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Mestvirishvili
:The r/(/fatzvzstzc
:Theory
0/ (jravltatlon
Mir Publishers Moscow
The Relativistic Theory ofGravitation
A. A. n OryHOB, M. A. Mecrea peme anu
The Relativistic
Theory
ofGravitation
Q
Mir Publishers Moscow
Tl'IUIaitd It1lCII Ilw a.......
by t . ... Y, nb" 'y
TO THE READER
1111'0,11,,11... 6
Cl. . ptu I . c,.;';c.ol l'lem.. 1u Cc>IICfl1ling the E" ui•• l, nco Principle l~
Chapl.. 2. ElIt'1y-M omeMulII ""u dOl.tnlO~ " I tluo C.a.llall on, 1 Field ill cn 11
o..pl,r 3. Inorn al Ma.. in GH IP
OIapie. 4 . E..../'i y-ll!<)l;IIOnw... CoaM.'lltloo ill en 26
Cbopleo S. ElInV'- /!tn...e.>tulIl aDd Mll"Ia. N_tum Coourr.uioo •• ne lU8 10
Ge<l.... try 01 S~Tim. 30
tMpltf •. '"'" ~tI'i ..lioo P'riDCipJ", a"" e-nl liTO R,lal.i_ J3
OIaplcf 1. Tloe Basic ~ti tf 43
Olopl.. 8. !ITO Eq... lI01Dt 4$
CMpl et t. Rolati...,.,bi,. 8ft.._ thoo c.o_ical £ n-u ..w_I... T..-- 'DOl lb.
Hilbtrt T _ S3
CMplcf I' . T1le c...,. Pri llClpt. alld ... UIII~ 01 I'" RTO t.qn....... S1
Q.aple. I I. A e.-.... i.. li'"' of t.be RTG Sf"Ie- of EII... t i _ &%
OIa pler 12. Sollll"" 01 RTO £" ...11_ G6
n .1 'The Yield of _ "plle . kaUy Sf ......lrk Ob)etl M •
11. 2 n.. Eltl:rio. AaiayrnlDe l .le Solotl Oll lcr a Spitlll!J>a' "' ... n
Chople. 13 . C•• • ;l u iood Colla pH M
o...pler U . The Cra . ; uoUoo" Field 01 a NOQ.IIUi c Sph..h:a Uy S)' wmel,; t ObJot l In
RTC . Rlrkboll '. T~ 'li6
US
Olopt tr 18. RTO .oad Sobt-S)'Oleal On ' ;latlOOLO.l £Iper;_ta. A.. bil"iti. i. 1M
Prodlcl\oll. of GR 13&
16.1 Eq"" I;, y 01 the ...ertlal aDOl G.nllatl_1 A1_ •• RTe 138
18.2 ~ Eq.. tiou of 1oI0U000 oI a To.tt Bool y A1ool • • GeooIePt" tile Su',
e.....,..'........ '~ld 141
1&.3 Ddfttioll of Lie bl , rut Hadio w,_
i . tile S"o'a G'ui,....onl fleW 143
18.4 'lM S~ l f , of Nere..,.', P. .hal. 140ll
UU T ; m~ Otb y 01 n .,jj,o Sip_b i. l.ile"SM ', CrUilal~ I'"..t<! tSl\ll, ll'O"
E" d j I ' i
18.$ PH ;"" of 11...01111100 01 , 'l et t Bod,. III OrIN , 1S5
•
15.1 SbiFObrr·. Elocl . 58
13.S ~oa of • G~ 1m Orbit 16\
t 3.i OR u d GruiutiOOllt Ell....... ill tho Sol., S f6UIII. c..cl1Ai.. 11$
a..pta- It. Pw$. Now....... lawlf'lla 01 Wot,,,,, I. liTO 1&$
£.u_"'" O')Icu )( 0", AI... Goood. . ill .... 11 1.,. .....S~T; .a1
Qapter ZOo 0.
30.1
20.2
lIIU
l.GOl.O.OO e-...-u-
P_·X... n-t.. of
L.o.. . "" N.tric e;.".. i u lJ...
on. Eq u t.iGG of 3h.ll . . of l~ CoD&« of W_ ' " all £:r kllded O bJoc.t
n. GeocI'esk MoUOIII Eq lJca ISO
""'"U.
20.4 TIl. EArth'. hMlft Q ll.llti .....l MaN 181
ZO.S o.n.
_
UOll of tho " ~ Oll of tho Eaf l.h', Ceotil' of 111_ fro ID \he Rd·
Geod fllll,c 183
21M The La... of Moti,. 01 ... Rloclritllllr Cluorred TOllt Body t M
:!:O.r TnlUlorIDili Oll to PIl,..,l Comi'lU le:I \M
ZO.8 A f'OC1IIul. lor Ut StroniM of ~ CcxulH'llII.ti ai' EI",me Pi..ld tST
2lI.1I Studylq tho MOiIOll of lb' Eulh'. Ct!>u. of Mau by Gr....illlottle
Elperlm'D~ 189
20,10 Studying Ih /010>\;"" of iJI" Earth', Ceill.tt 01 Mass 1>1 Tiltllli tt n
20.11 Studyill!l" Ihe MollOll of the Ear th ', Ceoll' 01 Mu e in I " Ib ~m"" l
Involving ' D A.tUldal E.rlh S. l.tllile 192
2:O.U
20. 1$
ElIecli AllIIOOiu.d ..llh the I'..-OOll of . Pr.I I ....1ld Ih l~ Fra me
theta AMOtllw4 .,hb AIl;to troPJ ...llh " .. peel 10 ,b. CeDu r 01
N... of ttw Gllny 19l1
".
OuoJl et 21. Thlo hU-MIl...... Cot llki.ta ll ia RTO t!l7
Aw-f,iro I %02
A p~ [J 2 2lt
ApptDd b , 212
App_ Lo ~ 217
........ '"
An-dLo ~ :/2l
I" lhis book we gi ve 11 detailed eXpll!Iit ion of t he rele tivis tic th eory of gra";tation,
or R.TG, developed in Logunov, 1986, LOg1lnov Illd M~tviri sbvHi, 1984 , 1985a ,
1985b, 1986b , Vlasov and Logllnov, 1981i, an d Vlasov , Logunov, and Mest viri -
shv ili, 1984 . I n t hese works RTG bas been b uil t unambiguously, usi ng as a ba~is
t he relati vit y pr;nciple, t he gauge princip le, and the goometrin tion princi ple.
The gravita tional field is constr ucted as a physicalliDld in the sp irit of Farad ay
and MRXwell, and th is field hM energy, momen tum, an d SpillS 2 and O. RTG reo
vtvea the concept of a cl~leal grav ita lional field t hat nn choice of eeteeecce frame
c an de! lrn y si nce it is It mater ial substr at um. TIlIl gauge princip le i.! form ulat ed
on the hasi.! of t he looa l inrm ite dimenslcna l neneemmutattva grnup 01 super-
cnordina te t ransformatloll.'l.
The syst em of RTG equation s (8 .28) a nd (8.29 ), is genera l--eovaria nt and de-
pends exphctrly on the met ric te nsor of th e Mink owSki space-ti me. Thi s unambig-
unu..ly separ ate.\: t he forces of iner tia from the gravitat ionel field. All field var i-
abl es i n the R.TG aquettons are function s of sp a~tl me coordina tes of t he Min-
k owskl s pace-ti me.
The t heory cen si dered hnT'$ r igorously obeys the laws of COl\S(!rva t ion of eneTfY-
mome ntum and a ngula r momentum foe ma tt4!r and gravita tional field taken
I.ogother. It also descri bes the entire body of gravitatloll al e:tpe,imentli. We sllnw
tha t Einste in' s formula fnr grav it ationa l waves, (15.56 ), foUnws d irectl y from the
theor y. In a na ly~ i ng t he ev olut ion of the univerae , RT G conclud es that the uni_
verse is infinite and "lIa t~ and pred icts a la rp "laten t" man in it. Th is"laten t"
m ~ exceeds the observab le masa "I t he unive rse by a faclor of 40.
RT C pred tcta th at gnv itat ional colla pse, which for tile comoving obser ver
occur s over a finite p rop~ time interval, does: not lead to the Inl'mit4! cont raction
(If matter; ra t her , it ter m in a t~ wilen the object eehleves a certa in finite densit y,
and the physiea l precess es associated wit h the ob ject slow down indefinite ly as t he
object ap pr oaches t he .. dtus equal 1.0 GM. Tbis means t hat in RT G thue can be
no stat ic or nonste t tc spber icall y s ymmet ric ob jects with a radi us equ al to or Jess
t ban GM. From the standpoint of an external obser ver t he lu min(lS it y o[ a collaps-
ing object deen!asel5 ex ponen tially (it blacke",), but Ilothin g un usual happens to
it. Hence, aeeo rd tng to this approac h, there can be 0 0 objects In nat urn ill whic h
t he gravitat ional contraction of matter eeeuha in inlJn it e density (black holes ).
However. objeelS ca n e:ds t that have an n : l.temely la rg8 mau and 8n i nnar st ruc_
tere .
We also ahow tha t in gene ral relati vit y, GR , t here are no funda menta l la ws of
conserva tion of energy -mome ntum and a ngu lar' moment um of ma tter and grav-
itation al field taken togetb e~ , with t he result that the inertia l mass dlltined In
GR is not eq ua l to the active gravita tlonal mess. We hav e established t hat CR
gi ves no definita pl'(ldictiOllS conc erning i~av i tatio nal e!let ts. Fin all y, in Gil. t he
grav itationa l field l~ not a physical field pOSlleSSi ng an eller gy-moment um dens it y.
Consequent ly, Etnstein's for mula (15.56) for gra vltatl onel waves does not follow
from GR. .
Our collesg uel5 A. A. vteecv, Yu. M. Loskllto v, and Yu. V. Chugreev con trib-
uted cOIl.'5 ;der abl y to t he develo pmen t of some Il!Ipecl.!l nf KT G incorpo fated in
t his b(l(lk, and ChaplEr 20 was written with t be a id of Yu. V. Chug n:»ev . To all
of t hem our s illcere th ank s.
A . A . LoglUllW
M. A. MeslV/"l3hvil!
Introduct ion
Defore presen tin g the b615ies of th e rel ati v ist ic theory of grav it at ion ( RT G) pro-
posed hero, we will touch briefly on some impo rta nt espe<::15 of the genera l relativity
(G n) theory.
Tn crea ting hi~ genera l relativity theory. Ein stein proceeded from the princi ple
of equi va lence of t he forces of iner t ia a nd grav ity. The equi valen ce pri nciple was
formu lat ed in th e foll owing mallne r (E inste in, 19205 ):
. ..for . ny in6,,' tely amaH ..wld-""lriO<l the """rd i.... ..,. coo al.. . ys he " hoe. " 10 sue1l • w.y
lhal Ih. t tl.Til. U""ol 6d d in tbU _ rld_"", i.." v.nI5hel.
i n formulating the eq uivalence princi ple Ei nstein al ready dep arted from t he idea
of a gn vit ational field es being a Fara da y-Max well lield. Subseque ntly Ihis feet
found refiectioD in t he pseu dote~9r ch ara ct eris t ic of a grav itationa l field, T~ ,
introdu ced by Einstein. Late r SchrOd inger . 1918, de mons trate d tha i if tbe coor-
dina te s ystem Is "hOllen appropriatel y, ,,11 the componentll of the gnv it" t ione l.
field an ergy-momentum peeud otensez, T~ , ou tsi de a ba ll vani sh. In th is "onneet ion
Ei ns tei n, 19t88 . noled :
As fnr th. id.... ofSC htildl~r. theIr parwao;veneQI lies In Ihn a"alogy..ilh eled rodynami..,
.. hue the SlreMes aod ~'tY de",l ty nl . oy lI.eld ore o"" .ero. Iio.. . vu . I " nnot " nd My
Tn """ ..my the SltUlltlO1l m",,1 bo tha " ma fnr H" vlut ,oool lI.eld.. A g.a vHatioool lI. eld
ta O be , pO!< jll.<:d .. ithout 10t rodl&C; " 1I" otrUll" ood . 0 e,,""liIY den. ity.
Th ill d early shows that Einstein /:OMtk!<4lV rkplVW from. fh e/:Oncept oj a grw -
IIlltlona l field al bei ng a F(U"adaJl-Ma~1l phJlrical fi eld, a materia l 1,, /llt nU l.lIPI'
flulf can neuer be tkl t roJlM /III t he d lOlu of reJerence frame.
Since in Gil lh ere ill. no concept of a grav itational _field enllrgy_momentum ten -
50r dllnsi t )·, there is n OWilY 01in lrod uci ng in GR th e law 01co nserva tto ll of energy-
momentum of mltt tllr and grav ila tio nal lield tak en together . It was Hil bert , 1917.
who first ullllerl ined t his facl:
I d..l..... lhal ... for the tt"J1eral tbeery 01u lalivll:r, lhal ia. in the ..se <If generall nv. riance
of 'h e Homilt..nian luuctlO<l, tbere . ... gcn"rally nn enn'l1Yequ"ion. that ... corr..pond
to "'t y .-;uu lonr In orthogooll. lovari. nl theati... , i could even oot" lhl. f."1 OS being
a ch t", ,,,,;c '..Ill", of the tt..ory.
U.nfort unately, thi . s ta tement of H ilber t 's wa5, a ppa rent ly , not unders tood by
Ius cont emporarIes, s ince nei tbllr E inatein nor oth er p hys icists , eall nd a t the time
that Gil In prineiple ca nnot h ave lav.-s 01 consarvetion 01 energy- momen tu m a nd
. ni uh r momenl um of matter a nd grevttett onal field taken togelhe r. Even toda y
t hore are scien tis t" who do not understand thi S, wh ile othe rs do undel'!lta nd it bu t
in te r pret it as th e most im portant s tep made by GR, a ste p th at over th row the
eo n"e pt of en ergy . Rejection of the concept of the gra vil.at ional-Iield allergy-
mom ent um d ensity leads to a . ituet ion in cn in whiclj the gra vitatioolll· lieid
energy ca nnot be Iocaltzed. But the a b!ien"e of a ny looa liu t ioll of lIeld en erg}' and
th e a bs\!lIte of conserva tion la w. lead to th e abse nce of the concept. of grav ila lio nai
,
waves and gr~v it a t iona l-wa ve flux, which mea ns th .t t he prop agati on Qf gra vi-
tat iona l energy in space Irom one objed to euoebar is Impossible in GR.
Anoth er impor ta nt as pect of Gn Is th e fact that Ei nstein ideotified the metrte
01 lhe Hillman n ~ paee-time with the gra vitational field. This too deprives the
gl'llvita t ional field wit hin the GR fra mework of all the properti es tbat a Faraday-
Mlllt'l>'(lll phya;cal t\eld has . TI,e energy- momen tu m te nsor al a physi ca l field gene r-
ated by 1l1lO1IN:e cannot dro p 011, as we reeve a way from th e source, more s lowly
th an 1/r', since otherwise, if we t ook the integ ral of the law of e nergy-mome ntu m
couservatlon over the vulu me 01 a sphere sur eouodtng the source and sent th e
radius of the s phere to infinit y, we would arri ve at a physica lly meaningless result,
namely, thet a SOlU'l;1l of finit ll dimenstoue carries an infinite am ount of llnergy.
It hu been l'!~blished that the asy mpt otic behavler of metric coefficien ts
depend s on the choice of the three-dimensiouel spa ~ia l cee rdine tes, a nd , conse-
quent ly, t his behavior can be rnede arb itra ry . Bu t this means that the metnc of
the Rieman n s pace-t un e is not the ph)'llieal gra vitationa l field. Hence, 1.0 reta in
the conce pt oi a grav ita t ion.1 field u being a Fan day·Mn well phys ical lie ld we
must cam pletely ren OUOCIl it s id\!nti ty wit h the mlltric te llsor.
