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1-1 Measuring Things

Units

Physical quantity
to measure
Table
Length of the table

Unit = meter 2.0 meters

Chapter 1 Unit = foot 6.6 feet

Measurement Unit = x 2.9 x

For the unit to be useful, people should agree on its definition.

We can use a standard or naturally occurring phenomenon to define a measuring unit.
1-1 Measuring Things Standard Your A day is the time Earth takes to make
1-2 The International System of Units 1 kg 1 kg one revolution about itself.
1-3 Changing Units
1-4 Dimensional Analysis
1-5 Significant Figures
1-6 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations Balance
Standard naturally occurring phenomenon

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1-1 Measuring Things 1-2 The International System of Units

Base physical quantities Seven base quantities
There are many physical quantities, for example, The International System of Units (the SI system of units) was established
pressure, mass, force, … in 1971.
We can derive the units of these quantities from the units of a small The SI system of units has seven base quantities.
number of physical quantities called base physical quantities.
In phys101, we will only deal with three base physical quantities: length,
The selection of the base physical quantities is not unique. mass, and time. The units of all other quantities in phys101 can be derived
A set of base physical quantities has been selected by an agreement. from the units of these three quantities.
In phys101, we will only deal with three base physical quantities: length, Quantity Unit name Unit symbol
mass, and time. The units of all other quantities in phys101 can be derived Length meter m
from the units of these three quantities.
Time second s
What is the unit of speed? Mass kilogram kg
Derived physical quantity Base physical quantities
For example, the SI unit of energy is the joule which can be written in terms
length of SI base units as follows
speed =
time SI derived unit 2
SI base units
kg m
unit of length meter joule =
unit of speed = = s2
unit of time second
One joule is one kilogram-meter squared per second squared.

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1-2 The International System of Units 1-2 The International System of Units
Meter, second, and kilogram Scientific notation
The meter is defined as the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum Scientific notation is used to simplify expressing very large or very small quantities.
during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
Quantity In scientific notation With prefixes
The time interval was chosen so that the speed of light c is exactly
c = 299 792 458 m/s. 2 560 000 joule 2.56 x 106 J 2.56 megajoule = 2.56 MJ
0.000 003 21 second 3.21 x 10-6 s 3.21 microsecond = 3.21 μs
One second is defined as the time taken by 9 192 631 770 oscillations of
5 460 meter 5.46 x 103 m 5.46 kilometer = 5.46 km
the light emitted by the cesium atom.
Factor Prefix Symbol
The SI standard of mass is a platinum-iridium cylinder kept a the The number is in scientific notation 109 giga- G
International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris and assigned a when it is expressed as some
mass of 1 kilogram. 106 mega- M
power of ten multiplied by another
103 kilo- k
The masses of atoms can be compared with one another more number between 1 and 10.
10-2 centi- c
precisely than they can be compared with the standard kilogram.
For this reason, the mass of carbon atom is used as a second 10-3 mille- m
In some calculators, "exponent to
mass standard. By agreement, 10-6 micro μ
ten" is written as "E"
mass of carbon atom = 12 atomic mass unit (u).
6.52 x 10-7 written as 6.52 E-7 10-9 nano- n
1 u = 1.66054 x 10-27 kg
10-12 pico- p

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1-3 Changing Units 1-3 Changing Units

Conversion factor Example 1
60 s
3 min = (3 min)(1) = (3 min)( ) = 180 s A car moves at speed of 1.14 miles per minute. Use the following
1 min
conversion factors to find its speed in kilometers per hour (km/h)
conversion factor 1 mile = 5280 feet
1 foot = 0.3048 meter
1 min
180 s = (180 s)(1) = (180 s)( ) = 3 min Solution
60 s
A conversion factor is a ratio of units that is equal to one. miles miles 5280 feet 0.3048 m 1 km 60 min
Multiplying any quantity by unity leaves the quantity unchanged. 1.14 = (1.14 )( )( )( )( )
min min 1 mile 1 foot 1000 m 1h
Appendix D of your textbook gives conversion factors
between SI and other system of units. = 110 km/h

How many centimeters are there in 5.30 inches?

