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Thermobaric structure of the Himalayan

Metamorphic Belt in Kaghan Valley, Pakistan

Article in Journal of Asian Earth Sciences · February 2007

DOI: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.06.002

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 Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406
www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

Thermobaric structure of the Himalayan Metamorphic

Belt in Kaghan Valley, Pakistan
HaWz Ur Rehman a,¤, Hiroshi Yamamoto a, Yoshiyuki Kaneko b,
Allah Bakhsh Kausar c, Mamoru Murata d, Hiroaki Ozawa d
a
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
b
Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
c
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Plot No. 84, Street No. 03, Sector H-8/1, Islamabad, Pakistan
d
Departments of Geosciences, Faculty of Science, Naruto University of Education, Naruto, Tokushima 772-8502, Japan

Received 9 December 2004; accepted 18 June 2006

Abstract

The thermobaric structure of the Himalayan Metamorphic Belt (HMB) has been constructed along the Kaghan Valley transect,
Pakistan. The HMB in this valley represents mainly the Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS) and Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC).
Mineral parageneses of 474 samples, from an approximately, 80-km traverse from southwest to northeast, were examined. Microprobe
analyses were carried out to quantify the mineral composition. To determine the pressure–temperature (P–T) conditions, 65 thin sections
(7 pelites from LHS and 25 pelites, 9 maWc rocks/amphibolites and 19 eclogites from HHC) were selected. Based on Weld observations and
mineral paragenesis, low-grade to high-grade metapelites, show Barrovian-type progressive metamorphic sequence, with chlorite, biotite,
garnet and staurolite zones in LHS and staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite zones in HHC. By using well-calibrated geothermobarometers,
P–T conditions for pelitic and maWc rocks are estimated. P–T estimates for pelitic rocks from the garnet zone indicate a condition of
534 § 17 °C at 7.6 § 1.2 kbar. P–T estimates for rocks from the staurolite and kyanite zones indicate average conditions of 526 § 17 °C at
9.4 § 1.2 kbar and 657 § 54 °C at 10 § 1.6 kbar, respectively. P–T conditions for maWc rocks (amphibolites) and eclogites from HHC are
estimated as 645 § 54 °C at 10.3 § 2 kbar and 746 § 59 °C at 15.5 § 2.1 kbar, respectively. The coesite-bearing ultrahigh-pressure (UHP)
eclogites record a peak P–T condition of 757–786 °C at 28.6 § 0.4 kbar and retrograde P–T conditions of 825 § 59 °C at 18.1 § 1.7 kbar.
These results suggest that HMB show a gradual increase in metamorphic grade from southwest to northeast. The P–T conditions from
Pelitic and adjacent maWc rocks having identical peak conditions in the same metamorphic zone, while the structural middle in HHC
reached the highest P–T condition upto the UHP grade.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Thermobaric structure; Kaghan Valley; P–T conditions; Coesite-bearing eclogites

1. Introduction ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) rocks. Regional geology (Fig. 1),

The Kaghan Valley in Pakistan is uniquely important to
an understanding of the metamorphic history and tectonic
evolution of the Himalayas. In this valley, a complete sec-
tion of the Himalayan metamorphic belt (HMB) is
exposed, ranging from feebly metamorphosed rocks to
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 99 285 8147; fax: +81 99 259 4720.
E-mail address: gsehafez@moon.sci.kagoshima-u.ac.jp (H.U. Rehman).
stratigraphy, metamorphism, geochronology, and collision
tectonics in the area have been investigated by a number of
earth scientists (Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1986; Chaudhry
and Ghazanfar, 1987; Greco et al., 1989; Treloar et al.,
1989; Greco and Spencer, 1993; Tonarini et al., 1993; Spen-
cer et al., 1995; Burg et al., 1996; O’Brien, 2001; O’Brien
et al., 2001; Foster et al., 2002; Kaneko et al., 2003).
Although metamorphic pressure–temperature conditions
have been reported from various localities in the Kaghan

1367-9120/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.06.002
 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406 391

China Legend
Granitic intrusive bodies
Kohistan arc
Zanskar shelf
Afghanistan
Higher Himalaya sequence
Lesser Himalayan sequence
Siwalik molasse
30˚N
Fig.2 Himalayan Range
Pakistan
India Nepal
25˚N

Arabian Sea 70˚E 80˚E 90˚E

Fig. 1. Regional map of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent showing the main tectonic units. Rectangular block at upper left shows the present research area
in the western HMB (modiWed after Gansser, 1964; Searle et al., 1999; Kaneko et al., 2003).

Valley (Greco, 1989; Pognante and Spencer, 1991; Smith
et al., 1995; Treloar, 1997; Lombardo and Rolfo, 2000), the
thermobaric structure of the HMB in this area has not been
disscussed in detail.
In this paper, we describe the textural features and
mineral chemistry of pelitic schists/gneisses and maWc
rocks, and in particular, the coesite-bearing eclogites. A
comparative study of pelitic and maWc rocks in the
Kaghan Valley can provide us with a better understand-
ing of the thermobaric structure of the HMB and its meta-
morphic evolution.
2. Geological setting
The Kaghan Valley is located to the southwest of
Nanga-Parbat in the northwestern region of the Himalayas,
N. Pakistan (Fig. 2). This area in the Himalayan chain con-
sists of Proterozoic to Tertiary rocks of the Indian Plate,

Fig. 2. Regional geological map of the western Himalaya, showing its main tectonic units, along with the Kohistan Island arc and Asian plate units. Block
denoting Fig. 3 shows the location of the Kaghan Valley (modiWed after Searle et al., 1999; Kaneko et al., 2003). Abbreviations used for major faults are
explained in the text except for MKT: Main Karakoram Thrust; ZSZ: Zanskar Shear Zone.
392 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406
with adjacent metamorphosed Tethyan sediments, suture
zones, Kohistan Island Arc and Trans-Himalayan granitic
batholiths (Tahirkheli, 1979; Chaudhry and Ghazanfar,
1987; Bossart et al., 1988; Greco et al., 1989; Papritz and
Rey, 1989; Treloar et al., 1989; Pognante and Spencer,
1991; Greco and Spencer, 1993; Searle et al., 1999).
In this complex geological setting, the lowest exposed
structural lithologies are Tertiary foreland molasse sedi-
ments with no evidence of metamorphism. Tectonically
these sediments occupy the core of Hazara–Kashmir syn-
taxis and have been called the ‘foreland’ by Wadia (1934)
or the ‘Sub-Himalaya’ by Gansser (1964). This tectonic
block is separated from LHS to the north by the Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT). The MBT cuts through the Mur-
ree Formation of the Sub-Himalaya, and brings with it the
northeast dipping LHS schists and gneisses on its hanging
wall (Bossart and Ottiger, 1989). The lower part of LHS,
the Panjal Unit, consists of four tectonic slices. The struc-
tural base of the Panjal Unit is formed by a tectonic
mélange of Permian to Eocene rocks while, the upper three
units represent the upper Paleozoic to lower Mesozoic
rocks. The Panjal Unit thrusts over the Salkhala Series
(Wadia, 1934) or the Salkhala Formation (Calkins et al.,
1975).
The rocks of the LHS are comprised of unmetamor-
phosed Proterozoic to Eocene sediments, low-grade meta-
morphic rocks of the chlorite and biotite zones (Lower
greenschist facies) in the south. The Metamorphic grade
increases to the garnet zone (Upper greenschist facies) to
the north near the Main Central Thrust (MCT) which is
also termed the ‘Mylonite zone’ (Greco et al., 1989; Chau-
dhry and Ghazanfar, 1990). The HHC lies to the north of
MCT, showing peak metamorphism up to eclogite facies.
2.1. Sub-Himalaya
The rocks of the Sub-Himalaya are exposed in the
southern most part of the Kaghan Valley near Balakot
Fig. 3. Geological map of the Kaghan Valley along the Kaghan-Babusar road section showing main lithological and tectonic units with metamorphic min-
eral assemblage distribution in apparent Barrovian-type metamorphic sequence (modiWed after Kaneko et al., 2003). (A–D) Indicates a projection line of
the cross-section shown in Fig. 12.
village. Detailed stratigraphy of the Kaghan Valley is
described in a number of papers by Ghazanfar and Chau-
dhry (1985), Chaudhry et al. (1997), Greco and Spencer
(1993) and Spencer (1993). The main lithological unit is the
Oligocene–Miocene Murree Formation of the Rawalpindi
Group (Najman et al., 2001). To the north, it is in tectonic
contact with LHS at MBT. MBT is a north-dipping reverse
fault carrying molasse sediments of the Siwaliks and the
Murree Formation on its footwall and northeast-plunging
LHS schists and gneisses, on its hanging wall (Bossart et al.,
1988).
2.2. Lesser Himalayan sequence (LHS)
The LHS consists of strongly folded and sheared rocks
of Precambrian to Eocene age. It is subdivided into four
tectonic units with diVerent stratigraphical properties and
metamorphic grades. These units form imbricated slices in
a typical duplex structure with the MBT as a Xoor- and
the Panjal Thrust as a roof-thrust. In the eastern limb of
the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, the Salkhala Formation
represents the uppermost Himalayan unit. This Forma-
tion is composed mainly of low-grade metapelites (carbo-
naceous, graphitic and quartzitic). The most abundant
lithologies in LHS are Wne-grained pelitic and psammitic
schists preserving primary sedimentary structures (e.g.,
ripple marks, cross bedding, and current lamination).
Marble bands are sporadically exposed in places ranging
in thickness from a few centimeters to a few meters. Some
maWc rock layers of greenschist-facies are intercalated
with schists. The metamorphic index minerals change
from chlorite in the southwest, to biotite, garnet, and stau-
rolite to the northeast.
2.3. Higher Himalayan crystallines (HHC)
The HHC lie in the uppermost reaches of the Kaghan
Valley (Fig. 3) and are separated from the LHS to the
 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406 393