In cons truc t ing the rela tivistic t heory of gravitation , RTG. we will base our
reasoning entirely on the ~ pec i a l theo ry of refatl vity , which we call ~ i m pJ y the
relatiVity t heory because physic all y there can be no ot her relat ivity. Although
the ne me "genera l the ory of rela tivi ty" does exis t , it nl £ars on ly to gravi ta t ion
and not t o aome sort of genera l tt':lalivi ty. Long ago Fock , 1939, 195\1, clar ified
this.
Now we briefiy d tscess the eseecce of the theory of re lativ ity , touch ing espe-
d a lly 011 how Eins tein inte rpreted the th eory. Th is wil l net only be of historical
intere.'lt; chiefi y, it will give the eeadee a dee per uudeesta ndtng of the stlt ti ng poi D ~
of E inste in 's rea soning whic h led to th e crea t ion of GR. Minkowski , followi ng
P oinClu e's reason ing, deve loped the idea of the pseudo- Euclidea n geometry (If
four-dim ensiona l s pacll-timll. The li ne element in th is geomet ry has the form
rilt = ct dl t _ tLr" _ dyt _ d:.".
Poinc are was the fi r~t to introduce such a qua nt ity; he de monstr at ed that <4"
Is im'ar ia nt u nder LoronLt lr a nsformations. He was a lso the first to introduce th&
concept 01 a Lorent z grou p and th e idea 01 a four-d ime nsio na l apace.
Even to thi S day ma ny llCien t ists believe that Minkowski prov ided a tnathe-
matica l inte rpre tation for tlill th eory of rela tivity that forma lly s implified the
theory . But there is more to it t han th is. In LOgUll OV, 1985, it is demonstrated
1.hat the concept of a Ioue-dtme nst onef spece- ttma develop ed by Poincau and Min-
kowski mekes it possible to e:l:te nd th e theory of re lativi ty from inert ia l rete-ecce
frames 10 eecele reted frames. In an arbitrar)' accelerated reference fra mll the line
elemen~ tis' has Ille form
whe re Y1. (z) is the melri c te nsor (If the Minkowsk i s pace-time.
For th e Minkowski s pace-time, in view 01 the existenc\! of ten K ill ing vectors ,
there are always tr ansforma t ions
z· =1' (J:')
that 0.1 0 not ch8nge the metr ic coefficient!!, tha t Is,
tis' _ )',. (.z:' ) d :t' ld,r".
"
[ t is th is t hat enab les us to generaHzll lila Poillearli relativity princ ip le (Poincare.
1904, 1905) and form ulat e t he genera l ited rela tiv ity principi a tllUs ( Logunov,
1985):
:>0 ", . ' \<or .. hoi "b y. ieol . e(eN:n<:e frome ..". u ko (ine'li al o. oool n.,llol ), \he", alwaY'
oxi .~ on 'nfiniu. numbe r of other rert"'lICe In"" • • In ..,bleh aU phl'llca l " henom. ... (In-
d"ding ,rnl l'~i OD. l pn. nolllnnaj oc:cur in th e Some maone, as In Ih. in it ia l ,ef. ",oce I",,,,. ,
"'. l.h.t .... do nOt hoYe . nd "" noot hIVe any ex perimental me.n. to dl ningni'" in which
of thi . infinite "" mhe. 01 "'£."'0":' ["'met w. ' r. poeHlo""d.
T hllS, non inert ial referen ce frames oe( Opy an equal st etus ,,'itll ine rt ial referen ce
fra mes in t he th eory of rel BtiYlt y. It is t his fu ndame ntal fact th at was not dea r
\ (1 EilUtein (see Einste in and Grossmann, 1913);
In lh. <><d inarr Ih_ r of r<!1.livily onl y line.. ort hogona l t'. Mfo. mlli"".... admi tl t<!.
Also ('00 E inst.eiD, 1913),
In tlw in;tl.l lhoo. y or relaUv ll y, lb. lndt[ltndenu of Ille phy!;o.l eqlU'linM ,,{ Ih••[lt d"
ch"iel of rjO r..tflte 1•• m. ;1 h. std em th p<><tu latl"" of Ihe rond ~ mentl l inv''' ' OI qu. nti ty
ds' _ ~ (d. ,)'.
<
when .. "" ... "' 0 0'" ,pea kloU 01 eonst, ucting . th"" y (OR- T• • au''''''..) in" which 0 Hn_
e.. elemenl of a mo'" ~. "' l nlto,,", pl. ys 1M . ole of t he fundomenta l iovuionl qlU'ol,ly
eo ntra . y to Ein stein's belie f, but of the ps.eudo- Euc Udean geomet ry of s pat e-ti roe
defined by the Une element
dr ... 'l',~ dz i dz"
with a metric ten sor 'l',~, for which the Riem. nn-Crlst.ollel cur vatu re teosor R. ; ~ l",
v.D ish e.!!. Hence , in t he spectel t heo. y of . elsti vi t y the 1.10' 01 en ergy-mome nt um
conser vat ion can be w. lt ten i n t he gen'l' ei cOVil/ iant for m, but th ts ' . ct was not
understood by Elll!Iteill. What ha s been said Ic und its re Deetioll In GU, in t he con-
l\lr uctioo of which Ei nswi n wu gu ided to • grest exte nt by the eleg.nt form al
appardus of R iema nni'll geometr~' an d his idea of th e equiva lence of forces of
iocrt ia s nd grav ity (t ho prlM iple 01 eq uival ence).
Accord ing to Lh ideology of GR , t he relativ ity principle can not be applied to
grav it atio n. ! phenom ena . It wss on th la centra l Ide. t hat Einste in .nd Hil bert ,
in creating GR " Imost 70 yeal':'l .go, departed bas icall y from t he speciel the ory of
re l&livit y , which i n 'urn led to a re jeetio n of t he laws 01 consen.t ion of energy-
momentum and . nlu i.r momentum, to th e emerge nce of nonphys ical ide as cou-
eern ing the 1I0nloc. Ieauon 01 gra vi t u ioD. 1energy , and to m.ny ot her as pects not
. el. t.ed to vavltuion. Th ese tw o gru t eetenue te a ba ndoned the wonderf ully
iiim pl" worid of the Minko...-ski spece-ttra e, which pO!SMSe.!! th e muimum pOM i bie
(te n-psr8.toete.) gre up of toOtiOM on t he spac..tim e• • nd ente .e d the jungle 01 Ri e-
meceta n geome t ry. which bogged down su bseq uent geD\lratio ns of phys icis"
study ing gra vitation.
T hos. if ' " usume tluI \ GR ill . meaniql'ul t heor,. we mll5l rejec:~ both tb'
"
t llndame ntallaws of eonH, ,,.tioft of "l>eI'iY~m_l'I lum of ~ tl.et and grn ilil i olUll
Wei and lhe cOClUpLof • c;lu sic. 1 hid. Thill, ho,","" 1$ too ' fea t a lou. aDd it
'W'II1d 1>. . ery tbouabtlea to.1f'" to this "ithout proper upuimental proo f.
So f ir there is not. aiDa l, u peri melt....l fact l h. t , d irectly or indiTe&lly, ch. lIeapll
!.he .. alid it y Dl conservation I,WI i " the macro- l od mkr&-ycrl cl.ll. Th ete is only
(IrI1 c:oncl usioo t Aen: we most diteard GR , givi n, it credit u. I tage inlh. d. ...lnp-
mlll l 01 OU ' id us of gU 'fiut io ll.
In Den iso.. an d Logu no\', 198Oa. 19110.., 1982 b. 1982<1 . lAcuna," l od f olomeM-
kin , t 9i7b. an d V]L.OO\· a nd Denll oy, 1982, it is d. monltnted tha' ainel GR d".,
nol , and u onnl , b,.,.
1'''"11 01eo n&e.uti on of tM eneryy-mo mlnllllU of malter a nd
gr",ltat ion al field tak en t.op ther, Lhe inertia l mass .. defined in EiMLein ', theory
hu PO ph ysical mean ing, th e gn vlu tiollal,w l ve nUl 1.1 defined in GR ean . I....y.
be d&Jll'O!ed by tile prope r selectio n of eererenee Ieeme, I nd, hooeo, E in! l.ein'l
q Ul drupo o formul a for gra vlla tl ona l wevea i. not a coroll. ry of GR . BU ica l\y
it does not foll ow from G R tha t . bln;ry I YSW I\l 10llU eue"llY in t he form of Q:UV'
111t io"ll W. Ve! . G R hal no cl.!IIicl l Newtonia n limit and, ce nsequemly, dou
not u tlsfy one of the m~l fUIllil monta l pri nc iples of phyaiCl, the corre l pondenn
princIple. T bi! I! what lhe absenCI ill G R of enorr y-momen t um conJerVltilJn laW!
leed. 1.(1 if 01'11 rejeet!J doglDat i. m In d ponder. on the _ence of the problem I lld
ml ka a delliled lII alr a' "
A U fld s poWs to llu l oa rJu,t GR II ROt .. u. lisllJdl.>rll ""lIdat llt awll . Ift il« , it
Is WIt" t III fOlU"tnu:t " dlJSlkal l~1I 111 ,fI"a vUallon JhoI Ulllla llsl , ..1I 1M Ikma~
IMtU oj .. pII,dal IhtotlI.
At tbt bax of the ~ted relati vi! tic the ory of rrav lt.tio n (see Locuno v.
1986, LoeU II OV IDd MelIlv irish .. ili, t 9ll4, 1955. , 19& b, t ll86b, Vlasov .nd LoKu--
no.., 19fW, IIld Vle l)''', Loeunov, I nd JoI ll$t..irish vili , 1984 ), wbieh eompleles th.
d e..-Io pment of the ideal JH'O powd in Deaisov I nd Loa:\lIIO" , 1982d, _e place lhe
follo winr phys ical req uinments (_ Loguno .., 1986):
(. ) Th e Mlnk owskl !paee-lilJle (~) , thl t ill, I p _time equi pped ,..ith pseudo-
Eudidu n p<>m,Hry , is I fllnda ment.l apace lb at incor pora les . lI pb )'a iu l lields,
ine!udinr th.. gt"Ivil.ltion.1. Thllat. te mea l iJ reneral bet. use it iJ n_ I ry a nd
su r6eient for the \"a lidily of t he laws of eon!l&<"va lion 01 enerry· momentu m and
anru l. r momentum for maUer a nd gra vita tionl l fl eld lak en toQ:e ther. I n ot ller
words, Ih.. MlnkoW$ki aplce-Ume reflecta the d, nlmical p. operti e:!l eommon lor
all Iypu 01 mltler. T his g uaranteea tho u ls lonce of uoiveMla l eh an ct crisl icl flJ.
all forms of m.Uer and ll'u vit at iona lft eld. Di.'loCll.lo8inll t it.. I tr uel ure of t he (lil'O lIIelry
01 rn l s pate- t ime. E ioate in, 1921, no ted;
. .. Ibco q _ lioo ...heJ.hu Ihi l<:O<\l lnuul1I h •• • EuelldUJI. Ri. lD~ nllilD , Of' aoy Ol bcor Knl<;l ..
loa . q....,Uoo of physicl p/"Oper wbkb mUli I be "",....rtd by ""peritll... I nd 1>01 1 q_ U....
nt I """v.,.U"" \I> be e~ 011 l'f'OlIedl of mere u peditllcr.
B. s ieall y , of course, Lhia aU lem,nt 01 E inst ein·. It COlJl pllt ely cor~ L BUI Ihe
_Dee of t he m. tter i.!! much dee per. The ma in thin g here It to undeMltand ..-hat
pll)"'lIlca l propert ies of mat ter deteflni ol the reomelry or apaee-tf lJle . h tderd , lei
us USllme th ai if .... de teorllllni the phYlilea.1 geDlJlelfy on lhe bai.!! 01 I tudies o£
lJle proPl l lt ioo of li&ht .od Ihe mo..ementa of teat bodies.. ... ""ill a tabli.!!h the
RieDlan oia o I tr uclure of the pometry of aplc..li mL But dDe'S Uti! meall thl t thia
l eo_ try IIl USI be piKed .1 t he b_ of the t~1 No, it doe!l not, bee. UlII m.
inr t hill 'WOuld meaD rejeetlnr I ulom atitan y th a fu nd a metl tal la~ of COIIMr t1011
of eotrt1-111omen t"m Illd all(ll l. t 1llOa>e.lllum. ainca Ihis &eO_try does 1101 pos!8lIlI
t he muilJlum ITOU P of 1Il0ti ons 00 apace-ti me. And .11 lh ia ha ppened in GR.
" T hWl, one. 'We hi". dillCOV, red Oft the bu iJ of n perhne lllfl in.,gl ving Ihe prop-
_( u lon of H&h ~ n d t he movem.tlts of tat bodiu th. ! Rleman lli,n ,eolQetry 1fI
w.
Yalid , must. not bul4ln to dr.weondusi Ons . bout t he . 1nIdur' of the geometry
01 sPf'CO" li m. t h.t m ust " I.id , t UWI base of / byalu.. W. must lirs t " ta blW\
whe lh er lh... u ~ri lll'D ... I I...U IlftI pri m. r y an lID ln'$&1 or of ~o lldvy ofi li n
. nd pnll. ) illtere5L I II ~lIbJ~ 1M fl rudun DI tM ,_ try of 1M p/l,,/(41
' /Hl"-l lnl . _ "'"" ~tm 1&01 front ' M nAlIINI 0/ Ilglrt p roPGfol um lind tm-bod,
_ _nU blot InIlfl lM most , . na. l Gt"lIlUniazl pro~fn 0/ /lUltlD'", 1M ~Um
t./lII, AIK' U If not 1M pvl k ul#r fJAMdl:1I1 I1UUI ljuJo t iM I 01 t lte mM lo" 01 m.uUr
Ibt tkurml1>t 1M W1idun o/ ' /u pJtpJcIU geometry If/' II,1lt the b.ue of phl/,fa but
1M ,rnutd IUlWumI dllll ll m /clll pro pD11a of mIllU, .
III our th lIOry . RT G, tile physica l geometry of . p.... l i.D. is dote'l'IIiued hot 011
th e buil of . t udi es of the propagalioD of lig ht alld the mev eeien ts 01 tes t bodies
bllt on lilt bUie of geM " l dyn. mieal properli u of ma Uer. t he co nservaLion laws.
wh ich I n no ~ onl}' of fundamen ta l i111 porllr.nc" bu t ca n be verified expe rimenla lly .
I\eqlliremen l (a) Sl!b RT G ent irely a parl b orn the general t heory 01 rel aUvily.
(h) A I ravi ta tiollal fleld ia described via a aym met rle seecnd-renk teneoe tI>'""
and con~ Li \u ll.'fI a real physica l field char ac terized by an energy- mumen tum den-
sit y. a u ro lll!lt mass, an d . p le atll\lll 2 and O. Th ls aapllt t alao b...,lull y d iali n-
, uishM RT G from G R.
(c) We Inlrod uc. the reom elrlll tl on principle, accordi nl 10 which the interact ion
01 ", a ra vlta llona l field ..ith maUeT is aeblev ed, in vie.. of l ite lUlivef'lali ty of th ie
iDlera cUon, by "a ddi.lll" tlla ,tD v ila li oDal Ii. ld $ '"" to the metric te n_ y-
01 lh. Mink01ll:llk i .apae.II-tima in t he tegrang iaa della iLy of ma ile r auonI inl l.O rh.
loll o. illl rula:
T hWl, ElNtdn a ll erod 1M plt ydcal meaninlol l lu '9'u lL'alenu pri nciple, all lloo<, 11
tltu lad apJHU?nlly ~,"lIfned u n /UJffcN b, IItlIny.
_.
Whll . cte, t in, th e a:enera l \.beo.ry of I'lliativ lty, EIDllt4lln ....111 tota lly lfuided by
t be princ iple of equ \v a!eJlce in its init i. 1WOrd in" .... biclt t h_ fonl pla,ed a heur iJt--
te role in t.OlllI Lruetin, th e t heory ( EiDota' D a nd Gl"OlISmlln D, 19( 4):
TIoo _ 111$lbeory
IIhyMc.>.1 ~
ori".. ~ on ~ bui. t>f tho. COII yict illll IU t III • rn v; uotl ..., l fi~lcl ,U
ill the ...... _ .. u III llIo . "-ce of ...... iuoll""'"'lli""~ bl l ill
... illlproprillbl, 1 lId {th l_ ·.H..... _I ~ ' r - of -..a iDOtaI (equinll11OU II, .
