) 1/2, ft/sec.
Use v from Figure 246, and qm from Equation 2-128.
Ryans a n d Roper categorize [18] v a c u u m in process
systems as: 4. D e t e r m i n e pipe diameter, D, ft,

Category Absolute Vacuum (Absolute Pressure) D = 0.146 ~] q m,/V (2-129)

Rough vacuum 760 torr to 1 torr
Medium vacuum 1 to 10 .3 torr R o u n d this to the nearest standard pipe size. Recal-
High vacuum 10 .3 to 10 .7 torr
culate v based on actual internal diameter of the line.
Ultra high vacuum 10- 7 torr and below
(text continued on page 132)
 Fluid Flow 131

STEAM JET VACUUM SYSTEMS

~ml0 s

T--
t .
~ 1 0 4

For turbulent flow w must be greater than 20 tO~

d Z:
0
F--(F1 X CD1 X CT1) -Jr- (F2 X Ci~2 X C'r2)

F -- Pressure Drop, inches of water in 100 feet of pipe

0
P1 = Initial Pressure, inches of mercury absolute

10 2

~1~0
10 2 IO 3 10 4
132 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY X 10~' POUNDS PER FOOT-SECOND

m m m m

\ ,,,,~wu m m m m m m

mmmmmmmm
L,m m m m m m m m
\
k
\
\
\
\
\ se

k
\ se

\ X

\
k
\
\
\
k
\
(. . . .
40 5060 80100 200 300 SO0 1000 2000
\
REYNOLDS NUMBER RD =

Figure 2-44. Friction factor for streamlined flow of air at absolute

pressures from 50 microns Hg. to lmm Hg. By permission, Stan- ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY OF AIR
dards for Steam Jet Ejectors, 3rd. Ed., Heat Exchange Institute, 1956
[54] and Standards for Steam Jet Vacuum Systems, 4th Ed., 1988. Figure 2-45. Absolute viscosity of air. By permission, Standards for
Note: f on same basis as Figure 2-3 [58]. Steam Jet Ejectors, 3rd Ed., Heat Exchange Institute, 1956 [54]; also,
Standards for Steam Jet Vacuum Systems, 4th Ed., 1988 [58].

(text continued from page 129)

5. D e t e r m i n e Reynolds N u m b e r , Re. 8. Calculate the pressure d r o p for the specific line sec-
tion (or total line) from:
Re = pDv/Be (2-15)
APT = 0.625 pif Lqm2/d 5, torr (2-130)

p = density, lb/cu ft at flowing conditions

D = pipe inside diameter, ft or, = 4.31 pifLv2/2gd, torr (2-130A)
v -- vapor velocity (actual), ft/sec
~te = viscosity of vapor, lb/ft-sec where P = density, lb/cu ft
d = pipe inside diameter, in.
qm = volumetric flowrate, cu ft/min
6. D e t e r m i n e friction factor, f, f r o m M o o d y Friction f = friction factor, (Moody) Figure 2-3
Factor Charts, Figure 2-3. APT = pressure drop, torr

or, calculate for t u r b u l e n t flow using Blausius' equa- Calculate: Pi = PiM/555Ti, lb/cu ft (2-131)
tion [ 18]"
Pi = p r e s s u r e , torr
M = average molecular weight of mixture flowing
f = 0.316/(Re) 1/4, for Re < 2.0 • 105
T i = temperature, ~

7. Tabulate the s u m m a t i o n of equivalent lengths of 9. If the calculated pressure d r o p does n o t e x c e e d the

straight pipe, valves, fittings, e n t r a n c e / e x i t losses as m a x i m u m given in Figure 2-47, use this calculated
p r e s e n t e d in earlier sections of this chapter. value to specify the line. If the AP e x c e e d s the limit
 Fluid F l o w 133

Table 2-21 The suction pressure required at the vacuum pump (in
Criteria for Sizing Connecting Lines in Vacuum Service absolute pressure) is the actual process e q u i p m e n t operat-
ing pressure minus the pressure loss between the process
Vacuum pump Assumed flow velocity, ft/s
e q u i p m e n t and the source of the vacuum. Note that absolute
Steam jet: pressures must be used for these determinations and not
System pressure, torr gauge pressures. Also keep in mind that the absolute pres-
0.5-5 300
sure at the vacuum p u m p must always be a lower absolute
5-25 250
pressure than the absolute pressure at the process.
25-150 200
150-760 150
Liquid ring pump: Pipe Sizing for Non-Newtonian Flow
Single-stage* 100
Two-stage 150 Non-Newtonian fluids vary significantly in their prop-
Rotary piston: erties that control flow and pressure loss during flow from
Single-stage 50 the properties of Newtonian fluids. The key factors influ-
Two-stage 25 encing non-Newtonian fluids are their shear thinning or
Rotary vane:t thickening characteristics and time d e p e n d e n c y of viscos-
Single-stage 200 ity on the stress in the fluid.
Two-stage 400 Most conventional chemical and petrochemical plants
Rotary blowers: do not process many, if any, non-Newtonian fluids. How-
Atmospheric discharge 50
ever, polymers, grease, heavy oils, cellulose compounds,
Discharging to backing pump 100
paints, fine chalk suspensions in water, some asphalts, and
*Assumes the pump features dual inlet connections and that an inlet other materials do exhibit one type or another of the
manifold will be used.
tBased on rough vacuum process pumps. Use 25 ft/s for high vacuum characteristics of non-Newtonians, classified as:
pumps.
Bypermission, Ryans,J. L. and Roper, D. L., ProcessVacuum SystemDesign 9 Bingham plastics

and Operation, McGraw-HillBook Co. Inc., 1986 [18]. 9 Dilatant

9 Pseudoplastic

9 Yield pseudoplastics

of Figure 2-47, increase the pipe size and repeat the cal-
culations until an acceptable balance is obtained. For ini-
tial estimates, the authors [18] r e c o m m e n d using 0.6
times the value obtained from Figure 2-47 for an accept-
able pressure loss between vessel and the pump.
Solving these classes of flow problems requires specific
data on the fluid, which is often not in the public litera-
ture, or requires laboratory determinations using a rota-
tional viscometer. The results do not allow use of the usual