south by the MCT, and from the rocks of the Kohistan W

Marble
E

sequence by the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) to the

Mafic rock layer
north. HHC are subdivided into ‘basement’ and ‘cover’
sequences (Greco et al., 1989; Greco and Spencer, 1993).
In this paper, we refer to three tectonic units, Units I, II, Eclogite-bearing part

and III, metamorphosed under diVerent P–T conditions Pelitic-felsic gneisses

(also see Kaneko et al., 2003) from the structural base to
the top. Unit I of the HHC, previously called the ‘base-
ment’ is composed mainly of granitoids, which were Marble
intruded into the psammitic, pelitic and calcareous
metasediments. They show well-developed intrusive fea-
tures, and the presence of xenoliths and homogeneous
mineralogy. In most localities, the aplite and pegmatite a
dikes cross-cut the schistosity planes discordantly.
Deformed basic dikes and schistose garnet–amphibolite
sheets also occur in some localities.
Unit II corresponds to the middle-lower cover of the
HHC and is the major UHP unit, comprising mainly fel-
sic gneisses, marbles and amphibolites, with locally abun-
dant eclogite lenses or layers. Felsic gneisses are mostly Pelitic gneisses

coarse-grained and garnetiferrous and include the

amphibolite and eclogite bodies. Amphibolites appear as Eclogite lense
lenses or thin layers from a few centimeters to 2 m in
width, extending for a few tens to several hundred meters
(Fig. 4a). These rocks are derived from the equivalents of Eclogite lense
Permian Panjal trap volcanics (Honegger et al., 1982; b
Ghazanfar et al., 1987; Greco et al., 1989; Papritz and
Rey, 1989; Greco and Spencer, 1993). Eclogites are SW NE

exposed in a few localities as small lenticular bodies of a

Coesite-bearing eclogite body
few centimeters thickness (Fig. 4b), interlayered with fel-
sic gneisses of UHP grade (Kaneko et al., 2003) and with
marbles. Coesite-bearing eclogite is found to the north-
west of the Gittidas village as an isolated block, less than
2 m in diameter (Fig. 4c).
Unit III consists of siliceous schists, pelitic/psammitic
gneisses, marbles, amphibolites, and amphibolitized eclog- Pelitic gneisses
ites. These rocks are overlain tectonically by the Kohistan
sequence along the MMT, and partly by low-grade Tethyan
metasediments.
c
2.4. Tethyan Tectonic metasediments (TTs)
Fig. 4. Field photographs taken near the Lulusar Lake, showing
eclogite bodies within layered maWc rocks. The country rocks are
This unit of the low-grade metamorphic sequence is mainly pelitic–psammitic gneisses and minor marble bands. (a) Layered
exposed locally in the Babusar pass area (Fig. 3) on top of type eclogite-bearing maWc rock; (b) Lenticular eclogites 30–70 cm wide
Unit III. This metasedimentary unit lies unconformably and 1.5–3 m long, located northwest of Gittidas; (c) Coesite-bearing
above the HHC and occurs in greenschist facies grade as lens-like eclogite body from Unit II of HHC surrounded by pelitic
gneisses.
thin layers parallel to MMT.