(2.2)
th o Hilbert. Einstein I!qll alio ns (2.3) yield the foll owing d ifferent ial conserva tio n
law:
(2.,'1)
which formally is similar to tba conservation law Ior energy-m omentu m ill etecreo-
dynamics. Accordi ng to Gft , this law is ,'alid for any cboice tlf ceeedin a tes .0;",
lor one thing, sp heetce! coord inates (/, T, e , 'l'). But in t be lntter case (2_ 5) will
a lways lead to phys ically meaningless results. Th us, Eqs. (2, t ) in ar bitrllry ecce-
dlna tes alwa ys lead to (2.5), whic h has no physical mean ing.
I n accordance with thls Blulo g)', t ile grav ita tio nal energy "n ux" through the
elem ental s urface ' rea dS~ is defined ln Gft thus :
ill =c (- g) T""dS" .
"
T ,lliDI • I phUII of " dlUJ r .. tb ' surfac:e of inu. rltlon (<is. = -rn.dO). we
ur ln at th . formu la for the "i n\en5lty of grav ita t ional ~lIetgy per WIlt !OlId
M
. nlle:
"
I =--n" ( - ,) ~". · (2.6)
f'orlll\l ~ (2,5) is also used ill GR to deri ve la teen'1 "t 0ll5ll1Vlt ioD luI" for Lb ,
energy-momenlum· of mattar alld rrn itationa! field Ulken \urel.hes-. He re Ulu.all y
(ael E ilUlte in, t 918b, a nd Li ndau u d Lifsh it a, 1915) (2.5) is in tegnt&d D'u r
• dtfin lte volume and th.., i t iI'Slu m,d that lbe mlU er Du x. tbr oll(h \he ' urlace
cOfI lin hl, tb, vel u e e of !ntqrat ion V I UfO. The ' UUIt i,
: , ~ ( _ I) [1'" + -cO' ) dV "" - ~ ( - f ) T'" dS._ (2.7)
E ins tei n, 1918b, IMumed tbat the ri lh t-b llI d aide 01(2.7) , t t _ 0 is "lor eeril in
the lOll' 01 eDergy by \h e mate rial 5yst .m~ and, hence,
- ~= ~ ( - t) 'f(jg. dS.. (2.8)
In tb, .baene. of gra vU." Uoll,I·Jield "~gy- momeDtum filli es" through the ,uriaee
connolor t he integra tion " 0IUIII6, Sq . (2.1 ) yields the foll owing 11w 01 ~en ,rgy.
momeJltum WlllIUVltion In th'lystem:
W
By me. D.I of th e Hll bert.-Ei D.lteln equatioll!l (2.3), thl In. (2.9) u n be rn rr iUln
.. foll crn:
Pl _ ";- ~ A·"dS. t. __ (2. 10)
E inatein. 191Be. bel ieved that the (oW' qua nt it ies p i efIutit ule the energy (i - 0)
and Ute momellt\lm (I _ t , 2, 3) of I pb)'Sieal Sialem. It i. usuall,. at. ted in this
eoaMet ion (_ w llIdlU IUd Lifshit " 1975. pp. 283-2840) thl t
Tb q"'" l h l'" p I (u.. " " " " _ "IUIII 01 lield "Jut .,..\.tm
",uter) ~ u. I IOOlOpl,~IJ d, rmlte
..... oh.i and a.. ind. peod",1 of 1"- c.ItoH:oo 0{ . . ....-oee 10 j \tl\ t he I1 lr t l Ib. 1 I.
"_ rr 00 tbe bU b 01 pbyalcal coll$ld' l'llt iOlll.
We wlll ehow. hc wev ee, th. t thls . "" lement UI erroneou a (Ice Ch. pLer S).
On the buls of such I definitlo n of the ~enCrlP'· m o llle ll lll m" of • ayst em eon-
eisting 01 ml tte r ead grav itat iona l field , tho follow ing concept 01 Inert ial mass ml
of t he Iystem is introdll(Oli In GR:
'"w - .!.P'
c -~ r ( _ IH r- + 't"lJdV ... ~
c J ,r, h·"' dS._
c ,. (2.. 11)
EJ:p~loOll li milu to (2.5)-(2.tt) em l bo bee Obtained if tbe Hilbert- Einate in
equltiona are written m ter..... of ml.led eomponents :
v=t 11"j + Tj'1- ".u':"'.
T he cholet of the gnv lta ti oDtll-6,ld ellerv-motll6llt\lm pseudo lensott depended
to , ,,..t Iltent on the preferanC41 of the diftel'llnt IIIUlOfll '1td."1
rule, 1Ii'U cu:rieti
ou t Oft th e buis OlllKOlldlry properl.ia . For matlnCl, if we ta ke /atlll in tbe fon;n
It.tIl' _ 16m; ..,!r t -t£l"'r' - , I1, ""')I, (2.12)
""a llrTil' 1 at the wo d, ,,·L 'f!hlh tyw. ll)etrl~ PMudotelltOr, wbich coota iu onl y tb,
"
fint dl!!l'i.... li 'l'es of \.be lIl, trle teCltOr.
,.10 - Iiic ({2I"'..rc -. rtr'_ -r:tr"..) (('''' _ t"'-')
+ ,u,._(r'",r"_ + r'_N',,- r".. r"... I""... - r:,)
+ r ',.-(r'"I"'_+ r'_ r;.- r:,r:.. - r:",r:.>
+,...,.. (r'al ......_ - r~, r:,.)}. (2. 13)
whe~
whlch coincid es wit h tile u nonieel eOllrl y-momentu m (PMudo) tensor obt alntl!
Let u.
_,R.
vii the noneova rian t i n ~ n l l~lm .l-d isp lacemell t method from the eour iln t gUY_
itati ona l· lield Lagran llian darll ity L . _ V
now inves tigate th e ~a ner,r-m ome ntu m" qu' nt it illll introduced in Eln-
slain', theory mi ni the def,nftiOll of "inertial rnl M" of I. apheric, U)' aymmatric
MutCe. Flit the sake 01 definite ness we carry out all calculati ons with in the fram e-
work of the Landa u-LibhitJ aymmetrk: Jl5l!udol4!nJ(lt.
"
tiO!l3 wu carr ied out by oth er authors (aee Landau a nd Lifshitz, 197 ~. Misner,
Thorne, lind Wheeler, 1973, a nd Me ller , 1952). However. the etate ment. Is eUOIle-
ous. Foll owing Deolsov and Loguncv, 1982b, we will now prove this .
T he gravr la tio nal mass M of e n ar bitrary physical syste m tha t Ie llS a whole at
rest with res pect to a GaHlean (at infInity) Schwaezsebtld sys tem of ceoedtnates wu
defined by E llls telo, 191& , as the q uant it y that is the flletor of the term - 2GIc' r
in th e a~ m p totic expttlSS ion (as r ...... 00) for t.h e component 100 of th e metr ic ten-
scr 01 th e Riemann space-Urne:
zc
100 "'" 1-..,- M.
A w mewhal different definit ion Wl\S gi ven by Tolman, 1934:
M_-& .\ R: V - ldV. (3.1)
These delinit lollS imply di r0Ctly that grav it a tional maM is inva riant under
t ra nd ",rmatinns nf thrw- dimWlsinnal eeerdi netes, sinell both th e componont oR:
01 the Ried te nsor and the component Cooor t he metric lensor are trans formed like
a sealar .
For the case of 8 sla t ie spherically symmetr ic source these definitio ns 8.J:1l equtv-
ele nt. We wish to dllmonstr at ll that they remain !lO for a ny stat ic sys te m. To this
end we write n: in the form
Sin ce for suti c sy!tem.s the last three terms on the right-ha nd si de of (3.2) can be
Ignored, (3.1) yields
M= ,c:.e § ss,V - ggO"rg•. (3.3)
Since quit e ra, Irom the sla tic system its metric can be described , with a given
ace uracy, by th e Schwereacbild metric. (3.3) assumes the fnrm
M _ -b
0"""' l,_.. k.dS",IfOV=8 ~
;m '! ~:< 'N'
(3.4)
The integra nd in (3.1) is a sca lar for all tr ansi ormati <ms of the t hree-dImensional
coordin ate syslom, which means that t he grav itational maS!! /11 is lndependeut
of the ehetce 01 cccrdtn etes. In Schwar1..'lChi ld coord ina tes, (3.4) aasumM th e form
Si nce Einstein IUueeted calclIl, t ina: th e eDf!'1Y of. sys tem wi tbi ll t he GR Inllle-
work wilh the lid of f nergy-IllGlDaD1Um ~udo18nsors. lb, i urlia l mass is ca l-
eu l.t.ed on t he ba.,ia of (2. 11).
W. lUI" define in acwrd . oee with (2. t t) Ute in lll't i. 1 m. . of • spher lully 'Jm-
metr ic lOW'Ce of gr ui ""tiooll &tId an d stud y ho,",' i n«ti.1 III ILV tr.Ill5forl'OS undu
coord inate lra omormd jons, I n i.totropic CIod.llo coordi na tes the metzic: of the
Riemann Ip .~ tim" hu the lorm
(1- 'I IiY)'
s.o - (I +'111,)1 l ..a- 'I'd (I +',/41")', (3. 5,
where ' . _ 20M/c'. These coordinates ere nyw ptotic l Uy C. lilu ll, einee the
IDllow/Ui esti mates hold Irue u r _ 00:
+
g... - I 0 (lI, ), I ... __ V•• l l + 0 (t/r)). (8.6)
If we em ploy t he eO" llriu L com ponent.! of met ri.. (3':), tlltn (2. 12) y ields
h'''' - - .. -,;e
Ib e ~[ ' 1I1.. f.-~
-- [ .
Suhlt itdinr this into (2. 10), I ll owinr for the f.d thd
dS.. _ _ I
; "' ,iIl 8 dll~ . (3.7)
where " ... _z",r", we I Tdve a~ Lhe rolJ<>wi ng n preuion for th e compollent p G
01 " energy-moOla nt um" ,
It Wit th e lac t th. t " inert il l ml .u'" eol ndde! witll I r. yitetio nll mu ! th lt lUI
JfOundl for .5!eJ' tinr Lh.L tb ey .re eq ull in GR , too. .....nd.u . nd Lib llitl , t 975
( p. 334). wrote '
...1'* _ o. flO _ M< • • I'UIIl t ..Web .... IIIIW&lI,. 10 be U"pec\eCl . II il ia up.-ioa of tt.
'''In..I...t i....J· IJIci "1Mr1ie.I" ....... r'..rn hll ioiJel- "' _ I. lhI ... . 1h.1 d. l....
f!Cl.ull il,. of
111._ ~ ..... Iu ' __ l hW PI"O'I"'*' h,.lhIbo.l.i, tJle_lll. . IIu.' . I'.....,.sII !loa-nc
~ lao • " niuti--.l ,.w, If, II ~o.r. ill 10'''01'' lor, "iMrti ar _ II I. '"
WI dtlffllll_ I!le ",li o of -ru ucI _ '"Ill of 11M Mely: I. partklllu, 11M l't!t
MeI'O' 0' lboo loocIy il ~ ...1 \4> Ihle ...... .. v.lllpIOai b,. <'l.
Uo",. ...ee, t.b. iI sta tement I nd I hntl ar I ta tem(lD1S made by Ein.ste;ll. 191& , a nd
olilor a " tbon 1_ Ed di ngton , t 923, Misl,ler, ThOl"oe, a lld WIlH ler, 1973, M.ller.
u r.. R, I« lo/fIk T-,. ./ C''''IOIlu
1952, . nd Tolman. 19311) are erTOOfO\lS. AllUlI easily be demoRlltr.ted . tbe ~'Il"1Y'"
01 • I )'lIItIll and, heDee. tbe ~i Berti. 1 mad' 01 tbe ",ma l )'Itl m. (2.tl ). have no
phys ical mea ning bec.l1l!e !.belr P:lagn lt ud. d.pelldt Oil lb. c:ll.oice of t he t breo-
di_lIlIioaal eoord iD.te q&WD- l odeed.• buic: ftq ll itellle o \ th . t lilT deli nitiOIl
01 Inertial IIIUII mlUt ... tidy b the in dependence of tllb qUlnti t, hom tbe eboica
of tht tJu.ee-dim8113ioul mlem 01 cooroiD.lter, lh b bold. ttu. lor 'll)' ph)'SlUlI
theory. But i t G R t ke de6n iUon (2. t t ) of " inerti.1 m..... doa DOt meet t hiol _
qu i~enl.
We will d_ OIlll1nte, fOC" ins l.lnce, I.b.t io the ca. 01 • Sebwaruebild solu t ion
tIM " iner1ial mass" (2. t t ) ummes In .., bihary VIIUI depend.ina: on t he choicfl 01
lb" lhree-d imeMional eoordhllte . )111. 10. To t h is end we t ransfer Ieem t heft o
d illll Mioul Carwa iao c:oord in.ta ~ 1.0ot her eoOI'd lnl tQ ~ linked to lil a p..v ioul
eoordinates by t he loll ll"'; ng formul. :
~ _z~l t +/ h . )l, (3.11)
where 1); . . (zl< yfl + + aM''' . and f (' N) is an ar bitn t y nonalngulae fll llc~ioo
obey/nl tbe cond itioD'
1(, ,,,»0, l im 1('", ) ... 0, lim ' ''' -/;;- 1(,,..),,,,, 0. (3.12)
'N ~ · 's ~.. ,..
It is .uy to SlllI th t Lr. ndormlt ion (3.1 1) ~ponds to I eh1nee in the ltit lllJll-
Iin iioo of the poinu of the th rtt.dimensional . pate , Iollg tbI radillS, re -
r l<U + 1 (P')I»). f or h allllormt iioo (3.1I) to hn l In ilivetSe l od be e ee-re-ece,
It it Dec l!lllllr)" Ilid slIllieiellt t~ t
* _ I+ I + Tl«> O,
.h~
r» ~ l (rld ,
Tball 1M l acobi" l of lhis Lr. nalorm.lion .iIl . lso be ooozero;
J _ det [ =," ] .. (1+ 1)' ~ .,. 0 .
• " I( 7;;i
Specificall y, the function
I (TN) _cr;z .'" )'" [l -exp (-
(~ . IT/< l], (3.13)
witb cr; . ndt arb itrary numbll'li not equal to zero. aatl,rlli ' \Ivery one of the above
l'equ !~me"t.a. If ",a a llo.... lor (3.13), Wll get
(J .14)
we can ftllod the tom ponen l& 01 tbe Sc......rDIClIi ld melr ic (3.5) i ll ler m' of ' he n••
coo rdioll l.ell. Th e l'e:!Iul t ill
K- - , .. [ 1 + t;< ~~ + n r (l -i-I)l lIt + /)I+ r!<l U')' + 2r Hf'{t + 1)1· (3. 16)
It musl be especiall y noted ttla t melric (3. 15) ill llSy mploticilll y G.lilean:
li m , .. _ I , Um ' •• _ Y...
• ~ -. '}<-
h . II,. fNort ie11 lu case ",here funct iOlt f i:s spel;i6ed by (3. t 3) a nd ' H ii_li t to in-
fiIlity, 1'- metric of lhe Riem. nn 'PJlee- time hu lhe followllli uymp\Olie beb", lor :
, .. ~ t +0 U /'~l , , • • - l., [I + 0 {llr:rll. (3. 17)
For the co....ri . nt eomponenlt of metric (3.15) ... hu e
tt" - r.:, 1'4- 1".4 +.;48, (3.t 8)
tl _l l + n-l[ l + ~ (~ +lJ r l .
s .. 't!Wl'+ 2!'(I+fl
'N [ 1+ 4rt!~~T I) r (l + fFW +n'+'k U'l' + 2It!I'II +nl
Sll ~lilut i ne (3.16) and (3. 18) inlO (3.8). ...... obtain
, ,~~~_rN
P' -i6:iC . .t':,
J 7,;""hf {1"(l+ /P [ 1+ "
4T;(I + h J'
X1(1+ If'+ rJo lfi' + trffr (1+ fJI
z:~ l+fJ
+ ~.( 'I 1 + iI'lC "tl+ n J'
XIrJ< U')t + 2r~r (I + fJI ) dr.