1000
8
6

2
m

9~ 100
-~ 8
>
6

Figure 2-46. Typical flow velocities for vacuum lines. 2

Note: 1 torr - 1.33 mb = 133.3 Pa. 1.0 PJsec = 0.3048
m/sec. By permission, Ryans, J. L. and Roper, D . L . , 10
Process Vacuum System Design & Operation, McGraw- 1 2 3 4 56789 2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 567891000
Hill Book Co., Inc., 1986 [18]. Pressure, torr
134 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

1 . ~'t

g
C
t
E
8
t
t,,
g
_~ ~
Figure 2-47. Acceptable pressure losses
between the vacuum vessel and the vacuum l ~o.
pump. Note: reference sections on figure to Q.
e
system diagram to illustrate the sectional type
hook-ups for connecting lines. Use 60% of the B
pressure loss read as acceptable loss for the
system from process to vacuum pump, for ini- E
tial estimate. P = pressure drop (torr) of line in E
o.,.
question; Po = operating pressure of vacuum
process equipment, absolute, torr. By permis- =E
sion, Ryans, J. L. and Roper, D. L., Process 0.(
1 3 4 567810 2 3 4 5678100 2 3 4 S6781(XX)
Vacuum System Design & Operation, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., 1986 [18]. Pressure in vacuum vesselPo

Fanning or Moody friction charts and are beyond the
scope of this chapter. Design literature is very limited,
with some of the current available references being Sul-
tan [21], Bird et al. [22], Cheremisinoff, N. P. and Gupta
[14], Perry et al. [5], and Brodkey and Hershey [23].
Slurry Flow in Process Plant Piping
Most industrial process plants have from none to a few
slurry flow lines to transport process fluids. The more
c o m m o n slurry lines discussed in the literature deal with
long transmission lines for coal/water, mine tailings/
water, limestone/water, wood pulp-fibers/water, gravel/
water, and others. These lines usually can be expected to
have flow characteristics somewhat different than in-plant
process slurries. Considerable study has been made of the
subject, with the result that the complexity of the variables
make correlation of all data difficult, especially when
dealing with short transfer lines. For this reason, no single
design m e t h o d is summarized here, but rather reference
is given to the methods that appear most promising (also
see Reference [30]).
Derammelaere and Wasp [25] present a design tech-
nique that ties into their classification of slurries as het-
erogeneous and h o m o g e n e o u s (Figures 2-48 and 2-49).
This m e t h o d uses the Fanning friction factor and conven-
tional equations for pressure drop. The r e c o m m e n d e d
design slurry velocities range from 4 to 7 ft/sec. Pipe abra-
sion can be a problem for some types of solids when the
velocity approaches 10 ft/sec. For velocities below 4 ft/sec
there can be a tendency for solids to settle and create
blockage and plugging of the line.
The concentration of the solids in the slurry deter-
mines the slurry rheology or viscosity. This property is
used as the viscosity factor in the pressure drop calcula-
tions. The two principal classifications are [25]"
1. Newtonian slurries are simple rheological property
viscosities, and can be treated as true fluids as long
as the flowing velocity is sufficient to prevent the
dropout of solids. For this type of slurry, the viscosi-
ty=g.
2. Bingham-plastic slurries require a shear stress dia-
gram showing shear rate vs. shear stress for the slurry
in order to determine the coefficient of rigidity, rl,
which is the slope of the plot at a particular concen-
tration. This is laboratory data requiring a rheometer.
These are usually fine solids at high concentrations.
Reference [25] has two practical in-plant design exam-
ples worked out.
The pressure drop design m e t h o d of Turian and Yuan
[24] is the development of the analysis of a major litera-
ture data review. The m e t h o d categorizes slurry flow
regimes similar in concept to the conventional multi-
regime diagram for two-phase flow, Figure 2-50. Their fric-
tion factor correlations are specific to the calculated flow
regime. See Figure 2-51 for one of four typical plots in the
original reference.
Example calculations are included, and Figure 2-52
illustrates the effect of pipe size on the placement of the
flow regime.
Pressure Drop for Flashing Liquids
Steam is the most c o m m o n liquid that is flashed in
process plants, but of course, it is not the only one as
many processes utilize flash operations of pure com-
 Fluid Flow 135

Example 2-18: Calculation of Steam Condensate

Heterogeneous flurry Flashing
f"
Homogeneous slurry
T h e r e are 79,500 l b s / h r of 450 psig c o n d e n s a t e flowing
into a flash tank. T h e tank is to be held at 250 psig, gen-
erating steam at this pressure. D e t e r m i n e the quantity of
steam p r o d u c e d .
!
VD