2.5. The Indus Suture/Main Mantle Thrust
A subduction boundary called the Indus Suture or Main
Mantle Thrust (MMT) separates Indian plate rocks from
the overlying maWc and ultramaWc rocks of the Kohistan
Island arc sequence along the northern Xank of the Kaghan
Valley (Fig. 2). On the footwall of this thrust lie strongly
deformed, dark graphitic, staurolite–kyanite, and garnet-
bearing phyllitic schists. On the hanging wall sequence,
retrograde metamorphism of maWc and ultramaWc rocks
increases towards the thrust plane.
3. Petrography
Mineralogical and textural characteristics of the
rock samples collected along the Kaghan Valley have
been examined in 474 thin sections. Abbreviations of
minerals used in the text and Wgures are adopted after
394 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406
Kretz (1983) except Coesite D Cs, Phengite D Phn,
Amphibole D Amp, and Barroisite D Bar.
3.1. Lesser Himalayan sequence (LHS)
The LHS metapelites have a main mineral assemblage of
Bt + Chl § Czo + Grt + Ms + Pl + Qtz. The foliation, as well
as ductile S–C fabrics, is deWned by biotite and muscovite.
Chlorite appears as Wne-grained matrix-mineral, along with
epidote and quartz (Fig. 5a). Garnet contains synkinematic
inclusions of quartz, epidote, and biotite. Some of the gar-
net porphyroblasts show rotation trails, and are altered to
chlorite at the rims (Fig. 5b).
MaWc rocks of the LHS show a greenschist facies min-
eral assemblage of Act + Bt + Chl + Ep + Ms + Pl + Qtz.
Accessory minerals include ilmenite, rutile, graphite, sul-
Wdes, and traces of zircon.
3.2. Higher Himalayan crystallines (HHC)
HHC metapelites from Unit I contain mineral assem-
blages of Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl § Ky § Chl + Qtz. Accessory
minerals include tourmaline, rutile, zircon and apatite. Gar-
nets are euhedral and pre- to synkinematic with respect to
the main schistosity. They occasionally contain inclusions
of quartz, biotite, and muscovite. Snowball garnets with
rotated trails of Wne-grained minerals are common
(Fig. 5c). Partial replacement of garnet by green biotite and
chlorite shows successive retrograde evolution (Fig. 5d).
Metapelites from Unit II contain mineral assemblages of
Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl + Ky § Sil § St + Qtz. Prismatic stauro-
lite oriented parallel to the dominant foliation (Fig. 5e) is
considered to be broadly syn-tectonic. In pelitic gneisses,
two generations of kyanite-bearing assemblages are
observed. The earlier generation are large prismatic kyanite
crystals and deWning a penetrative S1 schistosity, together
with biotite and muscovite (Fig. 5f). The later generation
are Wne-grained kyanite, intergrown with quartz (Fig. 5g).
Sillimanite occurs as small Wbers (Fig. 5h) constituting the
schistosity, but some are oblique to the schistosity. Unit III
is similar in mineralogy and texture to Unit II, but has a
diVerent metamorphic grade.
Eclogites exposed in Purbi Nar are composed mainly
of fresh garnet and retrograde amphibole, with cores of
omphacite, quartz, epidote, and accessory rutile (Fig. 6a).
Amphibole–albite–quartz symplectite and reaction zones
around omphacite are common (Fig. 6b). Eclogites from
Gittidas have a mineral assemblage of Grt + Omp + Qtz/
Cs + Phn + Ep + Rt with secondary biotite, sphene, zircon
and rare carbonates. Garnet in eclogites from Gittidas
shows an inclusion-rich xenomorphic domain in the core,
and an inclusion-poor idioblastic outer rim. Inclusions are
quartz, rutile, epidote, omphacite, phengite, and ilmenite.
Rare zircon is present in these eclogites. Eclogites from
northwest of Gittidas contain coesite inclusions in
omphacite displaying radial cracks and palisade texture
(Fig. 6c).
4. Mineral chemistry
Major minerals were analyzed using a JEOL JXA
8600SX electron microprobe analyzer at Kagoshima Uni-
versity, with 15 kV accelerating voltage, 12 nA beam current
and a 2–20m probe diameter. X-ray intensities were
reduced using ZAF matrix correction.
4.1. Garnet
The chemical composition and end members of garnet
are calculated on the basis of 16 cations and 24 oxygen
atoms (Table 1) by charge balance constraints (Rickwood,
1968; Droop, 1987; Knowles, 1987; Deer et al., 1992).
Compositional variation among end members for garnets
from the HHC pelites and eclogites, is shown in a Ternary
diagram (Fig. 7) in comparison with previous studies.
Garnets from LHS pelites are Alm rich (51–77%) with a
decrease in Alm content from the core to the rim, and Prp-
poor (3–6%) showing irregular zoning. Garnets from the
HHC pelites are also Alm-rich (55–82%) and Prp-poor
(12–19%). They show normal zoning, with increasing Grs
and Prp and decreasing Alm and Sps toward the rim. The
zoning pattern in garnets from pelitic rocks, maWc rocks
and UHP eclogites from HHC is shown in Fig. 8a–e, for
comparison. The elemental X-ray map (Mg and Ca) of
garnet from HHC pelites show clear zonation from rim to
core (Fig. 9).
Garnets from eclogites show minor zonation that
involves a uniform decrease in Grs and Sps and an increase
in Prp indicating prograde growth zoning, similar to that
reported by Massonne and O’Brien (2003). The outermost
rims of garnet have compositions compatible with the high-
est temperature attained during garnet growth (i.e., peak
garnet).
4.2. Clinopyroxene
The chemical composition of omphacite, with end
members, is calculated on the basis of 4 cations and 6
oxygen atoms (Table 2). All Fe as Fe2+ and Fe 3+ are cal-
culated by charge-balanced constraint after Ryburn et al.
(1976) and Droop (1987). Omphacite chemistry on Wol-
lastonite–Enstatite–Ferrosilite (WEF), Jadeite (JD), and
Aegirine (AE) triangular plot is shown in Fig. 10.
Omphacite from eclogites from Purbi Nar has low- jade-
ite (8.1–11.9%) and aegirine (8.3–11.7%) while quadrilat-
eral pyroxene is high (79.8–81.42%). It is mainly
omphacitic and surrounded by symplectites of low jade-
ite–acmite content. In contrast omphacite from UHP
eclogite (Gittidas area) has jadeite (30–42%), aegirine
(1.2–18%), and quadrilateral pyroxene (50–57%). This
variation is due to patchy zoning in the matrix grains.
Some large patches with sharp boundaries consist of
areas poor in Na and Fe and rich in Mg. Omphacite
inclusions within garnet overlap in composition with the
matrix grains.
 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406 395

Bt

Ep/Zo

Qtz Ms

Chl
Chl
Grt
Chl

Qtz
a 0 100 500μm
b 0 100 200 500um

Chl
Cal Bt

Qtz Qtz

Chl Ms
Ms
Grt
Grt

Bt
c 0100 300 500μm
d 0100 300 500μm

Qtz

Rotated Ky
Ti/Ilm

St

Ms Opq Bt
Rt

e Qtz
0 100 200μm 500 f 0 100 200μm 500

Qtz Chl

Ky

Accicular Ky
Bt
Ms Sil
Bt

Grt
Opq
Plg Plg
Ms

St
Grt
g 0 100 200μm 500 h 0 50 100μm

Fig. 5. Photomicrographs from pelitic schists and gneisses of the HMB, showing prograde metamorphism: (a) low-grade chlorite zone; (b) sygmoidal gar-
net with rotation trails; (c) snow ball garnet with inclusions of quartz, muscovite and chlorite; (d) garnet replaced by biotite and chlorite due to retrogres-
sion; (e) staurolite euhederal prism having titanite/ilmenite at rim, indicating rapid cooling; (f) coarse-grained prismatic kyanite showing rotation and
penetrative schistosity; (g) Wne-grained acicular kyanite, associated with garnet and plagioclase, and (h) sillimanite Wbers displaying main foliation along
with staurolite, muscovite, and biotite.
396 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406

Ep/Zo

Amp Grt
Omp

a 0 100 250μm

symplectite Fig. 7. Comparative ternary plot of garnet end-members from gneisses

and eclogites, with previous work (Treloar, 1995; Lombardo and Rolfo,
2000; O’Brien et al., 2001; Kaneko et al., 2003).

blende, tremolite, edenite, and barroisite (Fig. 11). In

Qtz eclogites, amphibole composition (Si D 6.2–7.4,
Na(B) D 0.04–0.85, Mg(C) D 2.05–2.87) represents bar-
Amp Grt
roisite to tschermakite and edenite. The tshermakitic and
edenite components decrease from the core to the rim.
b 0 50 100 150 200μm 250 The symplectic amphibole has a low glaucophane com-
ponent and lower Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio (0.32) as compared
Symplectite
Ep to porphyroblastic amphibole (0.42). Hornblende-plagio-
Amp clase symplectites replace the garnet in eclogites (Fig. 6b)
and are similar in optical continuity to the amphibole
Grt formed from omphacite.

4.4. White mica

Cs
Omp White mica is mainly muscovite in low-grade pelitic
schists, whereas it is phengitic in high-grade gneisses and
Rt in eclogites. Phengite also occurs as inclusions in garnet
and kyanite in HHC pelites. Phengitic mica from gneisses
Ilm
surrounding the eclogites is characterized by a lower
c 0 50 100 150 250μm
celadonite component and a lower Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio
Fig. 6. Photomicrographs from HP and UHP eclogites of the Kaghan Val- than that in the eclogites. Si content in phengite from
ley: (a) eclogite from Purbi Nar showing omphacite cores and retrograde gneisses ranges from 6.13–6.60 while from eclogites the
amphibole rims; (b) replacement of omphacite to symplectitic augite, range is 6.49–6.90. The chemical composition of white
amphibole and quartz. Garnet at lower right is also replaced by horn- micas is shown in Table 4.
blende-plagioclase symplectites; (c) coesite inclusion in omphacite show-
ing radial cracks and palisade texture.
4.5. Feldspar

4.3. Amphibole Feldspar is fairly abundant in pelitic and maWc rocks of

The chemical composition of amphibole is shown in
Table 3, on the basis of 15 cations and 23 oxygen atoms.
Amphibole in low-grade maWc rocks is mainly Tr-Act.
These are SiO2-rich (>47%) and Al2O3-poor (<8%).
Amphibole from HHC maWc rocks displays a wide range
of compositions (Si D 6.32–7.44, Na(B) D 0.02–0.20,
Mg(C) D 2.03–3.0) that correspond to magnesiohorn-
the Kaghan Valley. Plagioclase from LHS is mainly albite
(85–88%) with minor orthoclase (0.2–0.4%) while from
HHC pelites, it is 56–63% albite and <0.5% orthoclase com-
ponent. In eclogites, plagioclase occurs as symplectic inter-
growths after omphacite. It contains an anorthite
component, ranging from 0.04% to 0.23%. The chemical
composition and end members content of Pl are shown in
Table 4.
 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406 397