In vie w 01 the valid ity nf [3.9) th is yields
n [ t + 'rt: ;~ + h
+ r. (I + f)2(1+ f+ rN Jl (3. 19)
All owing for th e asymptot ie I!xl'reMlion (3. 12) for /' we lina lly ob ta in (sal.' Mf/lJer ,
1965)
(3.20)
T hus, th e Minert ia l mass" depends /!$Sll llti aHy Oil the ra te at whieb f' ten ds to
eerc as rN_ 00. SpeCifically , if we take funct ion f (r N) in the form (3. 13), from
(3 .20) we get
1lt, =M(l + a"}. (3. 21)
Helice lor t he "inertial mass" (2.1t) of a system cons ist ing of eraner a nd gra v.
itat ional field we C81l obta in in GR a ny fixed number "" ;;,, M depen d iog on the
choice of the spa t ial coordin ate system (beca use of the ar bitr arineM of a) , whereas
th e gra vit a ti ona l mass !If (3.1) of th1$ s}'st em and, eonseq uent ly, all throe effects
of GR Nlmai" unaltered. Note a lso t hat in th e evant of reoee complex tr a nsfor-
ma t ions of the s patial eoord inates t hat lea ve the llletri c u ymptot ica lly Galil ean,
the "i nerti al mass" (2.11) of the s}'stem t an assume any fixed valu es, posit ive as
well as negative.
T hus, we eee th a t in GR the value 01 th e "iner tia l mass", a concept introduced
by Ei nstein a nd late r usad by ma ny authors (e.g . see Eddingtpn , 1923, La ndau and
Lifsh lh , 1975 , ~fl8ne r , T horn e, a nd Wheeler, 1973, ~l.liIll er, 19.52, aDd Tolman .
1934), depends on thll eholce of th three-dims DJl iona l ~yste m of coord ina tes and ,
therefore, carr ies no phY9ica l meani ng. He nce. t M datern4nl that " /nerlla l m(lSi'
II tqual to grat/ltotlo nal m lUi In Elm/em'. throry ha.s no phyncal ~nlng eilhtr.
Th e eq uali ty takes place ill a narrow class of three-di taonalcnel sys te ms of coord i·
na te.!, lind s ince the Uin ertia l mass" (2.11) and th e grav itational IDaS/! (3. t ) obey
d ifieren L tra nsformati on laws, a tea nelttcn t o other t llr_d imens iona l syste ms of
coord inat<'S results in a violat ion of th is equa lity .
More th an tha L, such II definiti on of Uinert ia l mass" in G ~ does Rot obey the
princi ple 01 c orres pondence to Newto n's theory. Indeed , s ince the "inert ial mllSll"
m, in E instein's theory depends o n the c hoice of th e thre e-d ime1l.'! iooal sys tem
of coord inat es, its e ltpression in the genera l case of a ll arbi tra ry th ree_d imens iona l
cooedinete s ystem does not transform in to t he appropria te ex pressi on in Newton 's
theory , in which the tilnerLia l mll!O!" does Dot d epend on such a choice. TIt~, GR
conlalJ., no daulcal Newtrm i(JII Um it and, hence, don not I14 tu fll the crJrrnporuknu
principle . This Impllts thai GR Is nol on ly logically contradldory from th e vft wpotnt
of phI/sics bu.t 01&0 dlred lll contradicts t M experimental /hlta on 1M tq u.olitll of the
inertfa l and the octWt grlWitotion ol maSS.
Then why were the aforesaid a nd th e eeceaeary coucl usious not arri ved at ear-
lier? Apparentiy the answer is thd E inste in foeu'lld on the problem or enerl'-
moment um in GR and alter , tudying it assumed he had , ucceeded in find ing a so u-
tton th a ~ was definite to th o same e xte nt u ill c laS!lica l mechanics. Somewhat late r
Klein, 1918, math ema tica lly liubsU n LiatOO E insteiu '8 ideas. Einste ill's conclusions
concerning the ener gy-momentum of a s ystem are Nlpeated almost with out va rt-
J. I n. rl i . 1 M,... in Gli
et ten to th i3 d. y (e.g. see Lan d. u aed Lifsh itz, 1975). T he st ud ies of these ou t.
stan din g seientists created the belief tb.t in GR t he problem of energy-momen tum
had been solved. All th ia. or course, hind ered carry ing out l detailed a nal~."ia and
. n iving at basic co nclusions. But OUl' lindings disag ree completely wit h those of
Ei nste in and Klein . Why ? Because the work of E instein and Klei n contains. llli.s-
take. T hll two Ia tled to noti ce th at the quantity J. with wh icb they opera ted is
simply ' 11 idanti e• • toro. Tbis VllrY sim ple mist. kia is highly importa nt, bee. use
it complelllly destroys Elnsteia's eoeclustons.
Let us en, lyle this q u~t ion in greaw detai l. To this end we present Ei nste in' s
reasoning an d analy te its essence. E inslllln, 191& , WrO(;):
.. .1 ...i! b to dtm onsu.le hl!'l'e tJo., with th e help 01 Eq . (I)' the OOJl&o:pt, 0 1 , oorgy nd
momenlum ..o be O$tab llsho<l "" d oor/y M io cl...!""l mecho.nios. Tbeoo e.sy aod momeotllm
01. d Med syst<:m . re f.. lly deftn ~ ind'p"odently from Iha cboice "f. "y"le ,o 01 "'lC.di -
oal '!<l . pl ovld.d th. t tb. motioo of tbe 'Y"lcm (., . ...hol.) "" tb ","peet to the ay! l"", " I
coon:linll" I, b ed; lor jostanoa, th a "16'\1 .0 0'1'Y" 01 aoy d Olled . yst "lll does not <I.pet>d
on tM chol.. ..I the ay!leOl of coo,diutet .
.. . Lel UI oele<'t a ayst.1II of coon:llnate.s i uch tha I alllln"ar alomenta (0, O. II, dr ,) 're
Ulll<llke . n<l oli !in... , .I..... nl . (<!>'" d"., ....." 0) ate &pa"" ll k..: Ih. o the f..~rtb t oord(ou "
oon ,n • ceno ln "~ be oalled 1110 ·tIOl'~'
r or u, 10 be eb l. 10 .~. k of tb a energy apd momenlum 01 • , yau,m, the oa. l'\ly aod
lllomoot um den ,itl.. mll5\ vanl'h oulllid. a d.fi nite region B. Tbi. will ba ppan OfI l y if
outside B 1M componen\3 ,~ • • re const .nl5, llIal i., ...heo the aY'u,m In ~u.nlon iI, 10 10
SO Y. io,m"", od In a ~Galilun 'JI'lU" and .... employ "C llilun tco,d iolt.. 1.0 de.., lb. Ute
, ulTOundi"f" or th o s y. te" . Ro«ion B h.. lofinlta dlm."" lonl Iu tho dlreoUon ofth. time
n l•• ttt. t lS. It Int•.., ee" .IIY hyperpl. u " . _ conll. The "'et ioo of B by • bYIl".p!aoe
' J ~ conat Is bounded on. lI . ,dO!. InSld. B thora ..o b. no"G.lileon .y, ~m 0' C'lon:linal ....:
tOe choice of . oon:linatO$ in. id. B I, lImi"'d by . na tural conditloo , nam.ly. lhal tbo coo.-
diM ta mu,t cOOl lnuoull y ,... lOW t b, coon:ljnu OlJ out. idt B. ado... I conslde' .lO rn. , y. "
",m l "f . oordlule'I of thi . kind . th. 1 II. , y!lfflI&coiocld iOll£ ou\3ide B .
Th. Inlegra l l.",. 01 COll5ern tlOll ll'l . norgy and mOm.lllum ate obtai nabl e lrom Ell. (I)
by lot. g... tIQfl wit h ffil p~1 t...,. r" r. 0••' region B. Sine. I I the boundari .. of this
tegion . n tbe IT,; u ni. h, w. ha..
("
TII<:.- lou, "<tultiona expreu. l lMli•• • • tb.I ..... 01COlWlr.UiM 01momcotum (0" ... I , 2. 3)
. nd eo.'1'Y (0" _ ' I. Lot u! dUOIe Lb" 10"ilra l in Eq. (3) by J. _ Now I SlUt Ihat tb. J!iI.
d" oot d.p.ud 00 Ibt cbok . of <owd in~te, 10. a ny aysl<>m 01 ooon!inot.ea (h. t oullid" IS
ooln&irl" ...ith 00. ODd tlln H ""e Caillun ~y$(8lD . .
Further he 110100 :
Thu" oolwilhatlod ;ng tit<: Ir"" ob.,lco of coord bllt'" iM ide R. the Mt ""e'llY or rna. of
tb. ,y."'"
<onn itltt.. . p,.. i, ely d.fined quanllty lhot doOi not dopond QfI the oholce el
th. t yw m 01 ooo«l fnl l.e&, Tbll I• • "..n mOte rem.rkab le b.c• ., 1e Ibonka to Iha nOllI.llOOr
nalure of U~ nu ioyariant lulet p' ota tloo 0' \be components of th e wergy de ... 11y CIO b.
gi ••n.
T hisreasolling of Einstein eontains a sim plo bu t Iu ndeme ntel mi.tako. 'fo .erify
this , we write the Hllh ert- Ein stein equation in the form
lr. - r: +
t~ .., il~IJ~Y . (3.22)
",hore~· _ - ,,~~ is the density or an . nt isymmetrie pseude tensce. Sub~ ~i tu ting
Eq . (3.22) into the ea peesstcn fo r the -i-momentum of all iso lated sys tem, we obtai n
J,_ ~ dVU : ... ~ dV 8~~\ d~dS.~·. (3.23)
4~ n1 r:+~I } dV= O,
th at ia, the energy of matter and gra v it ational field inside V is conse rved. T his
mealls thal t here is no flow olonergy fro m V ou twa rd a nd, the refore , t here ca n ba
PO alllion Gn test bodi es placed ou tsid e V. Thi s conclus ion follow8 fro m E inste in '8
theory.
However , th o cxat t wi ve so lutio ns to th c Hilbert-E instein eq uations that nullify
th e cc rapcnonts of th e ener gy-mo ment u m pseu dcteascr rlll! ult in a nc nee-c Gurva -
l ui'll tenser R:,,,,;
hence, ill viaw of the equat ion
'~I ..
6'.1
~ + R~I"u u n ",, 0, (4.3)
where IIi is en iJlliniteeimal geodBllic de via ti on vector, and 10' _ d;r'lth is tbeo
4-voot(lr 01 velocity , curvat ure waves allt (In test bodies lyi ng outs ide V a nd change
the energy of th e.se bodies. T hus, starti ng from two d iiJerent hut exael rtllati on-
shi pe 01 E inst ein 'e general theory of relativ ity , we llrl'ive a t mutuall y excl usive
pbys ical t OneluSiOIU.
To unda eate nd the N ason for th ese con trad ictory cc ncfustccs let us an a lyze in
mOM! detail tbe formalism of energy-momentum pseudot enaore in E ilUi toin 's theory.
"
S illlCtI T'" i8 .. pse v.dotensor. by .seleeliDJ all ' PP"l pri l ~ IY'te lll of eooN'Iin. tes we
u n Dullify .U the componen ts of ",,1 . t "veI'y poi.rlt in sp.e.. Th is lad e le ee ra in .
doubt...bo ULIn terpreting th e T'" u atreues . ad IIlN'V"- mom entu m d enait y of the
if. viu tiooll l\eld.
It i~ UIl ua lly sa id ;" th is eono llOtlon (Illfl Me ll er , 1952 ) t hU t he guvi tltion a l-
fteld energy in GR Clnno ~ in p,ineip lo be I~. ll z ed , th a ~ la, th at a loel l d istri-
bution oJ t he ener gy 01 .. iT. vil. tion,! field hn 00 ph ysic, l muninr al nce i t de-
-,end.. on t ILe ehoiee 01 the . yaLem of coordi natu end th et only th e tot.1.nel1rY of
e losH . yste lnS Ull be .... lI-delintei. But ave b an UIlIf t ioD d oe! .\lo t alu d u p to
critlcmm ei lhlU.
lll.deed. .. loc.1 d u lri huti oD 01 th, trav;ta' io~l·lield welllll'JY- deDed ... 1. e o)'
uerwY-momtntll m pMndotlll!lOr de pend. on th, cbo ie. of the .ya tem 01eoordin'la
ud Ga D be f1 ulJifiBd at any point in epee., ....h ich is usually interpreted as the
. b!enell of e , rIVitat ionl l-field ~ener8')' dens it y" e t this point . But I Kru itl tionl l
fil ld dll$Cri bed by th l eu rv l t ul'il te n!lOr el nnot be nu llified by pUl ing to I ny 8dm is-
sible system of coordJ nl tl!ll. Hen ee, bee euse Qurva l urfl WI ves aet on phys ies l pro>
eMM5 " -e u nnot Sla te eit her tha t in I cer tai n syste m of coordin ates tile gnvitl lio ll-
al h id is n il ,
Th ts is m~ l d eu ly MeIllf we ta ke the n erop l. of tbe enet wave . ol utions lor
.,b.leb tbe eomplllumta of the ellltl!P'-momllbl um pseudoteftlOr vlnisb ....rywher.
whil e the eUr'l"llture ....... do Do L And ytee YI I'SlI, ;11 the eNlI of JI.t ' p'(.&ot i01I,
when the ml lde lell!W),l" 1., of t he R i' mllD n spa_ti ml is eq ual to thl ml leie tensor
T • • of the pMudo-Eue lidean spa~tl me, tIM components 0 1 enel'Jy- molnentum
paaudote.nIOl'1 ml Y not Vl nish I l tbough tbeta is no gr n it, UO!ld field In d I II tha
components of tbe e llrvature tensor 1111 l ero in .n)' ayste.m of coord ina tN ,
For exa mple, in tb . spherieal a)·s tem 01 coord inl tes In the peeudc-Eu el ldean
s pace-time, where Rl,.. _ 0, IH _ 1, I " _ _ t, In __ r' , I.. ... _ r' siot a,
....e be ve t.bl foll owing ror mub for t b, eomponent ~ of EiM tein '. pseud otensor
{_ Bn er, 19 18):
..: - - &.~ s in e .
I t is dur that ( < 0 IIl d tht the I.otallt"'vite tiollll...fi.ald ~1P1l'1'Iy'" re this sys tl!Dl
.a, eoordiutu is iPlinite,
TIM Land.u-L ifshltz fl'lludotll'lI$Or In thi, U M de mons trates a d ifterlln t ~eDergr"
d ill~ib uti on In s pace:
" ( I +<\ sl n~9) ,
( - g) "" - -1i""
Tbe eu mplu jus t d isens.wd .sbow tha t enerl!P'- momentum pseudotenso l1 ill Ein-
stein's t beor)' d o oot serve as phyl iea l e hane teristiel of Ibe Krav ite t ion. l t:ield
and , benee, eany nO physical mu ninl'_
Thus., in GR there do Ilot {. nd ca nnot} u1st ao)' Ine'VJ'-mOtll. ntoDl couMrntioll
laws Icr matter 'lId gr,V!U1tiollal field taken toptiler. 011 tbl other- hind , in th ao-
riM In,,o lvi ng other pb )·aiea l fields .... have a universa l la. of elM.'l'Jy-molDentltrll
eoll5eryat ion and tberllo are no uperimen tl l il\dleatio D.!l of t b is In .. heinl violated.
T berefore, ",e ba'" no r U lDn to rtljeet tbis la w.
