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Terrestrial Navigation

Sailings

OBTAINING VESSELS POSITION USING CELESTIAL OBSSERVATIONS

Position finding at sea by the methods of nautical astronomy depends upon the
solution of an oblique spherical triangle, and practice in the application of the formula
is essential in order to acquire facility in its manipulation.

In the following figure, the triangle ABC is a spherical triangle. It has been formed by
the intersection of three great circles. Great circles are those whose planes pass
through the centre of the sphere.

ABD, ACP and BCE are three great circles, and triangles ABC and DCB are two of
the spherical triangles formed by their intersection. All the angles at A, B and C are
spherical angles.

As has been stated before the sides of a spherical triangle are measured and expressed
in angular notation instead of in distance units. However on the surface of the Earth,
the sides are converted from the angular measurement into the distance unit by
multiplying with the length of the ONE-MINUTE of the arc, that is 1853 nautical
miles.

The chief properties of a spherical triangle are:


The sides are expressed in angular measure

The sum of all the angles in a spherical triangle is equal to a figure between 180° to
540° or between 2 right angles to six right angles.

The sum of the three sides of a spherical triangle must be less than 860°

As with plane triangles the greatest side is opposite to the greatest angle.

Where 2 great circles cut each other the vertically opposite angles are equal.

In the above figure, we have the angles as A, B and C, the sides corresponding to the
angles would be a, b and c

The formula used to calculate an angle or a side is given by:

hav A = hav a – hav (b~c)


sin b x sin c
In the above formula the expression hav (b~c) indicates that the result should always
be positive. In case b is greater than c, then c will be subtracted from b, and vice
versa. The symbol ‘~’ indicates difference.

In the above we have tried to find the angle A, however if the angle required is B then
the formula has to be replaced by the known figures.

hav B = hav b – hav (a~c)


sin a x sin c
The formula would again have to be amended if any of the sides are required.

Solution Of Right Angled Spherical Triangles

A rare triangle since it is not always possible to get a right angled spherical triangle.

The right-angled spherical triangle may be solved using the haversine formula as
described above but may also be solved easily using Napier’s Rules for Circular Parts.
In the above figure the right angled spherical triangle is shown, the hypotenuse and
the other sides are indicated.

The rules are thus:

A triangle has six parts – the three sides and the three angles. However using Napier’s
Rule the 5 parts are used, the right angle is omitted.

The complements of the hypotenuse and the two angles are used. Complement means
that the angles have to be subtracted from 90° and then used. However instead of
subtracting from 90° we may also use the following:

sine (90°- Angle) = cosine angle

tangent (90° - angle) = cotangent angle

Adjacent part means the immediate next part. Opposite means the part next to an
adjacent part.

If any of the three parts is selected as a mid part, the other two must be either adjacent
parts or opposite parts. This depends on which formula is used as stated below:

Sine of middle part = product of tangents of adjacent parts

OR

Sine of middle part = product of cosines of opposite parts.

Filling up the circular part, start from any angle or side and proceed in a clockwise
direction similar to the triangle itself.

REMEMBER THAT THE COMPLEMENTS ARE USED OF THE HYPOTENUSE


AND THE TWO ANGLES – THE RIGHT ANGLE IS OMITTED.

THERE ARE FIVE PARTS AND NOT SIX.


Sailings

The compass was developed about 1000 years ago. However it was not until the
1870s that Lord Kelvin developed a reliable dry card marine compass. The fluid-filled
compass became standard in 1906.

Variation was not understood until the 18th century, when Edmond Halley led an
expedition to map lines of variation in the South Atlantic. Deviation was understood
at least as early as the early 1600s, but correction of compass error was not possible
until Matthew Flinders discovered that a vertical iron bar could reduce errors. After
1840, British Astronomer Royal Sir George Airy and later Lord Kelvin developed
combinations of iron masses and small magnets to eliminate most magnetic compass
error.

The gyrocompass was made necessary by iron and steel ships. Leon Foucault
developed the basic gyroscope in 1852. An American (Elmer Sperry) and a German
(Anshutz Kampfe) both developed electrical gyrocompasses in the early years of the
20th century.

Coordinates, termed latitude and longitude, can define any position on earth.

Latitude (Lat.) is the angular distance from the equator, measured northward or
southward at the poles.at the equator to 90°along a meridian from 0°

It is designated north (N) or south (S) to indicate the direction of measurement.

The difference of latitude (DLat.) between two places is the angular length of arc of
any meridian between their parallels.

It is the numerical difference of the latitudes if the places are on the same side of the
equator; and

It is the sum of the latitudes if the places are on opposite sides of the equator.

It may be designated north (N) or south (S) when appropriate.

The middle or mid-latitude (midLat.) between two places on the same side of the
equator is half the sum of their latitudes. Mid-latitude is labeled N or S to indicate
whether it is north or south of the equator.

The expression may refer to the mid-latitude of two places on opposite sides of the
equator.
When the places are on opposite sides of the equator, two mid-latitudes are generally
used.

Calculate these two mid-latitudes by averaging each latitude and 0°

Longitude (Long.) is the angular distance between the prime meridian and the
meridian of a point on the earth, measured eastward or westward from the prime
meridian through 180°.

It is designated east (E) or west (W) to indicate the direction of measurement.

The difference of longitude (DLong) between two places is the shorter arc of the
parallel or the smaller angle at the pole between the meridians of the two places.

If both places are on the same side (east or west) of Greenwich, DLong is the
numerical difference of the longitudes of the two places; if on opposite sides, DLong
is minus the sum.the numerical sum unless this exceeds 180°, when it is 360°

The distance between two meridians at any parallel of latitude, expressed in distance
units, usually nautical miles, is called departure

(Dep.). It represents distance made good east or west as a vessel proceeds from one
point to another.

