2014

DRAG SHORT NOTES

CHUKKAPALLI PVT LTD

01/01/2014
 DRAG
Table of Contents
TOTAL DRAG FLOW CHART ........................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 2

PARASITE DRAG ........................................................................................................................... 2

SKIN FRICTION DRAG .............................................................................................................. 2

Surface condition ................................................................................................................... 3

Adverse pressure gradient ...................................................................................................... 3

FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG ........................................................................................................ 3

PROFILE DRAG ......................................................................................................................... 4

INTERFERENCE DRAG.............................................................................................................. 4

FACTORS EFFECTING THE PARASITE DRAG .............................................................................. 4

Indicated Air Speed .................................................................................................................... 4

Configuration ............................................................................................................................. 4

Airframe contamination ............................................................................................................ 4

THE PARASITE DRAG FORMULA ................................................................................................. 4

EFFECT OF LIFT ON PARASITE DRAG ......................................................................................... 4

Effect of Configuration ............................................................................................................... 5

Effect of Altitude ........................................................................................................................ 5

Effect of Speed ........................................................................................................................... 5

INDUCED DRAG ............................................................................................................................ 6

Factors Effecting the Induced Drag ............................................................................................ 7

Induced Drag Coefficient ......................................................................................................... 10

METHODS OF REDUCING INDUCED DRAG ................................................................................11

Wing End-plates .................................................................................................................11

Tip Tanks............................................................................................................................11

Winglets .............................................................................................................................11

Wing tip shape ...................................................................................................................11

AEROPLANE TOTAL DRAG ......................................................................................................... 12

THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON TOTAL DRAG ........................................................................... 13

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 DRAG
THE EFFECT OF AIRCRAFT GROSS WEIGHT ON TOTAL DRAG ................................................ 14

THE EFFECT OF CONFIGURATION ON TOTAL DRAG ................................................................ 15

SPEED STABILITY ...................................................................................................................... 16

POWER REQUIRED (Introduction) ............................................................................................ 17

Effect of Altitude ............................................................................................................... 18

SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 19

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TOTAL DRAG FLOW CHART

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INTRODUCTION
Drag is the force which resists the forward motion of the aircraft. Drag acts parallel to and in the
same direction as the relative airflow (in the opposite direction to flight path).
* Airflow velocity does not make any difference to the airflow pattern. The relative velocity is
important factor.

Every part of an aircraft exposed to the airflow produces different types of resistance to forward
motion which contribute the total drag.

Total drag sub divided into two main types:

PARASITE DRAG – Independent of lift generation,
INDUCED DRAG – The result of lift generation.
Parasite drag is further sub-divided into:

 Skin friction drag

 Form (Pressure) drag
 Interference drag

SKIN FRICTION DRAG and FORM DRAG are together known as PROFILE DRAG.

PARASITE DRAG
If an aircraft were flying at zero lift angle of attack the only drag present would be parasite drag.
Parasite drag is made – up of ‘Skin friction’, ‘Form’ and ‘interference’ drag.

SKIN FRICTION DRAG

Particles of air in direct contact with surface are accelerated to the speed of the aircraft and
carried along with it. Therefore, over the entire surface there will exist a layer of air whose
relative velocity ranges from zero at surface and maximum at boundary of air affected by aircraft.
Consider the flow across the flat surface; the boundary layer exists in two forms, either laminar
or turbulent. In general, the flow at the front will be laminar and become turbulent some
distance back, known as the TRANSITION POINT.

As air flows over a body, the roughness of the surface of the body (even if only microscopically
rough), causes the airflow to be retarded. This retarding action of the air against the surface
causes the airflow above it to be retarded to a lesser degree the further we move away from the
surface. This retarding action causes the airflow to change from laminar to turbulent in nature,
and it is this turbulence which causes skin friction drag. The rougher the surface, the greater the
drag and the larger the surface area, the greater the drag. Furthermore, the greater the viscosity
(stickiness) of the air, the greater the skin friction drag. Cold air is more viscous than warm air.
 The increased rate of change in velocity at the surface in turbulent flow will give
more skin friction than the laminar flow.

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Surface condition
Any roughness on the skin of leading portion of an aircraft will cause increase in turbulent layer
cause the increase in skin friction drag.
Adverse pressure gradient
A laminar layer cannot exist when pressure is rising in the direction of flow. On an aerofoil, the
transition point usually at, or near the point of maximum thickness. Because of adverse pressure
gradient existing on a curved surface the transition point will be further forward
than flat surface.

FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG

The pressure at the leading edge of the body being greater than the pressure at the trailing edge.
Overall, skin friction causes a reduction of boundary layer kinetic energy as flow continuous back
along the surface. The adverse pressure gradient behind the transition point will cause an
additional reduction in kinetic energy of the boundary layer. If boundary layer does not have
sufficient kinetic energy, the lower levels of the boundary stop moving (stagnate). The upper
levels of the boundary layer will overrun at this point (separation point) and the boundary layer
will separate from the surface at the separation point. Also, surface flow aft of the separation
point will be forward, toward separation point – a flow reversal. Because of flow separation there
will be a lower pressure at the trailing edge than the leading edge. An aerodynamic force will act
in the direction of the lower pressure – form drag.

Separation will occur when boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic energy in the
presence of given adverse pressure gradient.

LOSS OF KINETIC ENERGY IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER CAN BE CAUSED BY VARIOUS FACTORS.

 INCREASE IN ANGLE OF ATTACK.

 WHEN SHOCK WAVES FORM ON THE UPEER SURFACE.

STREAM LINING: Each part of an aircraft will subject to form (pressure) drag. To reduce form drag
it is necessary to delay separation to appoint as close to the trailing edge as possible. Streamlining
increases the length and depth of the body. Fineness ratio is measure of streamlining.

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PROFILE DRAG
The combination of skin friction drag and form drag is known as the profile drag. T can be
considered that these drag results from the ‘profile’ (or cross – sectional area) of aircraft
presented to the relative airflow.

INTERFERENCE DRAG
Where various components of the aircraft are attached, for example the wings/fuselage,
wing/engine nacelle, conflicting airflows cause turbulence which, in turn, increases the drag.
Interference drag is effectively reduced by the use of fairing and filleting.

FACTORS EFFECTING THE PARASITE DRAG

Indicated Air Speed
Parasite drag varies directly with the square of the Indicated Air Speed

If IAS is doubled the parasite drag will be four times greater – if IAS is halved the parasite
drag will be one quarter of its previous value.

Configuration
Parasite drag varies with directly in proportion to the frontal area presented to the airflow; this
is known as ‘Parasite Area’. If flaps are deployed, undercarriage lowered, speed brakes selected
or roll control spoilers operated, ‘Parasite Area’ increased and parasite drag will increase.

Airframe contamination
Contamination by ice, frost, snow, mud or slush will increase the Parasite Drag Coefficient,
and in the case of severe airframe icing.

THE PARASITE DRAG FORMULA

𝟏 𝟐
𝐃𝐏 = 𝛒𝐕 𝐂𝐃𝐩 𝐒
𝟐
Where,

𝐃𝐏 = Parasite Drag,
𝟏
𝛒𝐕 𝟐 = Dynamic Pressure (Q),
𝟐
𝐂𝐃𝐩 = Parasite Drag Coefficient,
𝐒 = Area (Parasite area)

EFFECT OF LIFT ON PARASITE DRAG

The sum of drag due to form, friction and interference is termed “Parasite” drag because it is not
directly associated with the development of lift. In reality it does vary with lift. The variation of
parasite drag coefficient𝐂𝐃𝐩 , with lift coefficient𝐂𝐋 , is shown for typical aeroplane in fig 6.13

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However, the part of parasite drag above the minimum at zero lift is included with the induced drag
coefficient. Fig 6.14

Effect of Configuration
Parasite drag is unaffected by lift, but is variable with dynamic pressure and area. If all other
factors constant, parasite drag varies with frontal area. As an example lowering the landing gear
and flaps might increase the parasite area by as much as 80%. At any given IAS this aeroplane
would experience an 80%increase in parasite drag.

Effect of Altitude
In most phases of flight the aircraft will be flown at a constant IAS, the dynamic pressure and,
thus parasite drag will not vary. The TAS would be higher at altitude to provide the same IAS.

Effect of Speed
The effect of speed alone on parasite drag is the most important. If all other factors are held
constant, doubling the speed will give four times the dynamic pressure and hence, four times the
parasite drag. Parasite will be greatest importance of at high IAS and low dynamic pressure. To
illustrate this fact, an aeroplane in flight just above the stall speed could have parasite drag only
25% of the total drag. However this same aeroplane at maximum level flight speed would have a
parasite drag nearly 1005 of the total drag. The predominance of parasite drag at high flight
speeds emphasises the necessity for great aerodynamic cleanliness (streamlines) to obtain high
speed performance.

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INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is an undesirable by-product of lift. Wingtip vortices modify up wash and down
wash in the vicinity of the wing which produces a rear ward component to the lift vector known
as induced drag.

On the upper surface of the wing, the air flows from the tip to the root. This is because the
ambient air pressure outside of the wingtip is high and the air pressure on the top surface of the
wing is low. On the lower surface of the wing, the air flows from root to tip. This is because the
air pressure below the wing is high and the ambient air pressure outside of the wingtip is
comparatively lower. As these conflicting airflows meet at the trailing edge of the wing, they form
small vortices, which move from root to tip. At the wingtip, these vortices combine with the
strong under-spillage of air from below the wingtip to above the wingtip and form what is called
a Shed Tip Vortex. When viewing an aircraft from behind, the Ram's horn vortex rotates clockwise
on the left wing and anti-clockwise on the right wing. In order to set up a strong circular motion
of air requires energy, and this energy absorption is a part of induced drag.
 The lower the IAS, greater the angle of attack – the stronger the vortices.
 The stronger the vortices – the greater the induced drag.