Table 1
Chemical composition of Garnet (Grt) from selected metapelites and eclogites
LHS pelites HHC pelites HP–UHP eclogites
Sample: Ph66-191 Ph114-228 Ph160-237 Ph160-240 Ph181-26 Ph181-27 Ph350-7 Ph312-24 Ph312-25 Ph407-101 Ph423-6 Ph423-8 Ph425-14 425-16
Mineral: Grt Grt Grt core Grt rim Grt rim Grt core Grt Grt core Grt rim Grt Grt rim Grt core Grt rim Grt core
SiO2 36.48 38.01 37.80 37.96 39.28 39.20 38.44 39.40 38.78 38.80 40.26 39.94 39.66 39.45
TiO2 0.13 0.07 0.11 bdl bdl 0.23 0.04 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.08 0.05 0.00 0.06
Al2O3 21.34 21.41 20.63 21.35 22.17 21.82 22.91 21.21 21.03 21.23 22.63 22.13 22.04 21.66
Cr2O3 0.02 bdl 0.07 bdl 0.03 bdl bdl 29.54 29.68 25.52 21.90 21.07 21.39 22.34
FeO 27.07 29.02 34.00 35.40 26.41 27.14 30.21 0.20 0.23 0.03 0.01 bdl 0.22 0.19
MnO 9.69 3.68 1.02 0.35 0.14 0.14 1.06 0.50 0.43 0.44 0.18 0.17 0.55 0.44
MgO 0.89 1.26 0.78 1.45 4.99 3.25 3.29 4.43 4.06 5.35 8.45 8.87 7.94 7.45
CaO 5.15 7.42 6.63 5.46 8.81 10.05 3.54 7.21 7.85 9.71 8.77 9.24 10.10 9.97
Total 100.77 100.86 101.03 101.95 101.83 101.84 99.49 102.57 102.13 101.09 102.28 101.48 101.90 101.56
TSi 5.871 6.051 6.058 6.010 6.015 6.054 6.132 6.053 5.993 5.974 5.994 5.974 5.940 5.955
TAl 0.129 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.007 0.026 0.006 0.026 0.060 0.045
AlVI 3.916 4.013 3.894 3.980 3.998 3.969 4.303 3.838 3.820 3.824 3.963 3.872 3.827 3.804
Fe3 0.182 0.193 0.228 0.234 0.169 0.175 0.201 0.190 0.192 0.164 0.136 0.132 0.134 0.141
Ti 0.016 0.008 0.014 0 0 0.027 0.005 0.010 0.011 0.002 0.009 0.006 0 0.007
Fe2 3.462 3.670 4.329 4.452 3.213 3.330 3.828 3.607 3.644 3.122 2.591 2.504 2.545 2.679
Mg 0.214 0.299 0.185 0.341 1.139 0.748 0.783 1.015 0.935 1.227 1.875 1.978 1.772 1.676
Mn 1.320 0.496 0.138 0.046 0.018 0.019 0.143 0.064 0.056 0.057 0.023 0.022 0.070 0.056
Ca 0.888 1.265 1.139 0.926 1.445 1.664 0.606 1.187 1.299 1.601 1.400 1.481 1.621 1.612
FeO calc 25.72 27.57 32.30 33.63 25.09 25.79 28.70 28.07 28.19 24.25 20.81 20.02 20.32 21.22
Fe2O3 calc 1.50 1.61 1.89 1.97 1.47 1.51 1.68 1.64 1.65 1.42 1.22 1.17 1.19 1.24
Alm 51.9 64.1 74.8 77.2 55.3 57.8 71.4 61.4 61.4 42.1 44.0 33.0 33.5 34.8
And 5.4 5.1 5.9 6.1 4.4 4.6 5.6 4.8 4.8 4.9 3.5 3.8 3.9 4.1
Grs 12.1 17.0 13.5 10.0 20.4 24.3 5.7 14.8 16.3 27.1 20.3 24.7 26.5 26.6
Prp 4.2 5.2 3.2 5.9 19.6 13.0 14.6 17.3 15.8 24.6 31.8 38.1 34.0 32.7
Sps 26.2 8.7 2.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 2.7 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.4 0.4 1.3 1.1
Uvr 0.1 0 0.2 0 0.1 0 0 0.6 0.7 0.1 0 0 0.7 0.7
Cations and end members are calculated on the basis of 16 cations and 24 oxygen atoms (after Droop, 1987; Knowles, 1987). bdl means below detection
limit.

4.6. Other minerals
Other major minerals of importance for use in geother-
mobarometry include chlorite, with a Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio
ranging from 0.51–0.59, biotite, Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio ranging
from 0.38–0.57 and epidote/zoisite Fe/(Fe + Al3+) ratio
ranging from 0.002–0.1. The chemical compositions, with
calculated cations of representative samples are shown in
Table 4.
5. Geothermobarometry
In order to obtain quantitative constraints on the pres-
sure–temperature evolution of the Himalayan Metamor-
phic Belt (HMB) in the Kaghan Valley, the mineral
chemistry of 7 samples from LHS pelites, 25 samples from
HHC pelites, 9 samples from HHC maWc rocks, and 19
samples from eclogites, have been utilized. Samples charac-
terized by textures suggesting peak equilibrium conditions
were selected for geothermobarometry.
Several well-calibrated geothermobarometers were
applied to the garnet-bearing assemblages from pelitic
rocks of the Kaghan Valley section. Garnet–biotite (Ber-
man, 1990) and garnet–phengite (Krogh and Raheim, 1978)
Fe–Mg exchange thermometers and garnet–plagioclase–
muscovite–biotite and garnet–plagioclase–muscovite–
quartz geobarometers (Hodges and Crowley, 1985; Powell
and Holland, 1988; Hoisch, 1991) were used to calculate
average P–T conditions by using THERMOCALC ver. 3.2
with its internally consistent data set (Powell and Holland,
1994; Holland and Powell, 1998). Uncertainties and stan-
dard deviation for pressures and temperatures were calcu-
lated to the minimum error. The signiWcance Wtness was
kept to a conWdence level of 95% or more. Mineral compo-
sitions were processed with Holland T.J.B. Win Ax soft-
ware to calculate the end-member properties. These
properties were used in THERMOCALC for further P–T
calculations. End-members with large uncertainties were
removed when calculating the reactions. From maWc rocks
and eclogites intercalated within pelitic rocks, representa-
tive samples were used for calculations with garnet–clino-
pyroxene (Krogh, 1988) and garnet–phengite (Green and
Helman, 1982) Fe–Mg exchange geothermometers.
Mineral compositions were selected from locations
where the relevant mineral phases shared sharp contacts.
For geothermobarometry with the rim composition of min-
erals, compositions were measured along the contacts.
The results of geothermobarometry from pelitic rocks
and eclogites are summarized in Figs. 12 and 13, and Tables
5 and 6. All P–T estimates for the HHC plot within the kya-
nite P–T stability Weld, in good agreement with the presence
of kyanite in pelitic rocks. These results from pelitic rocks
398 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406

a Grt end members plot from mafic rocks of HHC show Barrovian-type metamorphism in the Kaghan Valley.
(Sample Ph-236) The P–T estimate provided by samples collected at a similar
80 structural level of the HHC in pelites and in maWc rocks
End-member (%)

from the same unit yielded similar results.