Enthalpy of liquid at 450 psig = 441.1 Btu/lb

y l Enthalpy of liquid at 250 psig = 381.6 Btu/lb
VT
Vo . Typical depostion critical velocity
Latent heat of vaporization at 250 psig = 820.1 Btu/lb
V T - Typical viscous transition critical vdocity
% flash into steam = 441.1 - 381.6 (100) = 7.25%
820.1
LOG, V
Steam formed = (0.0725) (79,500) = 5,763 lbs/hr
Condensate formed = 79,500- 5,763 = 73,737 lbs/hr
HETEROGENEOUS SLURRY (A) HOMOGENEOUS SLURRY (B)

Sizing Condensate Return Lines

FULL SUSPENSION

~l'.:~.=,::,:.:~.~?.;~,.~::,_~x::~=,;~%;.~
t. ,:~el . . . . . ~ " ~ .'.., .'.." a'.. 9 t~.~-- ~ ~ . - ~ ~-~--;-~.~-.~ Steam c o n d e n s a t e lines usually p r e s e n t a two-phase
9V.~.~....-,~..,~
" :.';: ~ . . ~ #;:~,':.':~;:.
" ":-~t.~r :~., .
..../,..,-. r - ~ . , ~ _--..~-~ --~ " . 9 -" ~'~,~-~-" "_~

L-;-'-~,-"~.'-- "'- .-::~"~'.- ~
i" ~ ' ' - ' ' ~ ' ' ' ' ' ~ ' ' ~ ' ' ~
FULL MOVEMENT
AT CRITICAL VELOCITY
;..!
BED BUILDING - V o
Figure 2-48. Critical velocity characteristics depend on whether
slurry is heterogeneous or homogeneous. By permission, Deramme-
laere, R. H. and Wasp, E. J., "Fluid Flow, Slurry Systems and
Pipelines," Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, J.
McKetta, Ed., M. Dekker, vol. 22, 1985 [25].
p o u n d s as well as mixtures. A l t h o u g h this presentation is
limited to steam, the principles apply to o t h e r materials.
Steam condensate systems often are used to generate
lower pressure steam by flashing to a lower pressure. W h e n
this occurs, some steam is f o r m e d and some condensate
remains, with the relative quantities d e p e n d i n g u p o n the
pressure conditions. Figure 2-53 is a typical situation.
"~
FULL TURBULENCE
1 !
LAMINAR FLOW - VT
~ ~ .7-~ flow condition, with hot c o n d e n s a t e flowing to a lower
" ~'~" "-'=' ":"l
pressure t h r o u g h short a n d long lines. As the flow pro-
gresses down the pipe, the pressure falls a n d flashing of
c o n d e n s a t e into steam takes place continuously. For small
lengths with low pressure drops, a n d the outlet e n d being
within a few p o u n d s per square inch of the inlet, the flash
! will be such a small p e r c e n t that the line can often be
sized as an all liquid line. However, caution must be exer-
cised as even 5% flashing can develop an i m p o r t a n t
impact on the pressure drop of the system.
Calculation of condensate piping by two-phase flow
techniques is recommended; however, the tedious work per
line can often be r e d u c e d by using empirical m e t h o d s
a n d charts. Some of the best are proprietary a n d not avail-
able for publication; however, the Sarco m e t h o d [42] has
b e e n used a n d f o u n d to be acceptable, provided no line
less than 1~" is used regardless of the chart reading.
U n d e r some circumstances, which are too r a n d o m to
properly describe, the Sarco m e t h o d may give results too
small by possibly a half pipe size. Therefore, latitude is
r e c o m m e n d e d in selecting either the flow rates or the
pipe size.

Percent i n c o m i n g c o n d e n s a t e flashed to steam: Design Procedure Using Sarco Chart [42]

1. Establish upstream or steam pressure from which

(h a - h 2 )100 condensate is being p r o d u c e d and discharged into a
% flash = (2- 132)
Lv return line through steam traps, or equivalent, psig.
2. Establish the steam condensate load or rate in
l b s / h r flow.
where h 1 -enthalpy of liquid at higher pressure, Btu/lb
3. Establish the pressure of the condensate r e t u r n
h 2 =enthalpy of liquid at lower or flash pressure,
Btu/lb line, psig.
Lv = latent heat of evaporation of steam at flash pres- 4. T h e m e t h o d is based on an allowable 5,000 f t / m i n
sure, Btu/lb velocity in the r e t u r n line (mixture).
136 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Particle diameter
(largest 5%)
Tyler
mesh Inches Microns
(Velocity = 4 to 7 ft/s)
1OOOO |
8O00 !
|
.250 _
6000 -
_
.185 -
4000

m
.093 "--

2000

HETEROGENEOUS
14- .046 --
; 1000 I
80O !

28 .023 - 600

_~o~,e~...~ ~ Based on thick slurries

with fine (-325 m e s h ) v e h i c l e - ' - ' - " - -
43-- .012 --

200 ~-
-'eeeee COMPOUND ~ ~ . . _ _
100 -- .006--
9a,~-'---- Based on thin slurries or slurries
-'B`-
~ee,.= _ with graded particle size
"aoq._ I
-saeaeasesalseal [
200-- .003 - - 80 raOl--=. . . . . . .
i

325 -- .0017 - -

HOMOGENEOUS

Figure 2-49. Slurry flow regime (heteroge-

neous, homogeneous) is a function of solid's
size and specific gravity. By permission, Der-
annelaere, R. H. and Wasp, E. J., "Fluid Flow, 10
Slurry Systems and Pipelines," Encyclopedia
1.0 2.0 3.0 4,0 5.0
of Chemical Processing and Design, J. Mc-
Ketta, Ed., M. Dekker, vol. 22, 1985 [25]. Solids, specific gravity