So wlo at l! th l! WIY Ollt of t his I lt uat ion ? What ean we ra t.ltl of Eins tein's m. g-
nilieant creat io n and ", hat must ....e reject 10 tbat in tbe new Ul/ll.lry of gr.vita tio ll
t be ' '' nda men ta l law of pbyaics, t.be law of eonse rvation 0' en ~rgy- Ill o men t\l rn of
gruita tiona l field end metier ta ken t0f8tlter, holds tr ue ? To answe r t beM q Ull'5tiollll,
" e mus t u re'ull y ana l111 tbe dee p rela tiollShip betwee n energJ'- momentu m COn -
Itl"Vltioo la,.., a,ad the pometry or .paee-time.
"
Chapter 5. Energ y· Momenlum and ADguJar Momentum
Ccnseevatton es Related to Geometry or Space-Time
The geomeuy 01 apace-ti me largely dlltM'mines the pogib ility of obt.ininr t on-
5t!'v.tion ilws for I dosed !lyaillm 01 inter-cti q fields. All is well lmo"1\ (see Bogo-
Iiubov and Shi rkov, 1979 , a nd NOYOl hilov , 1975). a theory lor a ny phy. teal field
t a n be ccnstr ueted on the buls 01th e Lagra llgian formallsw.. I n th is ~ th e phy. ;";_
a1 field is due.rl btd by a funct ion of coordinates a nd ti lDa, known II th e field
funct ion, and Ille equa ti ons lor de Lerminiog th is fu.netion ca n be found by II mploy inr
Lb. variationa l prineiple of leu t act inD. Buidtl!! produeinf lield equal iOllll, the
La.graoiian appro . eh to eollftrut tin g a clutiul theory of . ave fields makes il
poa. ibl. to d.-iye a Dumber 01 di lfereot ia l nJatioll5hlps kooW'll lIlI dill:erenUal con-
<life
,..,...t ion la1rll Noethn', 19t 8). Th ese relationsh ips foli o. from. the illva rilD.ee
of thl adiOrt InterraJ u nder kansIot"matiollS of t be . p_ t ime coord lnltes Illd
link the loul dyn l mical cb nt tftisliu 01 the Reid with the respeeliYI eovar ian t
dl!l'i vali\"e5 In a rtometry th at " natu ra l in ~Ialion 10 theH ch. ..cteri.tiu.
At pn!.'!llot In Ibe Iil&ratulIl two Iypfll 01 dill'lll'e nt ill cOJllllltY aUon I. ~ .ro d ill-
li ngu ishlld: 1I1.rong I nd w. . k. U. ually • !trollg ecneeeveuee 1.'11' is I difterllnti l l
l'll18tionsh ip that hold. tru l !KIloly owing to tbo invar ln co of t.ho action integra L
under coordi nlte tr. nsforml lion. and does not require tho ex iste nce ol llqu.lions
01 motion 101' Ihe field. A ....oak conurn t ion I. .... un be obtl Joel! from a alrong eon-
_ va ti on I..... by a\lowiog lor the eq uat iolU of motion for a I y!te m of in ten ct ing
bids.
II .lDuet be lil.reaed th at n ot.ithlu,nd iq tbe lr neme, di lfwenUal conser Yati on
la Wll do not req uire coD~vatiOl1 of 1O.lD1 q ua ntity &ftber IlIaI lIy or J lobany. Th y
a~ l imply d iBenntial id en lltia link i.nJ \.be dlBtnllt euraete rist iu of a field an d
U't yaUd beeall5ll tb , Ktion intlJl1l l does not ch l nge und.. eOOt'd inl te trl u lOl'lDI-
t ion Il.e. ill a seal.,). Tbfllr n ame ....I!!I giyea by analogy ....ith t ho diBe-e llti a l eo n-
lUya Uoo la ~ in psend~ El1Cli du n . pae&- time, in wlIieh d iftel1l oUaL co nserva ti on
' aWl! may lead 10 iotegra l 11"". For eum p!e , writing the law 01 cOlllllrvatlon for
th e 101.8 1 eoerfY- lI'lomentum tensor of a sy.te m of iotlln. d ing Iields in , C, rlO$i an
sys i@ m of eoordio .tes 01 the pseudo-E uclldea n .sp. c&-!fme , we get
, r-l + _'_ (>I _ O.
-,;r ' z"
l ou-gut iDJ 0'1« I ctJ't.ain Yolue.,. . nd employi ", tbfl d iveJ'it!llGO theorem, "" re t
-iT J,.1 dV _ _ , ,-1 es•.
T hLs l'Ill.t io!Uhip meallS that the var iatio n in the ~JY'"mOlllell.tum of a liystam
of in tl!l'atli ng llelds illSlde a cltll in volume ill equi l lo tht'"eD'ergy~mollle n tu m 6 u.l
th rough Ihe sud .n enclOllln, th . volume. II th ill on.l ill ;;-'(0. or ~t"ldS .. _ 0, we
arrive . t tbe conserva t ion I. w for the 101. 1 4-mome ntum of .n isoldod .y! tem ,
~ pi_ a,
.
pl _ '!' \ t'l dV.
,
Sim ilar inUp.1 n:lal ioJ1!hips in tbe p!eudo-E uelid u.1l .pac&-t ime ean "obtained
f~ angular momllIlum U . ell.
Howe-vIr, in ' 11 arb itrary Hiemenn span -tim e th e pr«!enee of • dillertDt i. 1
"
( oVlt i.nt eOllllefVatl on equation does Dot i u.untee th e po!.Sibil it)" of obta ining
I mpec th e in tegr.1 eon!lelVi t ion equat ion. The p4l!4ibility of ob ~ i n l D g il'l tegra l
conserv at ion I, .... in . n arbitr ary Riemloll llp. ce-time ~ tot, lly depende nt on tbe
geometry of the sp.c&otlme a nd is el0;!8ly li nked with tbe u ist6lee of KUlinf
"telonl in t.he r ' 'ten sp.ce-ti me or. as b IOlJIeti mft Mid, ,..it.h the ui5teoce of
I VGlIp of mol iou in lh, Rieman n . pllCe- li m.. Let UJ d wd l 00 lhill in mort del . il.
sinte Lb. formalillm develo ped ben can 1M used to obu ia integral coD$erv.tion
1,11'S it! arhi lra ry curyilinnr systems of WOrdiDIWSof 1M psludo-Euc:lide&rllpac.&-
li m, .. well.
i n ID . rbit rary Riemann . paee-tlme we hi" the ' ollowjnr eon .u.nl conser"'-
liOll eqllJltlon for t he toL&1 eDergy -momlllllo m LelltOf of lb , sy.s!elll:
v,T"" _ O,r-" + r:',T'" +fI",r-- _ 0. (5.1)
Let Wi mlilt ipl,. this equat ion by the Killi u, " lCtM, tbl t is. I lIectM 11.. t h. t .!II ti,..
lift Kil li n, 's tq lll ti o"
V..1J.o+V.'Ia -O. (5.2)
In lIiclt 01 the s)·tllmelr y 01 the tensor , r"· _ r-·, the eqc et te n V,r '" _ 0
u n be "'r itten thus ;
lJaV,T""- V, Ill. 7"""I- O.
If we employ the properties QI • cOllariln t derivl tive, we get
,
,,-
r - ,
- ' (V-"'O
liz'
-.n.. 1- ·
Sinee the left-hand side of thi.!l equauen is I sel lat , we can multi ply it by V=idV
and int\l(t at e over a certain volu me. We then I rriu at the following integrl l con-
servation I.", in the Riemann sp.ce· time :
(5.3)
If the nU ;Il of the 3-lIector through the ..mIce IUlTOlind ing tM lIollime is nil , th . n
Th IlS. if Kill inC ..eeton u i!t. then from tb. dilh tellti l l coMer'l at ioo tq\ll\ iorl
(5.1) ..... u o obUin lbe integral eoNer..... tion 1. W! (5.3) Illd (5.3').
Let os now est.blish what ~tric.ti ons IZlIISt be imposed DC the Riemann , p.c....
time metr ic so th lt Kill ing', eqlli tioll (5.2) wiU bUll I soillti oll, t hat is, the con-
dit ions tbl t .. .clot 'I . mllSt meet ~ tblt Eq. (5.2) is satisfied. WI DOle. mt, thl t
KiIlinc ', eq ul tl on (5.2) foll ows from tha requinmll1t tlla t th e Lill ....ril t ions 01
the m. tt ie Iel1IOr of th e Rieml nn lIp1ee--ti m. ondet lb. infioiteaiml l eoord io.te
lnna1"ormltions
.1" - = r" +'1'\- (z) (5.4)
.....oieh (here 'I- (z) is I n inlin ll.ellimi l 4-1I. tor ). Ind eed, under sw::b I trlnsfor-
IIlltion of the eoordiDltM t he Li. Vlliit ion of th. m. tt ie leMOt
f~
1,_IS!IlIlDelI the
Compari ng this wit h (3.2), we see th at Ki lli ng' s equat ion r<!q uire s thd thll Lie
va ri ati on 01 th e metrlc tensor varush:f,.
Ii!,." . =- O.
Th us, Killing veetoes d6$rib e infinites imal coordinate tru aformat ions that l8ll.ve
the metric for m·l ll\·ari ant .
Kill ing's equatio n (5.2) constit utes e syste m of firs t-ord er par tial d illarant ;el
equati ons, Accordi ng t o the general theor y (see Eisenhar t , 1933, Petrov, 1966,
a nd Ponl ryagin, 1966), to esta blish t he sofvllbili ty cond ilioIl.'l for II sys te m 01
part ial d ilTerenlial llqua t ioll$, we must reduce this syste m to the lorm
~9' """"
hi lTl"" ('" , 7"J' , (3.5)
by replac ing the nl'3t.-order parti a l der tvattves wit h the right-hand s ide 01 Eqs.
(5.5):
(5,li )
H lh e solva bility condi tion (5.6) is met idenl ica lly in View of the valid ity of
Eqa. (5.5) , the syste m (5.5) is n id to he complete ly i ntegrable and its so lution will
contain M parametel'!, the g ru~t possibla n umber of ar bitruy consta nts for the
gi veo syste m. BUl if (5.5) is not comp lete ly integrable, Its solution will ee nta in
a s maller Dumber of arb ilr ar}' constants. Let us estab lish the condi tions in which
the solutioo to K ill ing's equatioll.'l (5.2) in the Rieman n s pace-ti me V~. con tai ns
the greatBllt possible number 01 para meters a nd find this number .
Ali ca lculati ons will be carrled out in all expiicitl y cova ri ant for m, wh ich is
e gencraliu t ion of the a bove sche me lor find ing t he sol vab ility cond iti ons lor the
system 01 Kill ing's equations. Wi! d mi!Nml iati! cova riallt!y Ki ll ing's equatio lls
(5.2) with eespecr to para nleter s ", The res ult is
l'l , ;j~ + "lJ;j~ "" 0,
I n view of th is we have
"ll:;. + 'II" ~ + 'll :~; + 'i . :H - ' ll:. ' - "l-=Ji = O.
Regrouping the ter ms in thi s ex pression, we get
"l"I. + '\I:~I + ('11:10 - 'II:. ,) + (Ok i, - 'h i ;) "'" O. (5,7)
On the other haud , in view of the cOllllnntatioll relation for cov aria nt deriv atives
we have
') I : ~ I - '1' : ln - ' Lon~.; . (5.S)
If we suhslH lite th is into (5.7), we get
2'11: I. +l'l~m.j + 'I~H11 . + 1'l~R: 1 J = 0 , (5.'3)
33
R,... u """
,
N -t ('/,R., - 'I/ RI".)· (5.20)
Muhi plyi oi thb equation Int o ,-1, we pt
N R] , _ ' II R.
U ... IIOW substl t \lt. this iota (5.20), .,.. I rrin at • eolldit ion iII view of ...bieh
(5.19) ill l$t.ti3fied idlotieally:
•
R• •/ = tr( N_1) ['ll'. , -'IlII.I. (5.21)
Combi.ll ina (5.21) a nd Eq . (5. t 8) ~ s ul u in. requirement Illal lh e seel ar CUfVUure
mua, " t idy:
[61".. - 6:" . 1-a.tl
' - 11- [151I u- 6tilll "';' R _• O.
..
"~ .,,
Sinu ia lb, CUll eaasidered N> I , tb' •.bove candl lion d met if ud only if
R _ eol1ll t. H&IIce, lb, aol",. bililJ c:ondi1lolU (5.t 8) a nd (5. 19) far K iIIine's equ.-
lions (5.2) _ill be lIlItillli.d idantically il 'nd only il t" R ie..... nn s pace-t im. eur-
"" tUrs tensor hu tbe lorm
Rbool /"" N (N • tl Il l ll . , - KIlI I.. 1.
wit h R .. ccn s t.
Thus, K lIling's equatlo ns have solut ions contai ning the fl' estesl post ibls num-
ber Af - N (N + 1)/2 of ar bit rary eood l nt s (parametc r!I) if a nd cnly if the Rie-
man n . p.ee-tima V N I. a call1l tllnw: urvature space, and if VN te not a consla nl--
curvature space , the number c r pl rl meters will btl smaller th i n M.
HeDe&, math em.tieall y speu lnr, tb . presence of intllfl'al coJUervd ion I.",s for
energy-momentu m and anp lar momentum reOec.ta th e u.dtence of e«tai" prop-
er ties inhereo l in . pate-l ime-its hOIllOlt"0el ly aod i.soll'opy. Thers .re lbree
typea of folU"-d imel1llion. 1 .paces th ll ~ lb. proptWties of homore neit )' I1ld
ilIotropy t o III exte nt th. t allolll'l for Introdocing teo integrlls of mot ioo for I
_fl'.
d Olled l}'Stem. Th_ It'l the !lpac:e with eoutenl M£ltive eurn tlll'l (Lobeeb.v-
space , Of' hyperbolic sp.te), lh. "~urYlltllnl s pac:e (pgud o-Euell du n
spa.c:e), end the s pace with cOl1llla nt positive cur ....tllnl (R iellUln n . pace). Th e
6n t two spaces ar e infinite , with I II inlillite YOhl~ , .hila lh, third ill elosed. with
"
• b itt volume , hul has DO bouod. , ies.
tAt U5 DOw find lbe Kill ing vector it! I n arbitrary eUrTili nlar . yste m of eoor-
4iMItIS of the PM!ud ~EuciidMa sp-.lIme. T o thi s I nd . . &nt write KlI Hn,..
eqv&t iODl in the Cutes.il n system 01 eoord iltltes:
8,'1_ + 8."11 - o.
Hence, lo det ermine I Killing veetor we h ur e I sys tem 01 l.ell li n t-onl er puUsl
lilll!u difterentl. 1 equati ons. Solv iDg tb is syn eltl aeeord illi to glllier. l l ulu , WI
obl. in
(5.22 )
where 0 , is In u bitrary GOMtant infinil6simal veetor, a nd u, .. is an ' rbUn ry eon'
atant infinitesimal lelUor u t isfyiDi 1M cond ition
n lOll, ",lul ion (5.22), &II npeeted. eontllM .11 te n u blir ' " ptIrl lD8l.erl. SilICa
(5.22) eon La iu le n indepandent pari_ten, we Ktll,n,. b...., tin inde pu d enl
Kill ing vectors, I nd (5.22) eonrtitul.ell a li near combina ti on of the teo ind.pt ll.-
-. ,
daot vecte rs.
Let Ull esillblilih the meanillg of theee para meters. Sublllitu li ng (5.22) loto (5.4).
(5.23)
We see t hat the four pera meter.! aft are ee mponents of th e 4-voolo r of inlinitu lme l
Iranslati ons of the refeNl nee frame. The three pa rameters (II .. ~ al'9 the ccmpcnents
of lhe tensor of rolllti on t hrough lUI lntlnile'l mal aogle . bout a certai n u i. (the
eo-celled proper rote Uon). T he three pu ame lel'!l (II " deaerlbe infloite' ima l rota-
tions in the (,rI'. 'z')- pla ne, known at Lorelltl ian rolali ollS. Since th e metrie tensor
1•• b form- inyui.nt Ilode: tn n. lationa, the ~ud o-E uclid ll8.D space-ti me is
bom.neo~; its propm ll!ll do not depend 0 0 the position of Iha origin ill th e
,,_. Similarly , tbe form-loYal lance of the metric le 1lSO!' 1• • under four-d imen-
~Olla l I'Otlt lollS leacta to lhe i$otropy of lhi. space, whjell mu na tba t a ll d il'tlCtiollS
in tbe pseudo-E uclldeao space-time have eqllal stetlU.