60 Alm
In this study, the estimated P–T data from pelitic rocks
Grs
40
from the garnet zone (493–574 °C, 6.4–8.3 kbar), the stauro-
Prp
Sps
lite zone (520–560 °C, 8.6–10.9 kbar), and the kyanite zone
20 (610–740 °C, 6.1–12.8 kbar) show a gradual increase in
metamorphism. This P–T data is consistent with those cal-
0
0 125 250 325 500 culated by Treloar (1997). P–T data calculated from the
Distance (μm) LHS maWc rocks show 590 °C, 7.7 kbar, while HHC maWc
b Grt end members plot from eclogites rocks were estimated at 553–712 °C, 8.3–12.3 kbar. This
(Sample Ph-280) P–T data from maWc rocks is consistent with data from
80 adjacent pelitic rocks, showing a gradual increase in
End-member (%)

60 Alm metamorphic grade in this section (Fig. 12).

Grs
40 Prp 5.1. Metamorphic conditions
Sps
20
Regional metamorphism has been constrained in much
0
0 25 50 75 100 120 detail from various parts of western Himalaya (e.g. Swat
Distance (μm) nappe); kyanite-bearing rocks were metamorphosed at
c Grt end members plot from HHC Pelites 625 § 50 °C and 9 § 2 kbar (DiPietro and Lawrence,
(Sample Ph-366) 1991). For Hazara nappe, staurolite-grade rocks were
80
metamorphosed at 480–620 °C and 5–10 kbar, and kya-
End-member (%)

nite- and sillimanite-bearing rocks at 600–740 °C and 7–

60 Alm
End-member (%)

12 kbar (Treloar, 1997). For the immediate footwall of

Grs
40 MMT in the northernmost part of the Kaghan Valley,
Prp
Sps greenschist-facies rocks were estimated at 500 § 50 °C at
20 8 § 1 kbar (Chamberlain et al., 1991). P–T estimates for
0 eclogites by Pognante and Spencer (1991) were
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 650 § 50 °C and 14.5 § 2.5 kbar, far lower than the origi-
Distance (mm)
nal peak P–T conditions of eclogites in the Kaghan Valley
d Grt end members plot from UHP eclogites as these rocks reached the coesite stability Weld (e.g.
(Sample Ph-423)
>27 kbar and >720 °C). Our estimated P–T conditions
80 from the pelitic rocks of the garnet zone (493–574 °C, 6.4–
End-member (%)

8.3 kbar), staurolite zone (520–560 °C, 8.6–10.9 kbar), and

60 Alm
Grs
kyanite zone (610–740 °C, 6.1–12.8 kbar) show a gradual
40 Prp increase in metamorphic P–T conditions toward the
Sps
20
Mg
0
0 100 200 300 400
Distance (μm)

e Grt end members plot from UHP eclogites

(Sample Ph-425)

80
End-member (%)

60 Alm
Grs
40 Prp
Sps
20

0
0 100 200 300 400
Distance (μm)
Mg Ca
Fig. 8. Garnet end members plot from pelitic rocks, maWc rocks, and 500μm Ca
eclogites showing weak zonation pattern.
Fig. 9. Garnet X-ray map from HHC pelites showing normal zonation for
Mg and Ca.
 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406 399

Table 2
Chemical composition of Omphacite (Omp) from selected samples of HP–UHP eclogites
Sample: Ph285-51 Ph285-53 Ph312-9 Ph312-27 Ph312-34 Ph407-104 Ph423-2 Ph423-11 Ph423-13 Ph423-14 Ph423-60 Ph425-13 Ph425-36
Mineral: Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp Omp
SiO2 56.64 51.56 52.31 52.63 52.78 53.82 55.07 55.77 54.97 55.55 54.58 54.83 54.76
TiO2 bdl 0.22 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.15 0.08 0.12 0.21 0.09
Al2O3 8.60 6.22 3.34 3.53 3.02 8.79 12.18 9.91 10.08 9.43 9.94 9.86 9.86
FeO 6.84 10.95 10.89 10.57 10.44 8.57 7.76 7.43 8.07 8.09 8.08 7.26 7.76
Cr2O3 bdl bdl 0.22 0.25 0.18 bdl 0.01 0.04 0.01 bdl 0.01 0.22 0.18
MgO 7.85 8.99 10.19 10.42 10.42 7.94 7.87 8.32 7.87 7.89 7.85 7.58 7.56
CaO 15.77 17.59 19.80 20.21 18.56 13.86 12.74 13.05 12.29 12.79 12.54 13.61 12.93
Na2O 4.59 3.73 2.66 2.51 2.73 6.34 6.56 6.61 6.12 6.88 6.93 6.26 6.62
Total 100.29 99.26 99.48 100.18 98.22 99.46 102.32 101.26 99.57 100.70 100.04 99.83 99.76
TSi 2.059 1.914 1.948 1.944 1.986 1.949 1.929 1.974 1.989 1.978 1.953 1.974 1.967
TAl 0 0.086 0.052 0.056 0.014 0.051 0.071 0.026 0.011 0.022 0.047 0.026 0.033
M1Al 0.368 0.186 0.095 0.098 0.119 0.323 0.431 0.387 0.419 0.374 0.372 0.392 0.384
M1Ti 0 0.006 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.006 0.002
M1Fe3 0.000 0.155 0.137 0.127 0.083 0.165 0.077 0.083 0.012 0.118 0.150 0.053 0.099
M1Fe2 0.205 0.155 0.184 0.181 0.194 0.080 0.074 0.085 0.138 0.086 0.056 0.128 0.095
M1Cr 0 0 0.006 0.007 0.005 0 0 0.001 0 0 0 0.006 0.005
M1Mg 0.425 0.497 0.566 0.574 0.584 0.428 0.411 0.439 0.425 0.419 0.419 0.407 0.405
M2Fe2 0.003 0.030 0.018 0.018 0.051 0.015 0.077 0.052 0.094 0.037 0.036 0.038 0.040
M2Mn 0 0.002 0 0.002 0.001 0.002 0 0 0 0 0.001 0 0.002
M2Ca 0.614 0.700 0.790 0.800 0.748 0.538 0.478 0.495 0.476 0.488 0.481 0.525 0.498
M2Na 0.323 0.268 0.192 0.180 0.199 0.445 0.445 0.453 0.429 0.475 0.481 0.437 0.461
Wo 49.2 45.5 46.6 47.0 45.0 43.8 42.8 42.9 41.6 42.5 42.1 45.6 43.8
En 34.1 32.3 33.4 33.7 35.2 34.9 36.8 38.1 37.1 36.5 36.6 35.4 35.6
Fs 16.7 22.2 20.0 19.3 19.8 21.3 20.4 19.0 21.4 21.0 21.3 19.0 20.7
WEF 65.9 72.1 80.2 81.4 79.8 54.4 53.9 54.1 56.9 52.0 50.8 55.7 53.0
Jd 34.1 15.2 8.1 8.1 11.9 30.2 39.2 37.7 41.9 36.5 35.1 39.0 37.4
Ae 0.0 12.7 11.7 10.5 8.3 15.4 7.0 8.1 1.2 11.5 14.1 5.3 9.6
Cations and end members are calculated on the basis of 4 cations and 6 oxygen atoms. bdl means below detection limit.

Lombardo and Rolfo 1.0

WEF Win Bar Eclogite
2000; O`Brien et al. 2001
Ph-423
Kaneko et al. 2003 Ph-312
Ph-285
Eclogites this study LHS Amph
Ph-285 Ph-37
Ph-312 TTS Amph
Na(M4)

Py-10
Ph-423 (UHP) 0.5

Tr Hbl/Ed Ts/Prg
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Al(T)

Fig. 11. Compositional variation of amphibole from eclogites and maWc

rocks of LHS and TTs metasediments. Bar: Barroisite; win: winchite, and
others after Kretz (1983).
JD 70 AE 70

Fig. 10. Clinopyroxene composition plot of eclogites on ternary diagram tern to those of the pelitic rocks, showing a gradual
comparing with previous workers (Lombardo and Rolfo, 2000; O’Brien increase through the mineral zones.
et al., 2001; Kaneko et al., 2003).