5. Calculate load factor.
5,000 (100)
Condensate Rate, lbs/hr
6. Establish condensate receiver (or flash tank) pres-
sure, psig.
7. Referring to Figure 2-54, enter at steam pressure of
(1) above, move horizontally to condensate receiv-
500,000 er pressure of (6) above, and then up vertically to
(2-133)
C the "factor scale."
 Fluid Flow 137

Note: V = mean velocity

L = pipe length
AP = total pressure drop

H O M O G E N E O U S FLOW

HETEROGENEOUS FLOW
A

SALTATIO N FLOW
<3 CLEAR WATER
! FLOW
v

m
O F L O W WITH A _

S T A T I O N A R Y BED

log v

log v

HOMOGENEOUSFLOW

r . - . . . . . ... .. 9 . . . . . ~ . : , . ' . . . .-...'.1

...;.:'.'.- .:.. :.: :::- -::-...........~: ..:..'..~.~:.::'~: :..:..';.'..'.."., HETEROGENEOUS FLOW

i _ " ' ' ' ' , . . . . .

!,
SALTATION FLOW
9 ..~'~l.,'~'~" ~ ".
. . .- . . . . 9 . ~ : ~ ' ~

I[- J , , , !

,~LL ' ' ' , ..... i'i' ,, , ~| ~ " ,

...,~, .... ,~...'..... ~_~'.:.: . FLOWWITH A

STATIONARY BED
Figure 2-50. Representative plot of pressure drop for slurry flow. By permission, Turian, R. M. and Yuan, T. F., "Flow of Slurries in Pipelines,"
vol. 23, 1977, p. 232-243.
A.I.Ch.E. Journal,

8. Divide the load factor (step 1) by the value from 10. For pipe sizes larger than 3-in., follow the steps (1)
the "factor scale" of (7) above, obtain f t / m i n / ( 1 0 0 thru (8) above. Then enter the vertical scale at the
l b / h r load). steam pressure of (1) above, and more to the 3-in.
pipe size and down to the horizontal velocity scale.
9. Enter chart on horizontal velocity line, go vertical-
ly up to the steam pressure of (1) above, and read
pipe size to the next largest size if the value falls 11. Divide the result of step 8 above by the result of step
between two pipe sizes. (10).
138 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

I0 -I
8
6

1677 V2 -.6938
(2 = r fwl" 2~176 {D(s-iig}

,,'0%

f - fw =- 5513 ~z "X~~ _.~

,-~-r.

.,,.'-'~'~ ~..,. "" c

3= 2 ~" ,_.

,,-I
' 0-4 / " e
8
6, 7 c

6 el( )-i
I I e i

10-5 2 4 6 810-4 2 4 6 elO-3 2 4 6 elO -2 2 4

Figure2-51. Friction factor correlation for slurry flow in heterogeneous flow regime. By permission, Turian, R. M. and Yuan, T. F., "Flow of Slur-
ries in Pipelines," A./.Ch.E. Journal, vol. 23, 1977, p. 232-243.

12. Refer to the large pipe multipliers shown in the 13. Calculation of "factor scale" for receiver pressures
table on the chart, a n d select the pipe size whose different than those shown on chart:
factor is equal to or smaller than the result of step
(11) above. This is the pipe size to use, provided a
36.2 ( V ) ( h p - h r )
sufficient factor of safety has been i n c o r p o r a t e d in factor = (2 - 134)
the data used for the selection of pipe size. L v (hp- 180)
 Fluid Flow 139

I000

900

800
FLOW WITH A SALTATION FLOW
700 STATIONARY BED
(REGIME I)
( REGIME O)

600
HETEROGENEOUS
c FLOW
0
t=..

~
r (REGIME 2) /
E 500
ii
//

ILl
N
m

03

..I
0
====

p.
HOMOGENEOUS FLOW
n (REGIME 3 )
C~ :300
m

.J
0
or)

,> T = 22.5~ C
200 Ps = 2 . 9 7 7 grn/cm 3
C = 5% by volume
PIPE I D = 0 . 9 5 7 in.

[ I = I ,, ! j . I ,
6 7 8 9 I0
MEAN SLURRY VELOCITY, v (ft/sec)
Figure 2-52. Flow regime diagram for solid-water flow in 1-in. PVC pipe. By permission, Turian, R. M. and Yuan, T. F., "Flow of Slurries in
Pipelines," A.I.Ch.E. Journal, vol. 23, 1977, p. 232-243.

where V = specific volume of steam at return line pressure, Use t h e f a c t o r so c a l c u l a t e d j u s t as if r e a d f r o m t h e

cu ft/lb chart, i.e., in step (8) above.

hp = enthalpy of liquid at supply steam pressure,

Btu/lb Example 2-19: Sizing Steam Condensate Return Line

h r = enthalpy of liquid at return line pressure, Btu/lb

A 450 psig s t e a m system d i s c h a r g e s 9,425 l b s / h r o f con-
Lv = latent heat of evaporation at return line pressure, d e n s a t e t h r o u g h traps i n t o a r e t u r n c o n d e n s a t e line. T h e
Btu/lb r e t u r n h e a d e r is to d i s c h a r g e i n t o a flash t a n k h e l d at 90
140 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Flash Pressure, Z pslg

(Lower than elther X or Y)

t i

Pressure: X, pslg ,o,

Pressure: Y, pslg - ' I Vapor

Con'densate '
From Various
~.=1
! 3 iiiii i
Flashing

Collection ' "-

Headers
Liquid

Liquid Level
. ... .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... .. . . . . . . . . . . J |