ThUl, tile p6elldo-Euclidea.n spac;e.lime adm its 01 a tan- paramew , roup of
motioos consiatiJIC 01 a four- param.ter In.o.slat loo lJIlbJrOup a nd a ai:a:-p.a ra met.er
rotatlO Il Sllbgr'oU p. TIle tsistence 01 thi. gro up of molio ns III d the eor re.poodi ng
Killi llf Yed o n guan ,ntee'.l ten int.epl la llm of COllJe" l ti OD. o f l oel'ln'-
momentum and I ngular momentum in a system of intorae Ung field•. Indeed•
• lIowing lor the fact th at in tbe Cart " ian syste m of coord ina tes y=y _ l i nd
for the general relati onship (5.3), we find th at in the cue of th a tnosl. tion sub-
group (1], - Ill )
-.b ~ T-"1l.. d V - - ~ dS• .,.....Il"' .
$illeell. if all arb itr U)' consta llt 'fec t Of. Ih ill rllla ti 08ship yl.lds
:z. ~ T-dV _ _*dS.r-.
For In iJ;olated S)'Sknl of ln teraetilll fields, th e upteasioll on the rlgh t-b nd
of th if relat ioDshi p vanishes, a. a I"tI5lllt of ",bieb the total '-mollMntlUll 01 th e
.id,
'"
P"' ... ) 7"""av _ const. (5.24)
Sim ilu ly, at 'I).... "'."'z.. ...e get
-V) av.7""':<"w",. _ - ~ dS ... T""'%"w", ~.
Sine. the constant tensor (0",. Is ant lsymmetric, the a bove In ds us to the follo'/l'-
iog integral llOlL'lerva tio n law lor angula. momentum
Only in tbe pseudc-Euelld een speee-ume are there sepa rate laws of conserv atio n
for energy-m omentu m and angular momentum of a closed sys~m .
Note tha t we can obtai n the solution to Killing's equatio ns (5.2) in arb itrary
curvilinear coordina tes 01 tb. JlMudo-Eueli dean s paee-t ime in view of th e t. o!lQr
RatoN 01 xi and '1)1 from th e solu tion (5,23) to these equa tion s ln th. Cartesian
eool'1Hnata system. To th is end v,llt. anafet in (5.23) from Cartes ian coordinates Xl
to arbit rary curv ilinear coordinates z~ thua:
Xl "'" 11(z ,,).
This yilllds
M '...... ~ V- y (Z,, ) d,,;.d;rt dZh 1'"' (ZI<) [ f"' (Z>; ) ~~z(:>;) - 11(ZI< ) a :~l:l J.
"
Thus, the geometry of spece-t tme delerm iile!l the possibili t)· 01 oh ~a in i ng
"integral
cODMrvati on Isws. In the ceee 01 lour dimensions (the physical sp.cort ime) only
spaces ",i th consllln l curutul'fl posses.s 811 ten integral eOll.'lllrvation laws; ; n otber
SPliCes lila number of these lews is lese.
Our analysis demcnsteates that if ""8 wish to have the great llllt number of to n-
served qua ntities, we. must rejeet Rieuu,nnian goometry in its general form, tnd
lor 811 fields, includ iog the grni ldi onal, we mIL'l l seillet one of the a bove-men-
tioned geometries of eonstant curvatu re as the natu ral one. Since the 8listiog
8l perimentai da\.B, on s trong, weak , a nd electrom agnet ic interactio ns suggesta
lbat for the fi elds related 10 these interactions th e natu ra l geometry 01 space-time
is pseudo-Euclidea n, we can assume At leest at the present level of our Ic nowledge
that this golometry is the universal natural gwme tr y for all phyaieai prot_,
including those Involving gravitation.
Thill assertion consti tutes one of the main theees nf our approach to the theory
of gravita tional interact ion, h obvinusly leads to the observance of all laws of
cooservalion of energy·momentum and angular momentum and ensures the exis-
tence of all len integrals of moUon for a system consist ing of a gravitatioll8llield
and oth ar mate rial lields,
As we will shortly show, the gravita tional lield in cur framework, lIS all other
phys i~ al fi elds, is cha racter ised by an anergy-momentum tenser that contr ibutes
to t he total tensor of energj--momem urn of the system. Th is consti tutes tb main
diflerenn between our apprnach and E j nst~in ' s. It must also he noted tht in th e
peeudo-Euelid ean space-time th e integrat ion of tenser qllantiti85, in eddit ion to
its geoeral simplicity, has a ",;elJ--<lefined meaning.
Another key issue that 8merrs in constructing a thenry 01 the gravitational
lield is the quest ton of the way in which the li.eld interacts with matter. In acting
on rnettee , a gnv itational field chang" the geometry of matter if it enters into
terms in the highest-order dlll"ivatives in t he equations 01 motion 01 the maUur.
Then the motion of material bodie.s and other physieal li.elds in tha pseudo-Euclid-
ean space-time under the actio n 01 the gravitation al field can in 110 way be dis-
tinguished from their motio n in an effective Hiemaun space-t ime.
Experi mental data !\Iggesta that the actio n of a gravita tional h id on e aue e
Is univeru l. This led us to formulate the geometrintion principle (_ th e Intro-
duct ion). Hence, the effect ive Riemann space-time will be lInivel'9a l lor all forms
of matter (see Appendix 5).
The geemeteteet tcn principle was Icemulated in Denisov and Logunov, 1982a,
\ 982&, Danisov, Logunov, and Mestvir ishvili, t 9!)h , and Logunov, Den!snv,
Vla90v. Mestvir ishvili , and Folomeahkin, t 9'19, but actnally the idea was lirst
put forward in !.ogunov and Folomeshlcin, t 977, The pri nciple means that the
descri ption of the moti on of scatter under the actio n of a gravit l tlnoal f'6ld in
a pseudo-Euclide an space-ti me Is physically ident ical to the descript ion of the
motioll of matter in th e apprnpriate ell"ectlve Riemann space-thne . In Lhis 8pproach
the glav itaUonai field (as a physical field) II excluded, so to l ey, from th e de-
seriptioll of the motion of mattEr, and the field's energy, fIgurat ively Ipeakin g, Is
~peJl t on forming the effect ive RlemeQO space-ti me,
Thus, th e effective RiemanD s paca-time ill a peculiar carrier of energy-momentum.
The a mount of 8neri\' nsed for creating this spae&-time is exactly equal 10 tha
amoun~ ce ntsined in the grll.\·ita tiollal li.eld; henee, the propagat ion nf curvat ure
waves in the R,emann space-time renecta common energy tra/Uler via gravitational
weves in Ihe pseude-Euclidea u sJl3ce-time. This meallS that in our eppmach Lhe
existence of curvature waves iu the Ri6mann space-ti me Icllcwe duec tly from the
existence of gravitational wav!\! in the sense n{ Faraday and Maxwell, waVE$ th at
carry en energy-momentum density .
We note allo th at when we introduce the golometrization principle, we thereby
retain Einstein's idea of the Riemann ian geometry of apace-time for matte r. This
does not mean, however, th at we must illevitably return to GR. T be genera l theory
"
of nl.Uvll )' eonltitutol puti.l n ali utl on 01 thlt ide- , ra ther th l.D the o\her
I.
WIY ro un d . Heeee, the Id.. of I. a::ravil.l t iona l flald u I. ph )'llic.al 681d t hl U11l
carry enerp cbU('!lS our eonc4lplio.llll .bout . p _tl me an d ITI ..ity. T ile NlI. t l -
v ielie th eory of erl vltatloo, which l'8&liws t bo idea, maltu it polI5i ble to dNcrlbe
til. I ntire bod,. 01 d. ... ClD grn ital iona l u per lmalila... tDba t b. eorft5 pondl_
pri ne;pJ., a od Ie.ds to I. Dllmber of fuoda mlloLiI eor Ollilli es.
Witl!oot km of £ellml lity, l. t lIS UllU ma thu tb. teoao.r dens ity ft'
of the mek le
tellllOf 01 lb ' Riemu n 5pIlc .time i.s I. Iou! func tion tltd dapeuds 011 l!Ho dellSit)'
f'· of lbe Il)etric \e 1lJOr of lb. Mioko wsll sp'C.UQlI Ind t be lIensity 4i'" of the
rr...iullon.I· 5eld teu sce. We assumll lh at tha m.ltI'l. 1 w gn ogi l o deD$lty LII
ill deJMlldent a ni, on the fielda <!l... 00 their fuosl-ordw covn ia lll der ivati ves. I nd,
in Tie. of Ihe geotlle lr ill t ion pr inciple, on j'-. W•• lao Q5l,IlM lhli thfI " ..,1-
tation.l-neld Lll,r'lIIiu. densi ty depe nds on. .ft',
on lh. L'lrst-onier patti.l deeiv-
li(v.. of yl/l,
on alIA, . nd on the fU1ll.-orde. cove. l.nt derivOlt ivt9 of al" wit h
resPllCt to the Minkowlki DllltriC. To deri ve f.Onlllrv.tion. lews we emp loy the 10-
Vlrl.Me 01 the I cti on int egrl l under infin ite!liml l lr ensilltioni of t he coordinate ..
Since for every i iven Lagran gian deol ity L the ect ton intel[l"l l J =- ~ L d"z 1,
a lICa llr , unde r en arb itrary inlin ite!lima l cooffllnlt.e tran.formation tile variation
6J 'II an lahM. Let Ull , tl . t by c.alculetioll' the va' lotion of the mlteria l Iction
integral J 11. " ~ LII. d'.z: brought OD by til, h ent! orma tion
.r'l _ .z:1 + t' (:r), (6.1)
""b. ... t l
(.z:) III '11 infini tesim. l 4-'-ec:tor of d laplac:e ment :
Here d\ ..... Ilda for tbe d i.e ~1lU ter lllS, ""hich in the present cha pter p lay no
role iD Out d i.c ow ion.
TIle EtlllTlu. vuia tion b d eftDed in the ...... 1 ""Iy :
&L I I.. U I t.
1i' - , . -8. ' 1' ••1 +"_cl_1 1'.olI.~
The n .i.tiOM fir
and a L¢JA p DlUSted by lbe coord inate tn nsforroa tioll (6. t )
l u ily be calcol. ted if ..... employ lite h l lUforml tioo b 'lr.l:
Gl.lI
whith ill valid IrJ1lllpICUve of wbeth el' or not lbe equltiOflll of mot ion 01 th e fullds
l ... vs lid.
Let IU !nttodll(.Cl the followlng IlO\lI UOll;
_2;::.,
r .. 2:::' ="',..,T..,. .
1""- _ _ (6.6e )
- 61.. r-
T",. _2 - _ _ lL. - - -
• 2 ---;- = ,.....,...,.~ ,
(6.6b)
6,-" 61..
Ybere T•• is tbe materi,l ellergy-mollleot um teDlIot dew ly In lb. Rieru lUllp ae&-
tl lDl aod i.lI luaowu ... th . H Uberto-tensor d_it y.
n . , allo w for (6.6b), w,
can rep rewnt t ll& l elt-ba nd sid, of (6.5) 10 the folio.-
ing form ;
- - I ~ - - - 1 - -
D. (T..,1''') - 2 t'·D.. T, p -~l (1 ",~ gU) -T P8..T I p' r
Th. n,h- hand l id, of lhis "'IWllloll een ~i1y be redueed to
.h_ T _ i••
TO., and V, is th.lJ)' mbol of eouri l nt di Sef'llltlltion with r«spect
ee l.h' lIl,tric of tbe RI' mllI ll sp-.tlllMl.
OIl th e bela of (6.7) we tiD !lO W 'll'T iti till SWlll' Id,ot ity (&.5) ill the follo' iD&
form:
(6.8)
In v i, ,,,· nf Ib, pri nc ipl, of least I d lOo the equ at ions of motion for t he mlterill
fields h, "e the for ro
". - 0.
iii; (6.9)
V. ,-
CombInIng this with (6.8) rllllul ts in the _ k ident ity
r-~ '--) =::0.
- T,-r
Not' tbat \1M! Ill lttY-JDlllllenl.um tenso.- dllllSity for ~U.r, r-,
(6. t O)
in the R il llll UD
I pae.t-thoe is ... 1ated to 1- iD Ib, foll oYiAg lll . l11I.,:
V-- , r- - r-"-T
- t --
~' (6.1 1)
"Henee, (6. t o) results in the following eoverb nt eq uation of conserva t ion of matter
in the Riemann space-time:
V.. T"''' = O. (6.12)
Only if th e IIlImber 01 eqllatl oIl.!l for 8. material field i! four tan we. Wl8 in!tead of
the equations (6,9) lor this lI.old th e equivalen t equations (6.t2). The va:riat ion of
the 8GtLOli in tegtal (6.2) can be wrt n eu in the equ iva lent form
whore the vertettcns 6L aI"" end k' v"" generated by the wordinaw tra nsform a-
tio n (6.1) are
6t.a.--"..., ii).oo "Dl~" + etJ,v"V1i "-D1 lr'QYo"), (6. 14)
Sum.tit ut ing t he expce.!lSions for the var iations 6"eb"'". 05 1,.:;" ". e nd 6..111" into
(6.t3) end integrat ing by parts, we arrive, in view of the arbi trariness of i", at
the following strong identity :
- D'" ( 6t
6ioMp :"p) = -
'
D (U. , IJ: ~,,-)
1 ~ .. ; " W!I - u . D..'VA'
biii; ~ (6. 16)
....hte b , like (6. 5), is vali d Irr eepeettve of whe ther or not the equa tions of the motion
of matllH and lI'I'avi tational field are valid .
For an arbitr4rY Lapangian ....e intro d uce several nota tions and relat iQndl ips
that ....i Il be used lat er:
jsR= _ 2 ~L , l" " _ _ 2~, (6.17a)
6v",n 11j"", "
-I.- "-...-,..
_ Ii . .
ii', -~
"-.
.... lind tha t (6. 18b) yields
J, _
~ £.11"% u nder c.oordinlou. tnosf_ _ti on. (6. 1) it folio,.,., t ha t
- , (-b
l_.D '--
t (ll - T "" ~l j + D, ( 2 ~
" ¢l'.