5.2. P–T–time path

northeast, and are consistent with those calculated by
Treloar (1997). The P–T conditions estimated from LHS
maWc rocks showed slightly higher temperature ranges
(»590 °C) than those of LHS pelitic rocks while HHC
maWc rocks were estimated at 553–712 °C, 8.3–12.3 kbar.
The P–T conditions of maWc rocks show a consistent pat-
A metamorphic pressure–temperature–time path in the
Kaghan Valley can be reconstructed, based on petro-
graphic observations and geothermobarometric data from
both pelitic rocks and eclogites. The growth zonation in
garnet from metapelites shows an increase in pressure from
400 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406

Table 3
Chemical composition of Amphiboles (Amp) from selected maWc rocks and eclogites
LHS maWc rocks HHC maWc rocks HP–UHP eclogites
Sample: Ph37-37 Ph84-89 Ph155-57 Ph166-251 Ph236-87 Ph280-61 Ph285-113 Ph312-29 Ph407-8 Ph421-13 Ph423-4 Ph425-2
Mineral: Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp
SiO2 48.86 41.31 43.57 43.55 45.14 42.76 51.48 42.27 42.22 47.86 45.09 46.83
TiO2 0.24 0.39 0.52 0.44 0.92 0.93 0.14 1.40 1.44 0.27 0.16 0.22
Al2O3 7.23 15.61 16.33 14.61 13.46 11.48 5.17 12.23 13.14 13.04 15.19 11.79
FeO 19.75 19.02 15.00 16.10 14.74 17.94 11.17 17.01 14.83 12.90 13.96 11.37
Cr2O3 bdl bdl 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.22 0.18 0.04 0.01 0.28
MnO 0.17 0.32 0.01 0.13 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.11 0.05 0.08
MgO 9.94 7.01 9.80 9.93 10.91 10.78 9.60 9.52 10.42 11.86 10.94 13.18
CaO 11.54 10.76 11.19 10.42 11.64 11.00 20.14 10.88 11.94 6.91 8.99 8.37
Na2O 1.19 1.85 1.57 2.20 1.27 1.77 2.51 3.01 1.91 6.17 3.81 3.53
K 2O 0.18 0.64 0.48 0.26 0.55 1.33 bdl 0.24 0.15 0.62 0.60 0.88
Total 99.08 96.91 98.48 97.65 98.69 98.05 100.25 96.85 96.26 99.79 98.78 96.52
TSi 7.206 6.285 6.350 6.443 6.565 6.440 7.400 6.408 6.357 6.813 6.522 6.846
TAl 0.794 1.715 1.650 1.557 1.435 1.560 0.600 1.592 1.643 1.187 1.478 1.154
CAl 0.461 1.082 1.153 0.989 0.870 0.476 0.275 0.590 0.687 0.999 1.110 0.876
CCr 0 0 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.027 0.022 0.005 0.001 0.033
CTi 0.026 0.045 0.056 0.049 0.100 0.106 0.015 0.160 0.164 0.029 0.017 0.024
CMg 2.184 1.591 2.131 2.190 2.365 2.422 2.058 2.150 2.339 2.517 2.358 2.872
CFe2 2.328 2.282 1.659 1.770 1.663 1.996 1.342 2.073 1.789 1.450 1.514 1.196
CMn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.001 0 0 0 0 0
CCa 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.306 0 0 0 0 0
BFe2 0.108 0.138 0.170 0.222 0.129 0.264 0 0.084 0.079 0.085 0.174 0.194
BMn 0.021 0.041 0.001 0.016 0.005 0.006 0 0.008 0.002 0.013 0.006 0.010
BCa 1.823 1.753 1.748 1.651 1.814 1.730 1.795 1.767 1.919 1.053 1.393 1.310
BNa 0.048 0.068 0.080 0.110 0.052 0 0.205 0.141 0 0.848 0.427 0.486
ACa 0 0 0 0 0 0.046 0 0 0.006 0 0 0
ANa 0.291 0.478 0.364 0.520 0.305 0.517 0.495 0.744 0.558 0.856 0.642 0.514
AK 0.034 0.124 0.090 0.050 0.103 0.256 0 0.046 0.030 0.112 0.111 0.164
Fe_FeMg 0.53 0.60 0.46 0.48 0.43 0.48 0.39 0.50 0.44 0.38 0.42 0.33
Sum_cat 15.33 15.60 15.45 15.57 15.41 15.82 15.50 15.79 15.59 15.97 15.75 15.68
Cations and end members are calculated on the basis of 15 cations and 23 oxygen atoms using MinPet geological software. bdl means below detection
limit.

core to rim (8.6 § 1.1 to 10.9 § 1.4 kbar), during prograde
metamorphism. The same prograde results were obtained
from the core to rim data from the sample PH181 (9.9 § 1.2
to 12.8 § 1.7 kbar).
Garnets from eclogites of the Purbi Nar area, gave core
to rim pressure conditions of 16.6 § 2.5 to 19.8 § 2.6 kbar
(Table 6). The UHP eclogites from the Gittidas area
showed peak metamorphic P–T conditions of 27–32 kbar
and 727–799 °C (O’Brien et al., 2001; Kaneko et al., 2003).
Based upon core to rim compositions in garnet, the rare
zonation indicates an insigniWcant change in pressure, giv-
ing same estimate of 28.6 § 0.4 kbar. Meanwhile, retrograde
phases in UHP eclogites involving Grt + Ep § Amp §
albite § jadeite symplectite had a pressure of 18.1 §
1.7 kbar.
Geochronological studies provide a record of the cool-
ing histories and of metamorphic episodes in the area. Ar–
Ar cooling age for hornblende and mica from gneisses
record ca. 43 and ca. 25 Ma (Chamberlain et al., 1991). This
cooling history suggests a rapid unrooWng of the HHC
rocks. The Sm/Nd (garnet–omphacite), Rb/Sr (phengite),
and U/Pb (rutile) methods revealed that the eclogite facies
event took place at 49 § 6 Ma (Tonarini et al., 1993).
The Peak UHP event in the Kaghan Valley took place at
46 Ma using U/Pb method on zircon containing coesite
inclusions, from felsic/pelitic gneisses surrounding the coe-
site-bearing eclogites (Kaneko et al., 2003).
5.3. Thermobaric structure
The presence of UHP metamorphic rocks in HHC proves
that Indian plate rocks were subducted deeply in the collision
with the Kohistan arc. Tectonic models, collision histories,
subduction rates and angles, and exhumation processes have
been proposed by a number of earth scientists (e.g., Molnar
and Tapponnier, 1977; England and Thompson, 1984; Row-
ley, 1996; Treloar, 1997; Searle et al., 1999; O’Brien et al.,
2001; Guillot et al., 2003, 2004; Kaneko et al., 2003; Treloar
et al., 2003; Leech et al., 2005 and references there in). P–T
conditions using various mineral assemblages from pelitic and
maWc rocks of diVerent metamorphic grades and zones have
also been estimated by many workers (e.g., Greco, 1989;
Pognante and Spencer, 1991; Smith et al., 1995; Treloar, 1997;
Lombardo and Rolfo, 2000; O’Brien et al., 2001; Kaneko
et al., 2003; Treloar et al., 2003) but a comprehensive thermo-
baric structure has not been presented to date.
 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406 401