I
I
I
1
I
I
i ii ii i I
i i .' i

rn to
Collection Tank

Figure 2-53. Typical steam condensate flashing operation.

psig. T h e c a l c u l a t e d total e q u i v a l e n t l e n g t h o f pipe, 7. Refer to Figure 2-54 a n d n o t e t h a t r e q u i r e d r e c e i v e r

valves, a n d fittings is 600 feet. p r e s s u r e is n o t shown, so calculate "factor scale" by
U s i n g t h e Sarco chart, F i g u r e 2-54, d e t e r m i n e t h e rec- previous f o r m u l a :
o m m e n d e d line size for t h e r e t u r n line.
Data: hp -- 441 Btu/lb at 450 psig
h r -- 302 Btu/lb at 90 psig
1. U p s t r e a m s t e a m p r e s s u r e = 450 psig
2. C o n d e n s a t e l o a d = 9,425 l b s / h r L r -- 886 Btu/lb at 90 psig
3. R e t u r n line p r e s s u r e = 90 psig V = 4.232 cu ft/lb at 90 psig
4. Use t h e Sarco r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f 5,000 f t / m i n
5. Load factor
36.2 (4.232) (441 - 302)
"factor scale" value = = 0.092
886 (441 - 180)
= (5,000)(100) = 53.0
9,425
8. F t / m i n / 1 0 0 # / h r - 53 - 576
6. Receiver p r e s s u r e = 90 psig 0.092
 Fluid Flow 141

VELOCITY AT PIPE EXIT WHEN DISCHARGING CONDENSATE AT SATURATION TEMPERATURES

FROM VARIOUS PRESSURES TO ATMOSPHERE AT A RATE OF 1OO POUNDS/HR.
FOR LARGER PIPES MULTIPLY 3 # PIPE
WHEN DISCHARGING TO PRESSURES HIGHER VELOCITY BY FOLLOWING FACTORS:
THAN ATMOSPHERIC, MULTIPLY VELOCITY TO PI PE FACTOR
ATMOSPHERE BY FACTOR CORRESPONDING 4" 0.58
TO SUPPLY PRESSURE AND RECEIVER PRESSURE. 5" 0.37
6" 0.25
8" 0.15
10" 0.095
FACTOR SCALE 12" 0.066
1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 1.0 14" 0.054
600
5oo
I
f I
I
!
! I
l
i
,
I
I
~
I
I
., A
' / / / / /
l[ I 9 I i / / / / r /
ri
9 It I ! ' ! I i /
i / / /
r

! ; ;
i / / /
i
/
I
/
~-~~-' ,'
./
.r " r I
I
/ "
, I~,/ /
!
I
,,
a
j
I
I
/ /' t // /
/ jr
200 r " :~l ~Yti .,' A a
I
I
!

/i/l/i/
~ ,'~, / f,
I
I
t
m
I I
i
/ / / /
/ / / /
- I l 4

/1'
I r I
= / I , I ,
I
"] i I r ] ] ! /
/ ~/ f j i ; /I /
>, 80 e ~ I .1 II
_J

eL_

/ I / ,~ I I / 1i
,' '~r s~ r'
40
/
~,
l 1 ~ I ,[
/
/ / / / / ~ ,i
i /
I /
, // /, i / / F
r 9 j I I ,/ t /
30
/ / /
9
/ / / / /
S6P
~/ .I .
/ / // ,' / /
20 " / ~ 9 / f
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10
9"

i/ :.,i /
/////// /

1
10 20 30 40 60 80 loo 200 400 600 1000 200o 4000
VELOCITY FT./MIN. PER 100 POUNDS/HR. CONDENSATE

Figure 2-54. Sarco flashing steam condensate line sizing flow chart. By permission, Spirax-Sarco, Inc., Allentown, Pa. [59].

9. Read Chart: At 450 psig and 576, the line size shows Friction factor was calculated:
just under 2-in. Recommend use 2-in.
f = 0.25 I-log (0.000486/d)]-2.~ (2-135)

Because flashing steam-condensate lines represent two- for complete turbulence in steel pipe. For large pressure
phase flow, with the quantity of liquid phase depending drops through the transmission system, the line should be
on the system conditions, these can be designed following broken into increments of length for successive pressure
the previously described two-phase flow methods. An drop calculations over the length, and the pressure drops
alternate by Ruskin [28] uses the concept but assumes a summed to equal the total available/required.
single homogeneous phase of fine liquid droplets dis- The procedure for using the convenient chart Figure
persed in the flashed vapor. Pressure drop was calculated 2-55 [28] is, for example:
by the Darcy equation: Step 1: Enter the figure at 600 psig below the insert near
the right-hand side, and read down to the 200-psig end-
pressure.
= 0.000336 (fWZ)/d 5 (p), psi/100 ft (2-55A) (text c o n t i n u e d on p a g e 153)
144 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
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 Fluid Flow 145
lll++ ~o
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146 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
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 Fluid Flow 147
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148 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
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 Fluid Flow 149
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150 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
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 Fluid Flow 151
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 Fluid F l o w 153

T a b l e 2-22: Cameron Hydraulic Data (concluded)

Friction Losses in Pipe; C ffi 100

60 i n . i n s i d e d l a 72 in. i n s i d e d i a

Discharge Hea Discharge Head

in U S gallons los~ in U S gallons 1o~
l ity IVeloc- in ity Veloc- in
I feet l ity feel feet ity feet
per per I per I head pel per per per hea( per
mln