From Appendix D, 1 inch = 2.540 cm
2.540 cm
5.30 in = (5.30 in)( ) = 13.5 cm
1 in

conversion factor

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1-3 Changing Units 1-4 Dimensional Analysis

Example 2 Dimensions
How many liters are there in one US fluid gallon, if The dimension of a quantity is its property that we measure.
1 US fluid gallon = 231 in3 For distances, we measure length. Æ Dimension of distance = length
1 in = 2.540 cm For periods, we measure time. Æ Dimension of period = time
1 L = 1000 cm3?
Although any quantity might be measured in different units, it has one
Solution unique dimension. For example, a distance can be measured in meters or
in feet. The dimension of distance is unique = length.
231 in3 2.54 cm 3 1L
1 gallon = (1 gallon)( )( ) ( ) All quantities in phys101 can be expressed in terms of three dimensions:
1 gallon 1 in 1000 cm3 Length (L)
= 3.79 L. Time (T)
Mass (M)
The brackets [ ] is used to denote the dimension of a quantity.
[acceleration] stands for the dimension of acceleration
Length L
[distance] = Length = L [speed] = =
Time T
[pure number] = 1 Quantities with dimension 1 are
[angle] = 1 called dimensionless quantities
[argument of a trigonometric function] = 1

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1-4 Dimensional Analysis 1-4 Dimensional Analysis

Adding quantities Equating quantities
Quantities can be added or subtracted only The terms on both sides of an equation
if they have the same dimensions. must have the same dimensions.
Acceptable Given Acceptable Given

x+vt L v=at
[x] = L [v] =
x = distance [x] = L T x = distance [x] = L
L L L
[v t] = T= L [a t] = 2 T=
T T T
The terms have the same dimensions. t = time [t] = T Both sides have the same dimensions. t = time [t] = T

Not acceptable L Not acceptable L

v = velocity [v] = v = velocity [v] =
T T
x+at L v=xt
[x] = L L [v] = L
a = acceleration [a] = T a = acceleration [a] =
L L T2 T2
[a t] = 2 T= [x t] = LT
T T
The terms have different dimensions. The two sides have different dimensions.

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1-4 Dimensional Analysis 1-4 Dimensional Analysis

Equating quantities Example 3
The terms on both sides of an equation Suppose the distance x is given in terms of acceleration a and time t as in
must have the same dimensions. the following expression
x = k an t m,
Not Acceptable Given
where k is a dimensionless constant. Find m and n.
area = θ r
r = radius [r] = L Solution
[area] = L2 s
[area] = [distance2 ] = L2 Both sides of the equation should have the same dimensions.
[θ r] = 1 L = L θ r
The two sides have different dimensions.
[x] = L
s L n m n m-2 n L = Ln Tm-2 n
θ= [k an tm ] =(1)( ) T =L T
r T2
Not acceptable L = L1 T0
[distance] n=1
[θ] = =1
volume = π r 2 [distance] m-2n=0 Æ m=2n=2
[volume] = L3 [volume] = [distance3 ] = L3
[π r 2 ] = 1 L2 = L2 x = k a t2

The two sides have different dimensions.

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1-4 Dimensional Analysis 1-5 Significant Figures

Example 4 Measurements
Suppose the acceleration a of a particle moving with uniform speed v in a Numbers
Exact Inexact
circle of radius r is given by Five fingers in your hand Any measurement
a = k v n r m,
2m 2m 2m
where k is a dimensionless constant. Find m and n.

Solution 1.8

Both sides of the equation should have the same dimensions.