- )_ ("l -
D.. ~ cJ)U' _ O. (6.20)
All owin, for too. eq uit lollll, 'Il.'e 1«0 th. t (B.21) yield s t he mOll! impl)l"t. nt equ ali t y:
'i...V a (TU _{-;:OoT)""1... D. (i" -yy.."t) . (6. 24)
Sinee lb~ dells it y of t he total energy-mo men t um te nser In the Minkowskl s pace-
ti me i. i' iven by t he lorm ul,
., - - ..
r - y .··-j..- 1-
-T ....-s, (U5)
eombinini' t b1lll n preaion with (6 .11) ... lind th , t (6. 2.(,) e-n be .....it Wr\ In t he
follo wlq fo",,:
D..r: -V.. r:. (6.26)
n. lormul' nlpre5t IlU th e ~ttriut lon priDei ple , lIame ly. that Lhe eovar in t
dl-.-erpllGe in Lha pMudo-Eucl iden apace of the s ulIl of t he teasee de nsities or
tlllBJtY-Dlomenlum of llIa t tolr and en vitUiooal field taken togtlt her is e xact ly
equ al to t he covarilll i diveI'gl!nce in t he . !feet iv" R ielllinn Spl «l-t1 ll1le of only t he
enettY-lllolllent um 1I1I5Of d ensi t y of maUU. If t he eq ul t ioll5 01 moli on of ma tler
hold l ru" . we blYfI
D.r: - V. T: - O. (6.27)
10 our dbellS8lo n .... h.... U5umed that t b. *luatioll.l of llIotion of maUer I ,..
not l;ol'Olin lei of t b, equa ti ons (6.23) lot' t"-itn it.ationa l b id . lUlu oo ly [li thia
Cut will tu .ystem of eq uaLioll!l (6.23). (6. 21) be com plete for determinilli the
material , lid If'Iv iLitioul-field variables.. TIw c.onria nt eq llu ioll of GlUtei"
eo nser ntioll In the R iem l oD SflKHime d_ 1101 provid e . e1eu pic:LUrI of wh icb
qu....tity ia eolUef ved . whil. lhe I•• of e<uUerYuioll of u..
toal'lIeltY- momen lu m
~ ' : hi the &li nkowsk l ' pacb- l ima e1.afly at ate&: that the IU11llV"-mo lJleolulIl
of ma t ter ud Ifn iLationd field t.akllll top Lber i, COllltfved. Th ua. in the prue.n t
th eory t~ Riemann . pace-ti me elllerpsu . ruult of Lbe aet ion of th e grav itation, 1
lIeld on a ll (orm, of ma Uer. beeee th b , pace-W me it tha eftectiu RIemann . p _
lime of l>eJ d oririn. 11M" Iiultowtki spa c. tim. fillds its prec ise phYl ica l renect ioll.
in the la... of consen'l lio.o of the tenaoD of enl»1 y-momeotum .nd alliular
100menlum of mI ll ee and gr nitat iollal f.eld t.ken togeth.r.
Since in flat apace- time th ere are "n KlIlillf vectors , ther e mUlt be teo con-
served inteF . 1 quanti ties for. clO!led. Iy:stem of field• . Also .•ince the equllion
thl l re01lC1S th e COIlIIlV. tion of the tot. l energy -mom ent um teUlOr i n th. Min kow-
sk i sp' cl!""tlme.
(6.28 )
is eq uivel en t to the covltlnt equ. t ion reprOlenti ng ml tte r conse rva t ion in th e
Riemill n , pl ce-time• • od the latt",r ill equ ivalent to the lI<JuaUulllI (If m(lL! oll or
mltter, we C,ll use Eq. (6.28) i nstead 01 the eq u.tion of mot ion of mal tO'l l.
It mllst be et peel. lIy noted tb at both m a l~ r and F .viU tloll.1 held .re
cher ar;-
ta riled in the given thellt Y by ooergy-m omenhlln tensors Ind , thuelon. ill con-
trast to CR. thut! ea.noot in prioci ple emerge .ny pst udote.n$Ol3, with the reault
th lt . 11 nooph)llllc.d cOIlCeptions .bout the hn pouibili ty of localhinl: the If'V-
it . lion. 1 field Ire . bsent lro m our Iheory .
11 we ",we to tlke , following Hilbert . nd E lllllt.in. the gJ'l vita lion . l-fteld t.ar-
ra ngiaR deM lty In • comp letel y IOOmetriud fOtnl. lht is, depeDdior onl y On the
metric !eMllr IV. of the Riemeon ep__ti Ole I nd itt der h ·. liv es, uy L~ - v=l fl .
with R thellC& lar CUf""flt un of the Ri elll.oo spIce- lime, then the energy-momentum
...._ r deMi ty nf a fne r ruitatiol1ll field ill th e MlnkOwU i apK6-ti me .....uld . in
vi.... of the ftetd eq u.tions., n.Jli3h everywhere:
61.0- __u. l, - (6.29)
ft"" -""'Jiii'"'i?I'" _ 0.
U,{ng (7.7}-(1.to) we all easily verl'y tbll the opentDMI p . a ad p . Ire conse rved ,
Ihn ie, obey tb, fol:lowiJl&' ident iliar.
a.P1~". (z) .. a"J1;"llz)lUO,
(7. 11)
iJ,l1-:,,' (z) _ a"Pl:"... (z) Ell O.
it does not cOIl~iD the I1Ipl"llllentl ti OllI ..ilh I p ins t Ind 0'. This mellU thu sueh
II teD!lOr field dexribe:s Doly I pins 2 lind O.
III ",i".. of (7.7) . nd (7.8) it cn NIIil)' be ver ified Ihllt ta opera lot'
whidl we will call t he bu'l: ,denti ly, .inee it pl. ys a lundamen tal rol e in t he
GOns~ueliOD 01 RTG.
• • R 1'G £ ...."' ...
0 " the buill of Ch.ptw 7 we u n U , thlt U,I field eq uuiolll (8.3) l ul.Omuie- Uy
"
n tlude sp ins t end 0' from the erevitet io nll te 4S« field, T hut. for th l lourteen
sought Vl ri lbles describ ing th e vniulionel fie ld Ind mltter e he ..e l ireld y
b\lil t folU Clovarl l nt eq u. t ioos (8.3). To const ruct t ile olher ten e uae • aimple
b u ~ Iar relchl ng anl logy witll the e lectromag ne tic lield. Si nca a ny vect or Oeld A ~
t(lIlt . i llS aph.. t and 0 , it u n be u peo ded 10 • d lrec t sum of I ppropd a le irreduci ble
Np resenlat ioos, Th is up.naion ee n be rlllliJ.ed .. II t he proJeclion opefltore (7.3 )
Introduced te Cblp ter 7:
(8.4)
• bare ..... hut .1I 01ftd for (!.t ). L,. is ~h. meterill WgraDtit.ll d_iIJ . IDd L.
is speei6ed .in (8. 15)_
Tn rtpttseAt th e sptem of equatk\1a (8.16) ill th .lona. (&. t3l) we must Mlac: t
ill aD u n' lIlhi,uou" lII.anner UI. eoastIliU 0 , b. , nd c ill tbot Lt.grlngiln d l D&i.
IJ (8. 15). T o \bill &lid .... usa lorm ol u (6. 17), (6.22), I lld (6.25) Ilid Ii.od for Wpl.ll.
,ian L _ L + L lil th e entre-m Olll6lltlllll t e _ d&IlSit y ,- for mitt...- aDd
v uit.tionf field ill ~be Minko'lll'llk i s pltA-t ime.. CtkollU Df t.h' Ytri. lioll of th l
101.11 LlgU ligiln 01'8r l.~ . we nlld ,ht ~
t"'· _2 Y - I' (1''''''-_ !.'''- T''' j ~£ +W-
2 ..... '
+D, ((2a+b )lHr,...... + Hr;-,....·-lIr".,..' 1
- 2 (ll + 21:) l··i~';lfD~ii'}, (8.17)
wllere
H r' - (g.., D;" ~ + ,ftIDI, ") i.l '
We _ t bat th' equ etiOM
,• • _ 2bJ• • + D, {{2lI +b) IHr'y"· + Hr",....· - m"Y"1
- 2 (0 +21:) y"'.g:u.;;.n~~') (8.t8)
lie equ lnlent to til. field equ lt iolll (8.t6). If •••lsb \be eooo Hioll.
D..' - _ 0 (8.19)
not 10 produc. I ny Ilew equati on lor fi"ld lZlfJI , s ince tbis would lead to I n over-
dettrm ioed syt...m of tq UIUons, It is nee_, l od I ulfk.ien l thet U- eoefkilots
a, b, Ind e set i!fy tb l foUoWi DI l:ODd. il iona:
,
. - - z b, e'-T b.
, (8.20)
If till cons lt.ots l no !lelte~ ill tlI il1 ml nller, ..... uei n at I II idelltity:
D .""~ ... O.
Th ua, lb. eq uetlODl of the motion 01 mltter foll ow dlrec:~I, from th e eq lll tions lor
the v nitltiona l 6ell!. AlIowiDf lor (8. 20), .1 find. l bt t (8.t8) UfUalts th e form
- - - -
- T- -t"');""' zr
t
D,D. (Y''''''' +.,...,..- .-,..' (~ + 4';,i)
,
- Jr ' . -- (B.2 1}
Th. H.Jel l";,,!; Th•• ')' ~f Cr~vl lell ."
Thill cetacidea with Eqs. (8.tO). which were written by analogy with electr ody-
namics, if we put 2b = t/A.
Thus. the Lagrangian density tha t leads us to field equati ons in the form of
(8.21) ia
1 - - - 1- - ~ - -
L I - 1r IKAqD,.gI"JDI'''''' - 2"1.,.g,,~lfI'D,~DI'g'""
1- - - -
+ " Kh ,K",g' I'D,g""'D..,g"']. - (8.22)
T he correspondence principle Impltee that
A "" - t 611 . (8.23)
Jf we allow for (8.23) in (8.Zl) , we get
LI e- ~
1 -. - --.. -,
[G.." D,("" - (""GooIG", ], (8.2-')
The first to eonefd er such a Lagrangia n was ROSlIn, 1940, 1963. T he th ird-rank
tensor G~ , in (8.26) is defined as follows:
~,_ y,g"'1' (D",gpl + D,I,. ",- DpI, ..J. (8.27)
It is 888;ly verified th t Lagra ngian (8.26) can be tra nsformed into the sum
01 two t erms, one o[ which does not con tain the metric coefficients 'V"''' and the
other. which dependa on V"'·, is written In the form of t h diverge nce of II vector
end, therefore, does not affllet th e field equa t ioDs.
11 we allow lor Eq. (8.3), th e eomplel.esyalem 01 RT G equat ions for matt er and
gravitationa l !ield is (see Lcguncv and Mest virishvil i. 1984, 1985a, 1985b, t 986b.
Vluov and LOIUnov, t 984, and vleeev, LoguDov, Bud Mest ivtrishv ili, 1984)
Y""'D.DAi"'~= j6nt"'~, (8. 28)
D.:i"' ~ ""O . (8.29)
Ob'V iously, in a GalilearolIys1em of coord inates Eqs. (8.28), (8.29) assume the form
Dr "= 16nt"''' , (8.28',
a";"'" .... 0. (8.29')
Equat ions (8.28) and (8.29) clearly show that the Minkowski space-t ime enters
into all the gJaV il.etiona l·!ield equaLiOlU in an essenti al way. But th is means
thtt it will find ita phYSical reflection not only in tho flllldomental laWll o r nature
but also in the descripti on of verio us natura l phenomena.
The general-covar iant RTG equat ions (8.28) lind (8.29) cl osely resemble the
generel-ecvartent equat ions of electrodyn amics, (8.9a) and (8.9b), in the absence
of grav itat ional fields. In electrody na-m ica th e lllec: tromagnetic field is a vlletor
8. R TG ~ ....,,...
h Id . ncl ita 5IOutee i' l b , CODMrfed elec: troml ,net ie CW'l'eft t J"'(~) . Eq u. tlon (8.9b)
"
excludes ~ pi n 0 from the vector i ,ld. hi RT G tbl (1"n ilatl o" ll Ii.:ld i.e I la MOr
field In d the lO~e is tbe CODllU'led tensor dens ity of l he l DeI'gy- momentum of
both mel lon en d gr.vit.t1C)1l11 fteld. Far th is IM.,n Eq . (8.28) is nonliDHI' even for
I free (1"1",ltlt ioI1l1 field . [q ullon (8.29) uc lud es spi n. t I lld 0' Irol2l tb e t.enso r
field.
The equltion. 0 1 RTv end e lectrod y n.rnice . cq uire en IlIpeoe l. ll y Ilm ple for m
in tbe vlJiles n c OOl'd l na tes In eo inertid I1Iforonco fra mo.
If we wen to rest rict ou r d lllC UMi(ln to tho firll l l yslem of eq ua tions (8 .28 ), th o
d l'l"le1on of the mltr ic of the Rieml nn spllc..tl me into tile metrle iD th e Mln kow-
sk i lpace-ti me .nd t he !p"l vl u ti onel 18D8Gr neld would be of e purel y nom ;n.1 Ila -
Iu.. I lld wit h no phys ica l mu n ing. The seeoodllJS18m (8. 29) of loDr h Id eq UltiODS
dr u Uull y l!epar lta everythi ng th l t reffl'l! to fon: u of inertia frOID everyth ing
that refva to lb e 1Jl. ",ltltlonai field . T hl t" n lI}'stems 01 eq u.tio.lls. (8.28) . nd
(8.29), ere gt'Hr.1 C.llVU illlt. The beh ....ior of th . gr....il.l tlon.. &lId i8 ral riet ed ,
III usual, by 'P Pfo pri.te ph JSica l coo d iti onl iD I , iven, IIY Gllilean, ')'I le m of
coordlnltu . I II OR it is irup oulb le to formuJ l le t he phyelee l eon dit ions ImpOHd
on met ri c,..· if on . lem a i... withi n the b lm ewO'l"k 0 1 the Ri ema nn epKe-ti me ,
sloce th o uy mptol ic beh av ior of the metd c . I""a ys d epends on th e c ho ice of tho
th rell-d ime ns iona l ~yste m oJ cootd ina tes.
Le lllS now lind th e ex plici t for m of t bo .sys tem of CqU I UOIlll (S.i6). If ....e tlk"
Lagno, ian (8.22). it ca n be damou st. ated that
IG-G' ..G.,,I
.,. .
It..
-::;"- I
:2 ""i!i" ool -.. -
~
I.>.
.... il L a -'- [it:- _1 .._ ..... _ I .'G' ]
-
, lDJ,6"'''l
""' t 6a Y _ c..... Y ..... .. .
Heeee,
~( _ ': ' _ D.
6,... .(".. I LL
I (DI6"' '')
"" _
tb
I R... (8.30)
wbore R",. is th e second -rank tensor of tho cur....t ore of th e Rie ma nn spece-Urne ;
R... _ D. G'_ _ D.G~ , + G ~ ..G~ _(f..,G:"' . (8.31)
Silltl iD view of (6. 6 b) a nd (6. tf l .".• hav e
2 ',:M
a.,..
_~ ( T
r - I
__ +,._r) (8.32)
tha t la, ..... h ave arr ived a t !.he sys tem 01 Hi lbert-Ei oB18in oqua Lions , the one
impor ta n t d ine renee be ing th ll. ~ eU lleld vllflo bl" In th e Hilb8J't- Ei ns le in eq ue-
110011 In our th oor y d"pc nd on u nivel'lla l s pot ial-temporal coord ina tes In the Mlnkow-
d l , pa ce-ti me. I n an 'lner lia l -ere enee fre me th... ulli vel'll. l cocmtln. te:s C' D bo
chosen to be eamon. It must he empbasi-ed tha l tb a sy,te m of eq uatio... (8. 28)
does not co inc ide with th e lI}', le m of H ll boert- E inMein eq u tiODll (8.33 ). Qnl y II
the IOnuak ovu lan t equaLi ons (8 .29) hold true d oes th a S)'llte lD of Hil bnt- E iD·
, lel D equ ati ons , lor m. lIy wr ittl ll i n G R in the ... rlIblq of the Min kcnnk l apac a·
,.
time, n duee to the 8Y8tem of equat iolQ (8..28) , and these depend eS!entially on
the matri c tellsor of the Minkowsk i space-thne.