5000
10000
15000
20000
24hr

,400,0001
I see r inft
I .014
1.12
,6oo,ooo J 1.7o I .04,,
,800,000 | 2.26 | .07c,
.000.000 / 2.83 I .124
lO0 I
.oo,~
.Oll
.02~
.043
.063
,~
20000 28,Soo,o~
2500
3000
&500~ 5o,4oo,o~
24 hr

36,000,004
43,200,00(
.71
1.51
1.9 ~
2.3r
in fl
.0~
.031
.06(
908~
911!
lOOft
.006
.017
.026
.0.36
251000 2.7~ .048
38000 .17S .08~ 57,600,00( 3.1( 9154 .062
32000 .20~ .099 64,800,00( 3.54 9194 .077
34000 923C .111 72,000,00( 3.94 924( .0~
36000 9259 .124 74,880,00( 4.0S 925S .100
38000 .29C .1~ 77,760,00( 4.2{ 928( .107
40000 57,600,000 4.55 r .150 80,540,00( 4.41 .30~ .114
42000 60,480,000 I 4.78; .320
.354 .164 83,520,0(K 4.57 9 .122
44OOO 63,360,000 5.00 .387 .180 86,400,00[] 4.73 .347 .130
46800 66,240,000 5.22 .422 .1% 89,280,00(] 4.88 .370 .138
48000 69,020,000 5.45 .460 .212 92,160,00C 5.04 9 .146
50000
62000
64000
56000
7oof +r
74,880,000
77,760,000
80,540,000
5.90
6.12
6.35
.540
0 +
.582
.626
.229
.246
.263
.281
95,040,00(]
97,920,00(3
100,800,000
103,680,000
5.2O
5.36
5.51
5.67
.420
9
9499
.166
.447 i .164
.174
.103
68000 83,520,000 6.58 .672 .299 106,560,000 5.83 9528 .193
60000
62000
64000
66000
++'+~ 72o
89,280,000
92,160,000
95,040,000
7.03
7.25
7.49
.768
9819
9870
.319
.339
.360
.381
760001109,440,000
78000 112,320,000
80000 115,200,000
82000 118,080,000
5.99
6.15
6.31
6.46
9558
.588
9620
.650
.203
.214
.226
.236
68000 97,920,000 7.72 .925 .403 84000 120,960,000 6.62 9680 .245
70000
72000
loo,soo,ooo[ 8.17
103,680,000
7.95 ! .980J
1.04
.425
.447
86000 1123,840,000
88000 126,7g0,000
6.78
6.93
.712
9746
.266
.266
74000 106,560,000 8.40 . 10 .470 90000 129,600,000 7.09 9780 .277
76000 109,440,000 8.63 1.15 .493 95000 136,800,000 7.49 .870 .306
78000 112,320,000 8.86 1.22 .517 100000 144,000,000 7.88 .965
90000
85000
90000
1+2+or o+ 112+
122,400,000 9.64
129,600,000 10.20
1.44
1.61
.541
.607
.676
lov,
ooo. i 151,200,000
110000 158,400,000
115000 165,600,000
8.28
8.67
9.05
1.06
1.16
1.27
.367
.401
.436
96000 136,800,000 10.78 1.80 .747 120000 172,~}00,000 9.45 1.38 .473
100000 144,000,000 11.36 2.00 .822 125000 i8o,ooo,ooo 9.85 1.51 .612

F a c t o r for c o r r e c t i n g t o F a c t o r for c o r r e c t i n g t o
other pipe sizes other pipe sizes
Head loss Head lose
Dia Velocity Velocity ft per Dia I Velocity I Velocity f t per
in ft per sec head ft 100 ft in I ft per sec ] head ft 100 t't
"-1.034
1.070
1.070
1.145
1.o85
1.179
70
68
I ~058 II
1.121 [
1.119
1.257
1.147
1.108
1.148
1.228
1.318
1.284
1.399
66
64
1.190 I
1.266 I
1.416
1.602
t:II
1.774
i I