Table 4
Chemical composition of Chlorite (Chl), Biotite (Bt), Muscovite (Ms), Epidote (Ep) and Plagioclase (Pl). Cations for Chl, Bt, Ms, Ep and Pl are calculated
on the basis of 14, 22, 22, 12.5, and 8 oxygen atoms, respectively
Sample: Ph37-38 Ph114-2 Ph161-13 Ph114-4 Ph155-55 Ph366-17 Ph66-195 Ph366-12 Ph423-16 Ph382-4 Ph423-5 Ph181-23 Ph236-85
Mineral: Chl Chl Chl Bt Bt Bt Ms Ms Ms Ep Ep Pl Pl
SiO2 25.66 25.81 24.74 36.18 39.07 37.08 46.15 49.36 53.15 38.79 38.97 58.99 59.65
TiO2 0.07 0.34 0.09 2.09 1.57 1.39 0.16 1.36 0.52 0.16 0.13 bdl bdl
Al2O3 20.81 21.89 22.72 18.51 18.38 19.82 34.89 35.93 25.87 24.76 26.75 26.20 25.89
FeO 30.53 26.79 26.71 21.29 15.01 17.51 1.83 0.02 2.95 11.95 8.85 0.11 bdl
MnO 0.19 0.20 0.09 0.10 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.02 bdl 0.09 bdl 0.02 bdl
MgO 11.80 13.04 14.57 10.59 13.69 12.77 0.74 0.04 4.46 bdl 0.15 0.01 bdl
CaO 0.04 bdl 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.04 bdl 23.40 23.41 8.03 7.63
Na2O 0.01 bdl 0.03 0.04 0.11 0.27 1.39 1.25 0.49 bdl bdl 6.64 7.25
K2 O bdl 0.83 bdl 9.30 9.08 7.78 9.74 10.59 11.02 bdl bdl 0.08 0.04
Total 89.11 88.91 88.99 98.14 96.92 96.71 94.96 98.61 98.46 99.14 98.26 100.08 100.46
Si 4.247 4.212 4.019 5.622 5.917 5.672 6.171 6.209 6.901 3.412 3.313 5.253 5.294 Si
AlIV 3.753 3.788 3.981 2.378 2.083 2.328 1.829 1.791 1.099 0 0 2.747 2.706 Al
AlVI 0.303 0.420 0.367 1.010 1.195 1.242 3.666 3.532 2.856 2.565 2.678 0.008 0 Fe2
Ti 0.009 0.042 0.011 0.244 0.178 0.159 0.016 0.128 0.051 0.879 0.019 0.002 0 Mn
Fe2 4.225 3.657 3.630 2.767 1.901 2.241 0.204 0.127 0.320 0.006 0.629 0.001 0 Mg
Mn 0.027 0.028 0.012 0.013 0.002 0.005 0.007 0 0 0 0 0.766 0.726 Ca
Mg 2.912 3.173 3.529 2.453 3.092 2.912 0.147 0.005 0.863 2.205 2.132 1.146 1.248 Na
Ca 0.007 0 0.009 0.008 0.001 0.009 0.003 0 0 0 0.001 0.009 0.005 K
Na 0.003 0 0.010 0.012 0.031 0.079 0.361 1.700 0.123 0 0 59.7 63.1 Ab
K 0 0.172 0 1.844 1.754 1.519 1.662 13.992 1.825 0.010 0.009 39.9 36.7 An
Fe_FeMg 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.53 0.38 0.57 0.58 0.60 0.27 0.5 0.3 Or
bdl means below detection limit. Cations and end member names given to the right of the table are for Pl analysis only.

800
700
T ( C)

o
600
500
400
30

20
P (kbar)

10

Fig. 12. Comprehensive thermobaric structural proWle along the Kaghan valley section. P–T estimates from selected samples from pelitic rocks, maWc
rocks and eclogites are shown. Red Wlled circles show P–T estimates from pelitic rocks while blue Wlled circles indicate eclogites and other maWc rocks
using garnet rim composition; half shaded and open circles show P–T estimates using garnet core composition. The core to rim trend is indicated by small
arrow heads. Green circle represents TTs metasediments. Cross-section at the top is constructed based on projections of the structures from Fig. 3 (modi-
Wed after Kaneko et al., 2003). Position of projection line (A–D) is shown in Fig. 3.

Taking advantage of Weld, petrological and structural senting the whole Kaghan Valley section (Fig. 12). The
data available for the HMB, an attempt has been made for estimated average P–T conditions are plotted in a proWle
the Wrst time, to construct the thermobaric structure repre- along the geological section of the Kaghan Valley (Fig. 12).
402 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406

40
Previous study
Kaneko et al. 2003

km -1
35 Treloar, 1995 DEC

5 Co
This study
Gittidas eclogites
30 Purbi Nar eclogites Dia p
Gr Cs
Qtz

25 ZEC
LEC
Pressure (kbar)

20 AEC

BS
15
Qtz
Jd+ b HGR
A

10 Ky
EA Sil
-1
Am
GS 20o C km LGR
5
Ky Sil
And And
0
300 400 500 600 700 800
o
Temperature ( C )
Fig. 13. P–T condition of UHP eclogites (Gittidas) and Purbi Nar eclogites. Retrograde path in UHP eclogites is shown with a red (solid and dashed) line;
for Purbi Nar eclogites are shown with a (dotted) line with arrow heads. The grey (solid and short dashed) line shows the path from Kaneko et al. (2003).
Solid star and circles show the average P–T intersection points for UHP eclogites and Purbi Nar eclogites, respectively. The P–T conditions for the
Kaghan gneisses (Treloar, 1995; Kaneko et al., 2003) are shown for comparison. Metamorphic facies boundaries and reaction curves are modiWed from
Holdaway (1971), Bundy (1980), Holland (1980), Bohlen and Boettcher (1982), Maruyama et al. (1996), Oh and Liou (1998). Abbreviations: AM, amphib-
olite facies; BS, blueschist facies; EA, epidote-amphibolite facies; GS, greenschist facies; HGR, high-pressure granulite subfacies; LGR, low-pressure gran-
ulite subfacies; AEC, amphibole–eclogite subfacies; DEC, dry-eclogite subfacies; LEC, lawsonite–eclogite subfacies; ZEC, zoisite–eclogite subfacies.

The P–T estimates from pelitic rocks as well as maWc rocks
indicate an increase in metamorphic grade towards higher
structural levels. These results are consistent with the struc-
ture and tectonics of the area.
Grt, Ms, Chl, Bt, and Pl compositions from the garnet
zone in pelitic rocks south of MCT, yield temperature and
pressure ranges of 493–574 °C and 6.4–8.3 kbar, showing a
gradual increase in temperature and pressure towards the
northeast. In St zone, P–T estimates from the garnet core and
rim were 522 § 14 °C at 8.6 § 1.1 kbar and 520 § 17 °C at
10.9 § 1.4 kbar, respectively. A local increase in the tempera-
ture shown by LHS rocks near the MCT indicate prograde
metamorphism, while retrograde metamorphosed HHC
rocks close to this tectonic contact gives average P–T esti-
mates of 553 § 25 °C at 10.1 § 1.2 kbar. The kyanite zone
yielded higher P–T conditions of 692 § 89 °C at 9.3 § 1.6 kbar.
In the kyanite zone with secondary St, the average P–T con-
ditions were 664 § 16 °C at 7.2 § 0.9 kbar (Table 5).
Eclogites from Purbi Nar indicate lower P–T condi-
tions than those from Gittidas localities close to the UHP
dome (Fig. 4). The coesite-bearing lithology yields a tem-
perature range of 757–786 °C at 28.6–28-8 kbar using the
garnet–clinopyroxene–kyanite–phengite–coesite/quartz
geothermobarometer (Krogh and Terry, 2004). The retro-
grade phases (symplectic amphibole–augite–albite) in
these UHP eclogites yielded P–T values of 18.1 § 1.7 and
825 § 59 °C.
Based on these results, it can be concluded that the P–T
conditions for pelitic and maWc rocks from the same tec-
tonic unit in HMB are identical in each tectonic unit (LHS
and Units I–III of the HHC). The overall metamorphic
temperature shows a maximum in the central part of HHC
with minor breaks along MCT in the south and along
greenschist facies rocks (TTs) in the north. The peak pres-
sure conditions within the HHC indicate that Unit II
underwent subduction at a deep level while Units I and
Unit III were probably situated at a shallower level. The
path of subduction and exhumation is well constrained by
the coesite inclusions in zircon from the felsic and pelitic
gneisses of the HHC Unit II (Kaneko et al., 2003) and the
 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406 403

Table 5
Estimated average P–T conditions from garnet-, staurolite-, and kyanite zones of the pelitic rocks from the Kaghan Valley
Sample No. Mineral assemblage Rim/core Ave T (°C) Ave P (kbar)
LHS pelites
Garnet zone
Ph66 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl + Chl Rim 506 § 20 6.4 § 1.9
Ph73 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl + Chl Rim 493 § 10 7.4 § 0.7
Ph84 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Rim 574 § 15 8.2 § 0.8
Ph114 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Rim 566 § 22 8.3 § 1.4
Staurolite zone
Ph160R Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Rim 520 § 17 10.9 § 1.4
Ph160C Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Core 522 § 14 8.6 § 1.1
Ph161 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Rim 538 § 21 8.6 § 1.2
HHC Pelites
Kyanite zone
Ph178 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl + Ky Rim 692 § 89 9.3 § 1.6
Ph181R Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Rim 722 § 53 12.8 § 1.7
Ph181C Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Core 610 § 43 9.9 § 1.2
Ph183 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl + Ky § Ep Rim 669 § 29 10.5 § 1.0
Ph212 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Chl Rim 645 § 175 6.2 § 2.0
Ph232 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl §Ep Rim 585 § 24 6.1 § 1.3
Ph350 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl Rim 606 § 47 11.5 § 2.4
Ph366 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl + St § Chl Rim 664 § 16 7.2 § 0.9
Average P–T conditions are calculated using Grt rim and core. Composition of all mineral phases utilized for P–T calculations are treated with Win Ax
software of Holland T.J.B. and obtained end members properties were used in THERMOCALC ver.3.2. End-members with greater uncertainties are
removed from calculations. P–T data yielded the best Wt conditions of 95% conWdence level or closer are presented here.