The effect of the downwash – due to the vortices – is to tilt downwards the effective relative airflow
thereby reducing the effective angle of attack.

To regain the consequent loss of lift the aerofoil must be raised until the original angle of attack is
restored. The total reaction now lies at the original angle, but relative to the effective airflow, and the
component parallel to the direction of flight is longer. The additional value of the drag – resulting from
the presence of wing vortices – is known as INDUCED DRAG.

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Factors Effecting the Induced Drag

CONDITION EFFCECT

INCREASED Induced drag will increase

SIZE OF LIFT
DECREASED Induced drag will decrease
FORCE

INCREASED Induced drag will decrease

SPEED OF
DECREASED Induced drag will increase
ARCRAFT

INCREASED Induced drag will decrease

ASPECT RATIO
DECREASED Induced drag will increases
at given lift

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Induced Drag Coefficient
𝟏
𝐃𝐢 = 𝛒 𝐕 𝟐 𝐂𝐃𝐢 𝐒
𝟐
This equation would seem to imply that induced drag (𝐃𝐢 ) increases with speed, but induced
drag coefficient (𝐂𝐃𝐢 ), is proportional to 𝐂𝑳𝟐 and inversely proportional to wing aspect ratio. As
speed increases, to maintain constant lift force 𝐂𝐋 must be reduced. Thus, with an increase in
speed 𝐂𝐃𝐢 decreases.
𝐂𝑳𝟐
𝐂𝐃𝐢 =
𝑨𝑹

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METHODS OF REDUCING INDUCED DRAG

Induced drag is low at high speeds, but at low speeds it comprises over half the total drag.
Induced drag depends on the strength of the trailing vortices, and it has been reduced by high
aspect ratio wing for given lift force. However, very high aspect ratios increases the wing root
bending moment, reduced ground clearance in roll during take-off and landing, therefore aspect
ratio has be kept within practical limits.
The following list itemises other methods used to minimise induced drag by weakening the
wing tip vortices.
 Wing End-plates
A flat plate placed at the wing tip will restrict the tip vortices and have a smaller effect to an
increased aspect ratio, but without the extra bending loads. However, the plate itself it cause the
parasite drag, and at higher speeds there may be no overall saving in drag.

 Tip Tanks
Fuel tanks placed at the wing tips will have a similar beneficial effect to an end plate, will reduce
the induced drag, and will also reduce the wing root bending moment.

 Winglets
Small vertical which form part of the wing tip. Shaped and angled to the induced airflow, they
generate small forward force. Winglets partly block the air flowing from the bottom to the top
surface of the wing, reducing the tip vortices strength.

 Wing tip shape

The shape of wing tip can affect the strength of the tip vortices, and designs such as turned down
or turned up wing tips have been used to reduce induced drag.

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AEROPLANE TOTAL DRAG
The total drag of an aeroplane is sum of induced and parasite drag. Fig 6.15 illustrates the
variation of total drag with IAS for given in level flight at particular weight configuration.

Fig 6.15 shows the predominance of induced drag at low speeds and parasite drag at high
speeds. The speed at which the total drag is minimum (𝐕𝐌𝐃 ) occurs when parasite and induced
drag are equal.

Range, Endurance, Climb, Glide, Manoeuvre, landing and Take-off performance are all based on
some relationship involving the aeroplane total drag. Since flying at the 𝐕𝐌𝐃 incurs the least total
drag for lift equal to weight flight, the aeroplane will also be at L/D𝑚𝑎𝑥 angle of attack
(approximately 4⁰).

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An alternative presentation of L/D polar in which 𝑪𝑳 is plotted against 𝑪𝑫 as illustrated in fig 6.16

Fig 6.16 shows 𝑪𝑳 increasing initially much more rapidly than 𝑪𝑫 , but that ultimately 𝑪𝑫 increases
more rapidly. The condition for maximum L/D ratio may be found from polar diagram by drawing
a tangent to the curve from the origin.

THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON TOTAL DRAG

Aircraft usually operates within limits of IAS. If an aircraft flown with constant IAS, dynamic
pressure will be constant. As density decreases with increasing altitude, TAS must be increased
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to maintain the constant IAS ( 𝑄 = 2 𝜌 𝑉 2 ). If aircraft is flown at constant IAS, drag will not vary
with altitude.