(text continuedfrom page 141)
Step 2: Proceed left horizontally across the chart to the
intersection, with:
Step 3: The 1,000-1b/h flowrate projected diagonally up
from the bottom scale.
Step 4: Reading vertically up from this intersection, it
can be seen that a 1-in. line will produce more than the
allowed pressure drop, so a l~-in, size is chosen.
Step 5: Read left horizontally to a pressure drop of 0.28
psi/100 ft on the left-hand scale.
Step 6: Note the velocity given by this line as 16.5 ft/s,
then proceed to the insert on the right, and read upward
from 600 psig to 200 psig to find the velocity correction
factor as 0.41.
Step 7: Multiply 0.41 by 16.5 to get a corrected velocity
of 6.8 ft/s.
The author has compared this method with Dukler
[29] and others and reports good agreement for reason-
ably good cross section of flow regimes.
154 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
Nomenclature
A = I n t e r n a l cross-section area for flow, sq ft; or area of
orifice, nozzle, or pipe, sq ft.
a = I n t e r n a l cross-section area for flow in pipe, sq. in.
a' = Fractional o p e n i n g of control valve, generally
a s s u me d at 60% = 0.60
ao = Orifice area, sq in.
aw = Velocity of p r o p a g a t i o n of elastic vibration in the
discharge pipe f t / s e c = 4 6 6 0 / ( 1 + KhsBr) 1/2
B = Base pressure d r o p for control valve from manufac-
turer, psi
B r -- Ratio of pipe d i a m e t e r (ID) to wall thickness
C = C o n d e n s a t e , l b s / h r (Equation 2-133); or for pipe,
Williams a n d H a z e n constant for pipe roughness,
(see C a m e r o n Table 2-22 and Figure 2-24); or flow
coefficient for sharp e d g e d orifices
C' = Flow coefficient for orifices and nozzles which equal
the discharge coefficient c o r r e c t e d for velocity of
a p p r o a c h = Cd/(1 - [34)1/2
C' = C for Figures 2-17 a n d 2-18
C' = c' = Orifice flow coefficient
Cd -- Discharge coefficient for orifice and nozzles
CDa = Diameter correction factor, vacuum flow, Figure 2-43
CD2 = Diameter correction factor, vacuum flow, Figure 2-43
Cv = Standard flow coefficient for valves; flow rate in
g p m for 60~ water with 1.0 psi p r e s s u r e d r o p across
the valve, = Q {(9/62.4) (Ap)}a/2
C'v = Valve coefficient of flow, full open, from manufac-
turer's tables
CTI = T e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n factor, v a c u u m flow, Figure
2-43
CT2 = T e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n factor, vacuum flow, Figure
2-43
C1 = Discharge factor from chart in Figure 2-31
C 2 = Size factor from Table 2-11, use with e q u a t i o n on
Figure 2-31
Cp/Cv = Ratio of specific h e a t at constant pressure to that at
constant v o l u m e = k
D = Inside d i a m e t e r of pipe, ft
DH = Hydraulic diameter, ft
d = Inside d i a m e t e r of pipe, in. = d i
de = Equivalent or r e f e r e n c e pipe diameter, in.
dn= Hydraulic diameter, or equivalent diameter, in.
do = Orifice diameter, or nozzle o p e n i n g , in.
doo = D i a m e t e r of a single line with the same delivery
capacity as that of individual parallel lines dl and d 2
(lines of same length)
d i -- Inside d i a m e t e r of pipe, in.
E = Gas transmission "efficiency" factor, varies with line
size a n d surface i n t e r n a l condition of pipe
F = Factor in Babcock's steam flow e q u a t i o n
FD = Friction pressure loss (total) at design basis, for a
system, psi, for process e q u i p m e n t a n d piping, b u t
excluding the control valve
Fe = Elevation factor for two-phase pipe line
FM = Friction pressure loss (total) at m a x i m u m flow basis,
for a system, psi
F1 = Base friction factor, v a c u u m flow, Figure 2-43
F 2 -- Base friction factor, v a c u u m flow, Figure 2-43
f = Friction factor, Moody or "regular" Fanning, see
Note Figure 2-3
fT = T u r b u l e n t friction factor, See Table 2-2
fg = Moody or "regular" F a n n i n g Friction for gas flow
fTP = Two-phase friction for wave flow
( l / f ) 1/2 -- Gas transmission factor, or somet i mes t e r m e d effi-
ciency factor, see Table 2-15, f = F a n n i n g friction
factor
G = Mass flow rate of gas phase, p o u n d s per h o u r per
square foot of total pipe cross-section area
G' = Mass rate, lbs/(sec) (sq ft cross section)
GPM = Gallons per m i n u t e flow
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/(sec) 2
H = Total heat, B t u / l b
h = Average h e i g h t of all vertical rises (or hills) in two-
phase pipe line, ft
or, h = Static h e a d loss, ft of fluid flowing
h 1 -- Enthalpy of liquid at h i g h e r pressure, B t u / l b
h 2 = Enthalpy of liquid at lower or flash pressure, B t u / l b
hf = hL = Loss of static pressure h e a d d u e to friction of fluid
flow, ft of liquid
hp = Enthalpy of liquid at supply steam pressure, B t u / l b
h r = Enthalpy of liquid at r e t u r n line pressure, B t u / l b
hL, -- H e a d at orifice, ft of liquid
h'L = Differential static h e a d or pressure loss across flange
taps w h e n C or C' values c o m e from Figure 2-17 or
Figure 2-18, ft of fluid
hwh = M a x i m u m pressure d e v e l o p e d by hydraulic shock, ft
of water (water h a m m e r )
K = Resistance coefficient, or velocity h e a d loss in equa-
tion, hL = Kv2/2g
Ka = Orifice or nozzle discharge coefficient
I~s = Ratio of elastic m o d u l u s of water to that of the
metal pipe material (water h a m m e r )
k = Ratio of specific heat, Cp/Cv
L = Pipe, length, ft
Le = Equivalent length of line of o n e size r e f e r e n c e d to
a n o t h e r size, miles, (or feet)
Leq = Equivalent length of pipe plus equivalent length of
fittings, valves, etc., ft.
L m -- L e n g t h of pipe, miles
 Fluid Flow 155

Lv = L a t e n t h e a t of evaporation of steam at flash pres-
sure, B t u / l b
1 = H o r i z o n t a l distance f r o m o p e n i n g to p o i n t w h e r e
flow stream has fallen o n e foot, in.
q'm = Free air, cubic feet p e r m i n u t e @ 60~ a n d 14.7 psia
R = Individual gas constant = M R / M = 1 5 4 4 / M
Re = Reynolds n u m b e r , see Figure 2-3