1m 1m 1m
L 1.7
[a] =
T2 L Ln + m
L n m Ln + m =
[k v n r m ] =(1)( ) L = T2 Tn
T Tn
n=2
n+m=1 Æ m = 1- n = -1 Height = 1.8 m Height = 1.82 m Height = 1.819 m
Correct digit Correct digits Correct digits
v2 doubtful digit doubtful digit doubtful digit
a=k
r 2 significant figures 3 significant figures 4 significant figures
Number of significant figures depends on the instrument used in the measurement.

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1-5 Significant Figures 1-5 Significant Figures

Number of significant figures Rounding off
A significant figure is a digit in a number. When the left-most of the digits to be discarded is 5 or
15.07 This number has four significant figures. more, the last remaining digit is rounded up; otherwise it is
retained as is.
The least significant figure is the significant figure farthest to the right.
Round up
10.68 The 8 is the least significant figure.
All leading zeros are not significant figures. 2.36502 = 2.37
0.00064 This number has two significant figures.
5 or more
All trailing zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant figures

12.000 This number has five significant figures.

Do not change
The trailing zeros to the left of the decimal point might or might not
3000 be significant figures.
The zeros might not be significant and they are just being used to
80.76493 = 80.76
locate the decimal point.
However, in this course, we will take them as significant figures. Less than 5

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1-5 Significant Figures 1-5 Significant Figures

Multiplication or division Addition or subtraction

When multiplying or dividing quantities, the result should When adding or subtracting quantities, the least significant figure in the
have the same number of significant figures as the result has the same position relative to the decimal point as that of the
quantity with the lowest number of significant figures. quantity whose least significant figure is farthest to the left.

2.31563 × 0.25 = 0.58 Your calculator gives 0.578908. Least significant figure Your calculator gives 16.365.
9.1 Least significant figure
You should round off your answer Since 9.1 is the quantity with its least
6 2 to two significant figures. + 7.265 significant figure farthest to the left relative
significant significant 16.4 to the decimal point, your answer should
figures figures Least significant figure be rounded off so that the position of its
least significant figure match that of 9.1.

Your calculator gives 0.854348. Least significant figure Your calculator gives 0.0457.
2.751 ÷ 3.22 = 0.854
1.02 Least significant figure
You should round off your answer Since 1.02 is the quantity with its least
4 3 - 0.9743 significant figure farthest to the left relative
to three significant figures.
significant significant 0.05 to the decimal point, your answer should
figures figures Least significant figure be rounded off so that the position of its
least significant figure match that of 1.02.

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1-6 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations 1-6 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations

Order-of-magnitude Example 5
An order-of magnitude calculation is a rough estimate that is accurate to Estimate the number of heart beats during an average human lifetime.
within a factor of about 10.
Solution
It is useful if you want to get a quick rough answer.
Average human lifetime ≈ 70 years
You may use this estimate to check your detailed calculation.
Average heart beat per minute ≈ 70 beats

The order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of ten when the quantity Number of days per year = 365 days ≈ 400 days .
is expressed in scientific notation. Number of hours per day = 24 hours ≈ 20 hours .
A = 7 600 = 7.6 x 103 The order of magnitude of A is 3 Number of minutes per hour = 60 minutes
B = 3 700 = 3.7 x 103 The order of magnitude of B is 3 Number of heart beats during human lifetime ≈
beats min h day yr
(70 )( 60 )(20 )(400 )(70 ) = 2 x109 beats .
min h day yr liftime lifetime
4
A = 7 600 ≈ 10 000 = 10 The nearest order of magnitude of A is 4
Reasonable!
Compare this estimate with the detailed calculation
B = 3 600 ≈ 1 000 = 103 The nearest order of magnitude of B is 3
beats min h day yr beats
(70 )( 60 )(24 )(365 )(70 ) = 2.5 ×109 .
min h day yr liftime lifetime

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1-7 Density
Definition
The density of a substance ρ is the amount of mass contained in a
unit volume

Mass
Density =
Volume

m
ρ =
V

ρ is the Greek letter rho