Table 6
Estimated average P–T conditions from maWc rocks and eclogites of the Kaghan Valley.
Sample No. Mineral assemblage Rim/core Ave T (°C) Ave P (kbar)
LHS maWc rocks
Ph37 Bt + Pl + Amp + Ep + Chl – 593 § 61 3.3 § 1.7
Ph155 Grt + Bt + Pl + Amp Rim 591 § 18 7.7 § 0.8
HHC maWc rocks
Ph166 Grt + Bt + Pl + Amp + Ep § Chl Rim 553 § 25 10.1 § 1.2
Ph209 Grt + Ms + Bt + Pl + Amp Rim 550 § 57 12.3 § 2.2
Ph236 Grt + Bt + Ms + Pl + Amp Rim 673 § 55 8.3 § 1.3
Ph280 Grt + Bt + Ms + Amp + Ep Rim 712 § 49 10.4 § 2.5
HP Eclogites
Ph285 Grt + Cpx + Pl + Amp + Ep Rim 843 § 57 13.7 § 1.7
Ph312 Grt + Cpx + Phn + Amp Rim 784 § 61 19.8 § 2.6
Ph312 Grt + Cpx + Phn + Amp Core 785 § 73 16.6 § 2.5
Ph382 Grt + Bt + Pl + Amp + Ep Rim 646 § 45 12 § 1.5
UHP Eclogites
Ph407 Grt + Cpx + Phn + Ky + Qtz Rim 810 § 139 23.3 § 2.7
Ph421 Grt + Cpx + Ms + Amp + Ky Rim 667 § 49 21.1 § 1.0
Ph423 Grt + Cpx + Phn + Ky + Ep + Cs + Amp Rim 762 § 46 28.6 § 0.4
Ph423 Grt + Cpx + Phn + Amp + Ep + Cs Core 757 § 64 28.6 § 0.4
Ph423 Grt + Cpx + Phn + Amp + Ep § Pl § Bt Ret 825 § 59 18.1 § 1.7
Ph425 Grt + Cpx + Phn + Amp + Cs Rim 786 § 65 28.8 § 0.5
Ph447 Grt + Cpx + Amp + Ep Rim 747 § 43 20.1 § 1.6
Tethyan metasediments
Py 10 Pl + Amp + Ep § Chl – 551 § 47 9.1 § 1.9
Mineral abbreviations are adopted after Kretz (1983) except Amp, amphibole; Cs, coesite. Ret represent retrograde.

thermobaric structure presented in this study. The 6. Discussion

formation of the UHP eclogite and gneiss in Unit II
indicate that the leading edge of the Indian Plate subducted
to a depth of at least 90–100 km and UHP rocks were
extruded between the overlying Unit III and the underlying
Unit I.
In the Kaghan Valley, Indian plate sediments suVered
regional metamorphism in synchroneity with ductile shear-
ing, during Tertiary collision. Metamorphism in this area
followed a path of increasing pressure during subduction.
404 H.U. Rehman et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29 (2007) 390–406
The UHP metamorphism and the structure of the Kaghan
Valley indicate that in parts of the subduction front
the Indian plate sediments reached deeper levels with
continued underthrusting. This phenomenon resulted in
early-Eocene regional metamorphism (Tonarini et al., 1993;
Treloar, 1997) with deep subduction and UHP metamor-
phism (O’Brien et al., 2001; Rehman et al., 2004). The mini-
mum depth of subduction reached by these rocks is well
constrained by the presence of coesite inclusions in ompha-
cite from eclogites. The multistage growth history of zircon
from the felsic and the pelitic gneisses with an inner detrital
core, overgrown by a non-UHP metamorphic zone and
outer rim of UHP metamorphic domain (Kaneko et al.,
2003) proves that the depth exceeding »100 km.
The continent–continent collision in this region of the
Himalayan chain, thrust the Kohistan Island arc over the
leading edge of the Indian Plate along the MMT (Tahirk-
heli, 1979) resulting in intense deformation in a ductile
shear regime (Treloar, 1997) and in regional-scale exten-
sion-related folding (Burg et al., 1996). The slight increase
in pressure to the north shows that the metamorphic grade
increased during active subduction of the leading edge of
the Indian Plate beneath the Kohistan Arc, synchronous
with deformation. The geochronological results show that
the eclogite-forming event in the HHC postdated blueschist
formation in the MMT suture zone, and predated regional
Barrovian-type metamorphism in the Himalayan chain
(O’Brien, 2001; O’Brien et al., 2001). The apparent Barro-
vian metamorphism in this area comprises an older
(»30 Ma) kyanite-bearing stage, overprinted by a younger
(13–20 Ma), lower pressure, but higher temperature, sillima-
nite-bearing stage (Honegger et al., 1982; O’Brien, 2001 and
references therein). Peak UHP metamorphism in the
Kaghan Valley (46 Ma) (Kaneko et al., 2003) took place no
later than »19 m.y. after the initiation of the collision
between the Indian Plate and the Kohistan Arc (65 Ma)
(Beck et al., 1995). The Ar–Ar cooling ages of ca. 43 and ca.
25 Ma from hornblende and mica from the gneisses (Cham-
berlain et al., 1991) indicate the end of the regional meta-
morphism, together with rapid unrooWng of the Indian
plate rocks. The same phenomenon of rapid cooling and
retrogression is evidenced in the eclogite samples, which
have abundant rutile and amphibole–augite–albite sym-
plectites (Fig. 6). The decrease in pressure from 28.6 § 0.4
(coesite present phase) to 18.1 § 1.7 kbar (retrograde phase
of symplectic amphibole–augite–albite) in UHP eclogites
(Table 6) is evidence of the fast cooling and rapid exhuma-
tion of the UHP rocks. The fabric-porphyroblast relation-
ship and strain-related rotation in garnet and kyanite from
pelitic rocks (Fig. 5b, c, and f) demonstrates that the
regional metamorphism in Indian plate rocks was synchro-
nous with ductile deformation associated with the early
stages of collision. With the subsequent subduction of
Indian plate rocks, the metamorphic piles were disrupted to
form a south vergent thrust stack, followed by the over-
thrusting and folding of the HHC. This structural model is
consistent with an increase in metamorphic grade towards
the north, placing higher metamorphic grade rocks on
lower metamorphic grade rocks, thus generating a tectoni-
cally inverted metamorphic sequence (Treloar, 1997).
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Mr. Y. Oozono, for helping
in the operation of the microprobe. A critical review by Dr.
T. Ota, helped to improve the manuscript. We oVer our spe-
cial thanks to Prof. K. Arita, for his encouragement and to
Dr. M. Leech, and anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments. We pay sincere gratitude to Mr. I. JeVrey for
thorough correction of the language and grammar. This
work was partly supported by the Sasakawa ScientiWc
Research Grant from The Japan Science Society and a
Grant-in-Aid for ScientiWc Research from the Japan Soci-
ety for the Promotion of Science (No. 12740284 and
16540420). Wajid and Bashir, Safe and expert drivers from
Geoscience Laboratory in Islamabad were highly appreci-
ated.
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