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THE EFFECT OF AIRCRAFT GROSS WEIGHT ON TOTAL DRAG

The effect of variation of aircraft gross weight on total drag can be seen from fig 6.17. As fuel is
consumed gross weight will decrease. As the aircraft weight less lift required (lower𝑪𝑳 ) which
will reduce induced drag. Total drag will be less and 𝐕𝐌𝐃 will occur at a lower IAS. And vice versa
for higher gross weight.

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THE EFFECT OF CONFIGURATION ON TOTAL DRAG

Extension of Landing gear, Airbrakes, or Flaps will increase the parasite drag, but will not
substantially affect induced drag. The effect of increasing parasite drag will increase the total
drag at any IAS but to decrease the speed 𝐕𝐌𝐃 compared to the clean aircraft, fig 6.18.

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SPEED STABILITY

For an aircraft to be in steady flight the aircraft must be in equilibrium – there can be no out of
balance forces and moments. When aircraft is trimmed to fly at steady speed, thrust and drag
are equal. Therefore, when aircraft is in steady flight it can be said that term DRAG and the term
THRUST REQUIRED have same meaning.

For an aircraft in steady flight, if there is variation in speed with no change in throttle setting,
(which is called ‘THRUST AVAILABLE’) depending on the trim speed, there will either an excess
or a deficiency of thrust available. This phenomena illustrated in fig 6.19. (Assume aircraft in
steady flight)

At point A in fig 6.19 lift is equal to weight and the thrust available is set to match the thrust
required. If the aircraft is disturbed to some airspeed slightly greater than point ‘A’ a thrust
deficiency will exist and, if the aircraft disturbed to some airspeed slightly lower than the point
‘A’, a thrust excess will exist. This relationship provides a tendency for the aircraft to return to
equilibrium of point ‘A’ and resume the original trim speed. If steady flight speed is greater than

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 𝐕𝐌𝐃 the aircraft will have tendency to maintain trim speed quite normally; the aircraft is speed
stable.

Speed stability is an important factor, particularly speed at and below 𝐕𝐦𝐝 , mostly we will encounter
during the approach of landing phase of flight.

At point B in fig 6.19 lift is equal to weight and the thrust available is set to match the thrust
required. If the aircraft is disturbed and goes faster than the trim speed there will be decrease in
drag giving an excess of thrust which will cause the aircraft to accelerate. If a disturbance slows
the aircraft below the trim speed there will be an increase in drag which will give thrust deficiency
causing the aircraft to slow further. If steady flight speed is less than 𝐕𝐌𝐃 the aircraft will have
tendency to drift away from trim speed and the aircraft is speed unstable. For this reason the
pilot must closely monitor IAS during the approach phase of flight. Any tendency to slow down
aircraft must be countered immediately by a ‘generous’ application of thrust quickly return to
desired trim speed.

 If disturbance reduces speed it will naturally continue to reduce.

 If disturbance increases speed it will continue to drift up to 𝐕𝐌𝐃 .

Fig 6.19, if an aircraft maintains a constant IAS in the speed unstable region, the addition of
parasite drag by selecting landing gear down or deploying flaps has the benefit of reducing 𝐕𝐌𝐃
which can improve speed stability by moving the speed stable region to the left.

At speeds very close to 𝐕𝐌𝐃 an aircraft usually exhibits no tendency towards either speed stable or
speed instability – the neutral IAS region.

POWER REQUIRED (Introduction)

We will now consider the relationship between the THRUST, DRAG and POWER. We already know
that Drag can also be referred to as ‘Thrust Required’ and we will now see the relationship exists
with ‘Power Required’ – they are both important airframe considerations.

 Thrust is a force used to oppose Drag,

𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾
But power is rate of doing work, or POWER =
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸

And WORK = FORCE x DISTANCE

𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸 x 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸
So POWER must be
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸

For Power Required:

Which force?
Drag.

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Distance divided by time is speed.
Which speed?
True Air Speed (TAS).

Therefore: POWER REQUIRED = DRAG x TAS.

 If an aircraft climbs at a constant IAS, Drag will remain constant, but TAS must be increased –
so Power Required will increase.

Fig 6.20 is drawn for sea level conditions where TAS = IAS and is valid for one particular aircraft,
one weight, only in level flight, and shows how a graph of TAS against ‘Power Required’ has been
constructed from a TAS/DRAG curve by multiplying each value of drag by appropriate TAS and
converting into kilowatts.

 Note that the 𝐕𝐌𝐏 , is slower than 𝐕𝐌𝐃 .

 Effect of Altitude
An aircraft flying at 𝐕𝐌𝐃 will experience constant drag at any altitude because 𝐕𝐌𝐃 is an IAS. At
altitude the TAS for given IAS is higher, but the power required also increase by the amount
(POWER REQUIRED = DRAG x TAS). So the ratio of TAS to Power Required is unaffected and
𝐕𝐌𝐏 will remain slower than 𝐕𝐌𝐃 .

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SUMMARY

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