Its numerical value between any two meridians decreases with increased latitude,
while Dlong. is numerically the same at any latitude.

Either DLong. may be designated east (E) or west (W) when appropriate.

Distance

Distance, as used by the navigator, is the length of the rhumb line connecting two
places. This is a line making the same angle with all meridians. Meridians and
parallels, which also maintain constant true directions, may be considered special
cases of the rhumb line. Any other rhumb line spirals toward the pole, forming a
loxodromic curve or loxodrome.
P

Y V
D ' E' K
Z D L at
M
F
E
D D ep. J
L a titu d e
Q C Q '
A D Long B G

AB and DE are arcs of concentric circles, if viewed from the poles, their centres F and
C being on the earth’s axis, and as arcs of circles are proportional to their radii, thus
we have:

The value that is required may be now found using the above formula and transposing
as required.
C B
D ep.

D is t
( D ep )
( D L ong )

( L at )
C o.

In the above simple right angled plane triangle, the Blue Regular font indicates the
factors used in the same triangle in the Travers Tables for using in Parallel sailing
problems.

The Red Italics font indicates the factors used in the Traverse Tables for solving
problems in Plane sailing.

Plane Sailing:

Course
Distance
D. Latitude
Departure

In PLANE SAILING the angle is made equal to the Course.

The hypotenuse is made equal to the Distance.

The side adjacent to the angle is made equal to the D. Latitude.

And the side opposite to the angle is made equal to the Departure.
Parallel Sailing:

Latitude
D. Longitude
Departure

In PARALLEL SAILING the angle is made equal to the Latitude.

The hypotenuse is made equal to the D. Long.

And the side adjacent to the angle is made equal to the Departure.

The Traverse tables are a combination of the two tables as above, the navigator must
be careful to select the correct table. The entries are as described above. The Italics
and Regular font play an important part in differentiating the Tables.

Finding the Difference in Latitude (D.Lat.) and the Difference in Longitude


(D.Long).

(Before proceeding with examples in parallel sailing problems)

D. Lat.: Subtract the two latitudes if they have the same names.

Add if the two Latitudes have different names.

The naming convention is Northerly D.Lat if more North and Southerly if more
South.

Once the D.Lat in degrees and minutes has been found out – convert the same into
minutes. D. Lat is then used as minutes.

D. Long: Subtract the two Longitudes if they have the same names.

Add if the two Longitudes have different names.

The naming convention is Easterly D. Long if more East and Westerly if more West.
If the sum of a East longitude or a West longitude exceed 360˚, then the same is
subtracted from 360˚ and the name is reversed.

Once the D. Long in degrees and minutes has been found out – convert the same into
minutes. D. Long is then used as minutes.
Position A: Lat. 20˚35.0’N Long. 165˚30.0’W
Position B: Lat. 10˚18.0’S Long. 172˚36.0’E
D. Lat: 40˚53.0’S D. Long: 338˚06.0’E
(-) 360˚
21˚54.0’W
Converting into minutes: X 60’
D. Lat: 1853’S 1314’W

Parallel Sailing:

Latitude
D. Longitude
Departure

PARALLEL SAILING

As explained before the factors are: Latitude, D. Longitude and the Departure

Given: Find the Latitude where the D.


P Long of 145’ will be equal to the
Departure of 120NM.

From earlier:
Cos. Lat = Dep.
( D ep ) D. Long
D E

Or Cos. Lat = 120


( L at ) 145

Q ( D L ong ) Cos. Lat = 0.8276


A
B Q '
Parallel sailing as stated above has lost its prominence in navigation. This type of sailing
is no longer practiced, however it is still used for finding out the mean distance traveled
between two meridians.

Used for distances less than 600 NM, the parallel sailing formula is used with a
difference.

The Latitude used is that of Mean between the two positions.

So now the formula stands amended to:

Dep. = D. Long x cos. Mean Latitude.

As long as the difference between the Latitudes is small, Mean Latitude used is sufficient,
however if the Difference of Latitude is large then, Middle Latitude is used.

Mean Latitude is the arithmetical mean of the two latitudes, but Middle Latitude takes
into account the convergence of the earth.

Middle Latitude is the Latitude on which the actual Departure lies.


To find the Course and the distance between: Lat. 56˚46.0’N
Position E: Lat. 56˚46.0’N Long. ½ D. Lat. (-) 9˚18.0’
176˚15.0’W to Mean Lat. 47˚28.0’
Position D: Lat. 38˚10.0’N Long. Correction (+) 38.0’
170˚15.0’E Mid. Lat. 48˚06.0’
D. Lat: 18˚36.0’S D. Long: D. Long. 810’
346˚30.0’E
(-) 360˚
This convergence correction is obtained Dep.Tables. 541’
from the nautical
Knowing the departure we can now find the Course and the Distance.
Mercator Sailing gives accurate results for long distances, more so when there is a very
large change in the Latitude between the two positions.

Finally:

Mercator Sailing: Course D. Long. DMP (difference in Meridional Parts)

Parallel Sailing: Mid. Lat. D. Long. Dep.

Plane Sailing: Course Distance Dep. D. Lat.

The connections:

D. Long. Connects Mercator to Parallel Sailing

Departure connects Plane with Parallel Sailing

Course connects Mercator with Plane Sailing.

Using the above we can find out the set and drift of the current, or knowing the set and
drift of the current we can find our DR position. This is useful if we have to make a
rendezvous with another vessel in a search and rescue operation.

http://thenauticalsite.com/NauticalNotes/TerresNav/MyTerrNav-Lesson06-Sailings.htm

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