M = MW = m o l e c u l a r weight R . = Hydraulic radius, ft

MR = Universal gas constant R~ = Ratio of c o m p r e s s i o n at e n t r a n c e of pipe, Figure 2-
n = N u m b e r of vertical rises (or hills) in two-phase pipe 37
line flow r c = Critical pressure ratio = P'z/P'I
or, n = Polytropic e x p o n e n t in polytropic gas P-V relation-
Sg = Specific gravity of gas relative to air, ( = ratio of mol-
ship ecular weight g a s / 2 9 )
P = Pressure, psig; or, pressure drop, P, p o u n d s p e r
S ~ = Degrees of s u p e r h e a t in a steam condition, d e g r e e s
square inch, Babcock E q u a t i o n 2-82)
F above saturated (not the actual t e m p e r a t u r e )
Pt = Absolute pressure, torr
s = Steam quality as p e r c e n t dryness, fractional
AP t = Pressure drop, torr
SpGr = Specific gravity of fluid relative to water at same
P' = Pressure, psi absolute (psia)
temperature
Pe = Total pressure at lower e n d of system, psig
T = Absolute Rankin t e m p e r a t u r e , 460 + t, d e g r e e s R
Pbr -- Barometric pressure, psi absolute
Ts = S t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e for gas m e a s u r e m e n t , ~ =
Ps = Total pressure u p s t r e a m (higher) of system, psig 460 + t
Ps = S t a n d a r d pressure for gas m e a s u r e m e n t , l b s / s q in.
T 1 = Average flowing t e m p e r a t u r e of gas, ~
absolute, psia
p" = Pressure, l b s / s q ft absolute; (in s p e e d of s o u n d t = Temperature, ~
equation, Equation 2-86), Note units. t~ = T i m e interval r e q u i r e d for the pressure wave to trav-
p' = Gauge pressure, psig el back a n d forth in a pipe, sec
Pl or, P1 = Initial pressure, in. of m e r c u r y absolute, v a c u u m sys- V = Free air flow, cu f t / s e c at 60~ a n d 14.7 psia
tem
V = Specific volume of fluid, cu f t / l b
AP = Pressure drop, l b s / s q in, psi" or static loss for flow-
ing fluid, psi V' = Volume, cu ft

AP c = Pressure d r o p across a control valve, psi Va = Volume, cu ft

APvac = Pressure d r o p in v a c u u m system d u e to friction, in. v = Flow velocity (mean) or superficial velocity in pipe
w a t e r / 1 0 0 ft pipe lines at flowing conditions for entire pipe cross sec-
APTph = Total two-phase pressure d r o p for system involving tion, ft/sec; or r e d u c t i o n in velocity, f t / s e c (water
horizontal and vertical pipe, psi p e r foot of length hammer)

AP100 = Pressure drop, p o u n d s p e r sq in p e r 100 ft o f pipe Vm = M e a n velocity in pipe, at conditions of V, f t / m i n

or equivalent
Vs = Sonic (critical) velocity in compressible fluid, ft/sec;
Q = Flow rate, gallons p e r minute, g p m or speed of sound, f t / s e c
Qb = Flow rate, b a r r e l s / d a y Vw = R e d u c t i o n in velocity, f t / s e c (actual flowing velocity,
QD = Design flow rate, gpm, or ACFM ft/sec)

QM = M a x i m u m flow rate, gpm, or ACFM W = Flow rate, l b s / h r

q = Flow rate at flowing conditions, cu f t / s e c Wm = Mass flow rate of liquid phase, p o u n d s p e r h o u r p e r
qd = Gas flow rate s t a n d a r d cubic feet p e r day, at 60~ square foot of total pipe cross-section area
a n d 14.7 psia (or 14.65 if indicated)" or flow rate, cu Wt = Mass flow rate, l b s / h r / t u b e
f t / d a y at base conditions of Ts a n d P~
w = Flow rate, l b s / m i n
qds = Gas flow at designated s t a n d a r d conditions, cu
ft/day, cfD Ws = Flow rate, lbs/sec; or sometimes, Ws
qh = Gas flow rate, cu f t / h r , at 60~ a n d 14.4 psiabs, x = Fraction of initial line paralleled with new line
(psia)
Y = N e t e x p a n s i o n factor for compressible flow t h r o u g h
q' = Gas flow, cu ft/sec, at 14.7 psia a n d 60~ orifices, nozzles, or pipe
q'h = Flow rate at s t a n d a r d conditions (14.7 psia, and
Z = Compressibility factor for gases at average condi-
60~ cu ft/hr, SCFH
tions, dimensionless. O m i t for pressure u n d e r 100,
qm = Flow rate cu f t / m i n psig
156 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
Greek Symbols
[3 = Ratio of internal diameter of smaller to large pipe
sizes, or for orifices or nozzles, contractions or
enlargements
7' = Kinematic viscosity, sq ft/sec
y = Surface tension of liquid, dynes/centimeter
= Roughness factor, effective height of pipe wall irreg-
ularities, ft, see Figure 2-11
0 = Angles of divergence or convergence in enlarge-
ments or contractions in pipe systems, degrees
= Two-phase flow term to determine probable type of
flow = [ (9g/0.075) (pL/62.3) ]1/2, where both liquid
and gas phases are in turbulent flow (two-phase
flow)
lEt = Absolute viscosity, centipoise
~te = Absolute viscosity, lbs (mass) / (ft) (sec)
~g = Viscosity of gas or vapor phase, centipoise
~tL = Viscosity of liquid phase, centipoise
9 = Density of fluid, lbs/cu ft; or lb/gal, Eq. 2-113
E = Summation of items
~t = Two-phase term = (73/y) [~L (62.3/9L)2] 1/8
q) = Equations for q)GTTfor two-phase pipe line flow
Subscripts
o = Base condition for gas measurement
1 - Initial or upstream or inlet condition, or ii
2 = Second or downstream or outlet condition
a = Initial capacity or first condition
b = New capacity or second condition
g = Gas
L = Liquid
vc = Gradual contraction
VE = Gradual enlargement
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