I t h as long been know n (see Rosen , 1940 , 1963, a " d T olman, 1934) that Lag ra n-
gia" (8.26) leads to syste m (8.33). We have shown, however. that for a grav itat ioll-
. t field with spins 2 and 0 the gnvit ational-field Lag rang iall de nsity (8.22 ) is
th e only one that leed s to a self-eonsiuen t system of equa tio ns for matter en d
lield, (8.28) end (8.29). Th is means tha t the RTG eq uatio ns are the on ly simple!t
second-order equations that ceo ex tet,
In view of the Importa nce of th e equi vale nce of Eqs. (8.28) and (8 .33) in th e
Millko\1ollki vari ables, we can give ano ther var ian t of the proof of the above . tU e·
mont based on direct calculations of th e tenser dell.'l iUes till' an d 1,7tj, prov ided
that (8.29) is vaHd. ,
II we takit formulas (6.17) an d the Lagrangian dens ity (8.22) a nd a llow for (8. t),
we will lind that the grav iU t ional-field energy - momentu m te nser de nsity in the
Minkowskl space-t ime is ,
,-
~';.~ ... - 1~., J,,· ,::,, ~ { ,?.. ··t~ -'h"~,,"") R ~l' (8.34)
We soo that the ~ ond -unk curvature tensor R p~ of the R iemenn space-time h as
emerf9 d aut omati call )·. Sim ila rly , usin g form ulas (6. 17) and (8. 1) and the defin i-
ti on (6.6a ) of the Hilbert-tenece delllli ty , we arr"'e lit the foll owing lormula lor
the materi al energy-momentum tensor deJUity in t he Minkowski epee....ti "' e:
rl~)" ("fg)l/J ( ""'P""~-1: V"KY'~) (T ~~ _ ~ 'p~ T ). (8 .35)
Sub~ tit ut ing (8.M ) and (8.35) into the field eQ" uations (8.10), we get
D,:r· - O. (8.37)
Th us, a lthough in RTC the complete system of equa tions (8.36l snd (8.3 7) does
conta in the system of Hil bert- Eillstei ll equat ions, th a co nwnt 01 th e latter chs nges
substant ia.lly, · since t he s pat id · tempora l variahles now coi ncide wit h the vari-
a bles of the Minkowski s pace-time. We mua t aga in a mphasil e that Eqs. (8.37) are
univeTS* l, s ince they are field equations deaeri bing gra vitat iolltl fields wit h sp ins
2 IIl1d 0; they unamb iguously se para te forces of inertia from grav it.lltional fields.
Wi th in t he framework of GR th is Is ho possible to do in principle. The cho ice of
the refere nce f.ame (or system of coordinates) is fixed by th e metric ten sor of the
Minkowski ~ace- time, while Eq s. (8.37) lay n o '9$trictiollS on the choice of th e
coord inate syale m.
."ull.
• Eq UOUOll1 (8 .;lG) do ..<rt eO'll lol1l ", url e 1' . , . .. d it ill m...... ingl_ to of 1.. in GR .
Thi.l mpllt1 Ihn Ih. n atoll\ltlt of ZeJ'dov ieh alld Gri. he.huk, 1981\. UII.! CR <'liD be eoo,lru~led
Oil lho hu ill 01 IhII Mlllk<>wski 11"'u- li lllll is .m>ll.......
Now thd some u pec18of ~h c theory of gTlvi la.t ion in the M inko,,~kl llpace-tim8
have been considered in Gup ta , t 952 , Kohler, 19:'>2, 1953, 1954, P apa petrou , 1948,
Pugechev. 1958, 1959, 1964, ROB\ln, 1940, 1963, Mild T h lrr iog, 1961. However.
even ooientislS who were on tile rigM h ack 8 ~ the beginning fa iled to underuand
Ihia Bnd took 8. d lllercnt d irect ion in bu ild ing th e theory of grav itation, ad [reel ion
1llm t h u not led to 8 com plete t heor y.
In ecnclusto n, one re mark is In orde r. T ile syste m (8.3) whos.a vali di ty we have
postulated, does not lollow from th e princi ple of least OCUOH. Th e«lfore , in a pply-
ing th is p ri nci ph~ to Lagran gian (8.15), W8 were Iorced to a llow for Eqs. (a.3) by
introd ucing in the in t.egrl nd in the aetio n integn l a te rm of the Iorm "l,"D~l",
whert! '1.. are Lag ra nge' s m ult ipJien . An a nftly sis of t hi s pr ob lem ca n be found
ill Ap pend i:< 2.
Sub stit uti ng in to (9. t 1formulas (6. 14) ...d (6.15) for var iat ions 6 L ¢I "" and 6L;"~
and hearlllg in mlIId t hat the mtegr alion volu me n is ar bitra ry , we obta in t he
followi ng iden tit y :
t' [D.~ +~ Dpq)no' ] ~K='-D,.D.t"'
"'".
+D,E'" [ ~~D.K:'·.-2 fJ!:." (6rm + 6:;' fJ~" /bt'
ll¢>"'" oWl.I
....
ing s trong iden~i ties:
• ~L -
D.1, = _ ~ Dp<I>"' · , (9.6)
~ _ D Kb ~ 2 ~ ;r,.,, _ ~ ...!!:L ~1
.. , ,, 6iil"''' ~I
Elementary C81e~ l at jon5 lead 05 to the f~lI owin g expres9ion for K::':
K:."==- 6l.1 r: _ il.! ; ,..
6 (DpI'" ") 6 (D.,'" " )
+?"- [
i'~,"
aL,
a (D. , ' " )
1"'_ 8[.,
6 (D;I" )
v.,]
+ 6L! V,.. [g."V'"-'gP"y.' j. (9.10)
a (DI~")
S ince the energy-mom en l~ m tenser densiLy or th e gravitatillo. l fleld is defined os
M. -
~,)" = 2 ~ v"-6.., 6 L-
..::;:Ly"', (9.11)
6'1''"'' &;oN
we can wril.a (9.7) es follows:
I'( 1"" = ~.. - D, K".. -
2..!!La..,,+6'
olJ;..." .. ...!f:L(b...
641"" . (9 . 12)
T his form estebltshee 8 relat ionship hetween ~he Hjfbeet- tensor densit y in t he
MinkoWllki sp. ce-tiUl(l . nd the cenonlce! eneegy-momentum tensor densit y.
P(lI' Ivtlln d ix ~io.llS it Ie u pedien l to inU'oduce the lollowm, quoli t y .u
,..
• ebarac.teI"istic: of th e trav itatioll.l field:
(01
~- .:, -
I
"i'5ii"" D, cr'
I
.r - lJiI .,. ... J... (9.15)
Now if we Il58 for mula (8.M) e nd lower Dna in dex via mltrie y" "" we fiod t hlt
'"
G1.ftT; ,.. - D.t(C. . (9.25)
T he last expression clear ly shows that matt u receives energy a nd momentum
diffi.'tly froll1 th e grav ita tio nal field. with the tota l energy- momentu m tenso r of
matt ar and gravi tat ional field beiDg eoru;erved en cl ly. Constr ucti on of the rel ati v-
isti c theory of gravitat ion UD the blSis of th e Minkowski sp aee-time lind the
geometrhatiOD prin ciple ena bled us to deal on ly with cova ria'nt q Ullntitie~ et
each s tage of our d i~uSll ion .
In conclusion a remark is in order. Using (9.19), we can write t ILe RTG Hil bert.-
Ei ns taia eq ua tions in the form
D...,:t' _ (T:, + -c:' )16n, (9.26)
where .r.... is gi "en by (9.16) an d const itutes a third-l'II nk tensor, llnrl ~, whose
expli cit form for Lagrangian (8.24) Is
'"
where IP'"" is 8 soluti on to the li near ized equfttiou (8.36). As IS knu"..n (Thl rr lng ,
1961), the lln eerteed Hil bert-Einste in equa tio n is (nv u Lant under a loca l gauge
tran sform ati on
,0>
whore th e 4-vec\.Qr eft (z:) is an arbi trar y inlinite!i mal param eter. When <11.... is
tr ansformed in t his ma nner, t hB inflll ite!!imal ine remen ts of ¢."'. and ga"
in a o
a pproximat ion lint !lt in G have. the fo~m
W~ _ 6r~= ~"'~e~+V"" Dka"_ D. (a·;"~) . (to.l)
For an ar b itr ary gnvita ~ion al h id a natural generalization of thll loca l ga uge
tr ansformat ion is
6.0"'" _ 6,i"~ ...g..· Vka~ +;.. . \7. e.. - v , (e,g" ,). (10.2)
Tld s e)( pr~ ion cen be obta inw irom (to.l ) if en the r ight-hand s ide of (to.t) "" e
IId d the gr8vlu.t ional field $" ~ directly 1.0 the metric-tensor dlln9ity ; "'. that
is, if a stretching traDsformat ioo
i9 performed. Since
,., (t o.3)
,., (10.6)
Heoce. the £r<ee-rr av itetico.l-field Lqraq ian denit y (8.22) found in OI. pter 8
utilio. th e g.u,. pri nci ple.
Le~ UI now esubli.sh the , ener. l requirement imposed on the atnlct un or • LeI '
tll\ii.n densi ty th l ' 1IIlis!ies th o g. up pr incip le. Suppo6e t ba t L. ch' lIg. ulMi...
• ttO.5} l ranslorm.tion onl)' b)' t he d iver£'lnce 01 • funcl ion. Tllen Ihe ....rI. lion
01 eeuc n for such en [" ill l6l'O:
....a.;-d'z",
I a..'- o. (to.16)
'"
i ,king into aeeouM Eq. (to .5) for 6';-- and ;Qltrr atl q (10.16) by pn ts . wa eet
.-
to (10. 23 ). th e x.a lar Lacrmgiaa deDlily of Ibe f(lMll.
where S" is I. vee ree density conetructed from "'" aed D,.g- , saUIIi&.! the gauge
prlncipl". Note that L. (10.30) i. a ll o 110 1 comple tel)' Iteometrlu:d beca use D"S"
ie IIOt eomplele ly glOllletr lud eit her.
If we no,.. requ ire th at th e gravil at iona l-h ld Lagra.ngilln dellSlly be quadrat ic
ill Ihe firat derlvl t i". Dr , tben lleeessui ly
s-_ 'i'"PG:..- ;-"0:'.
Th l ri pt-haDd s ide ~ , '0.30) yields UO.29) multiplied by - I n., Illd If _ pllt
A _ 16:1, " e I rTive I l Lb, RTG Ltr l..., il n dl nsi ty (8.26) .
We DOle Ollce mon that the RTG wp"I.Dgi an dN lty (8.26) Is I _ Ill' wrl.llgi1 n
density fOf . rbit ra ry coordlnata tr l llIformat ioll, a cond it ion thl t Gn ee nne t eceer.
A c harecter i.tie feature of both the Lagra ngll n density (8.t5) &Il d th e Lagrall-
, Ian dlllllity (10.30 ) .ill th at Lbe convolutloll of t1I e I;OTari11l1 derivaUves D,ju in
thl'le dlllllitfes een bl carried out only by Ippl ying the . f1eet i,.. mltric teasor
'(-I, • cond itio ll. thlt l;I ll be exp laia el! by th l special " Iy ill " h ieb thl p u itl ·
tl ooa' ' l td leU u poll itse U_
ee
In Appendix 3 we will consider the general form of tbe Lagra ngi an density ,
quad,a ti e in the lirst derivati ves D,.,}r(incl uding t he ter lJUllhat conta in D".g....)
y..
with the convolu tion tB l1'i ed out via t he meLfie te'llJI{>r ft of the Minkowslr.i space:
uee, Then we \lim &lOW that t he gaugtl pr intiple unambiguously reduces the
Lagranll'iall dl!Il ail y to (8.26).
In the presence <» matler t ha RTC equations do nnl admit gauv tr all5lorma-
tions (10.5). In (hi.!! Tl!$pect these Ii'llge trall!formatiom diller from those u$OO in
eled rodYnaml«, ...h ieh attl " ,lid lor l b. cu e oj interectinjl' fteida, too. I n the
a bsence of matm the gauge transformation a (10.5) do not .lfee ~ t he lIuv ila ti onal
field equat ions but change thtl line element in the Riemanll apaee--time and, hence,
the geomet ric eha raeteriati« 01 t bis apace-time. It can easily be verified that
5, d£' = (j,g,. dz' d~ ,
(j.R J• - - RIlD.s' - Ru Dle - r-ID,Rll' (to.3f)
(j, R,.,.. _ - R~u ..D,r· - RI.J..D.tl -R J....D,r· - RJuOD",eq - roDoR J.,...
Here oneean sec the diBerencc between trBIl.!fonnBl loIl.! (lO.5) and gauge invar iance
of elee trodynam iC!, when gauge tr ansformation do not aBed the physical ob5l"v-
:!blM. The ge<lmetry ol8Jlaee-time is unique ly dete nnined in the presence of mat-
tl'r , since in thi . ease gaugfl i rbitr arin8Sll is abM!nt. When eo maUer is proeo t,
the RTG met r ic \{lo$Or of the enecuve Riem ann space-t ime ia fixed only aftl'r
nonphysical com ponen ts 01 the gravJlat iona l field are ellml r uted by applying
gauge su pereoordinate transiOTIllatiol\.ll.
In Our theory t he equati ons 01 mot ion of matter follow from the ten equations
lor the gr avitational field ¢ii>. Thu s, lor le n nriablB.'J oj the grBvila tiollalfi eld
(ii•• and the four veelables character i!in g matler we he ve only ten equat ions. The
choice of the coord ina te sys lem in RTC is specified completely by th e metr ie
tensor VI. of the Minkowaki epece-uee. For the syst em o! equations to be complete
we need Iour mere covarl . nt lield equaUons. Slich Bq llal ioPa wen intrtKluced in
Chapler 8 as equ ati ons that deter min e the s truc ture 01 the va vitationl1 field of the
Far sd . y-Muwell type wi th SpillS 2 and O. These equ.t ions, "peeilically Eqs. (8.3),
l fe uni versal. When applied 10 a free gtl vitati ollal field , they rl!llt rict t he dIM of
possible ga uge IlI naIormatiolls by impO!ing on s' (z) the condition
t"~D ..D.$1(z) "" O. ( IO.32)
Thu s, tbe cOlllbi nation 01 the gauge principle s nd the idea 01 a grlvllaUon sl
field u a physlcallield of the ~'srad ay-M n well type po!SetlSing energy, momentum ,
"lid spi na 2 and 0 unam biguously leads us 10 the system 01 equ.tioll$ 01 RTG.
Nott th at Illr a s,a t ic and , pheric. lIy symmet r ic grav itatillllal lield Eq . (10.32)
ca n have ollly e le rO solu tion; hence, t he gaugfl arb itrarineM ill completel y lifte d
in th is Calle .
whull we hi" " li ken Into ~OUDt Eqs. (B.3). To exelude in th e L'lll'angl.,. dellllity
term! cODt,ln ln, second d u iYd ivl'S, ....e selte! the vlldor den. ity 51 I I follow.:
( 11.2)
Combinin g (to. 2'1) and (11.2) yield. \he foilowlD' form ul, lor 1he rAe-In..!....
lioul-field L.gnllll';-.u dem.ity:
L, _ - -ffi. 811IGr..G :' -Gi',.Gr~ 1
- tk-[ A V=i +t mly,.;'~+O<o 1=Y). (t l .3)
TIle L. gnDlian density of lll'a vitdlon, l IIt ld and IllIU.er 1.1
L ... L, + L.. (U .4)
On ili. bu b of (11.4), . 1Ioll'~ for (8.t) • .,.,. U ft ealcllll t.e the _rv-mom" tum
dell$it)' of ma tt er ' Dd guvita tiOll. 1 6, Id, t-. in the N illk"" , ld IIpKe-t i rae. It
hu the fonn
I"~ _ 2 v=V (l'...y-._+,. .~,," ) ~L - _ ,_ J.'
&, ~. IISft
Stece i ll lbt ebseece 01 IIl.Uu (r' - "" 0) and itav i1.l.tloll. l field ($-- _ OJ
Eq s. (tt. 1) U1 ust be u lisfied automatically .we baY'
A _ - ..I . (H .8)
..
Thu l . l h' «>n'Ipll'..... ~)'~l.em of t'fJ ". LiQ"~ f<lr mal let" and gTI ..iUltionl l field 11.1.
tilt fOnll:
W'"--t ""'lr-("'\,--.,.,I......~ ("'·- i-rT) . (11.9)
D':;- _ O. (t UO)
W. $H l bat the metric l.tuor of Ib, Minkom i lIPKe-UmI lIQten illt.o bo\ll
Eq . (t 1.9) and (11.10). EIl"ltiolll ( I UO) MtI c1euly n_ a ry UIlUI oilly their
P..-IlCI _u"" that lb.e I• • of eneriY-lD omeotlim CGIlHr'I'lt ioo lot mi U• • nd
gr ni utioolli lieid combined Is va lId , which meaDll that Eq,. (11.10) arl in no ••y
rel . Wod to lh tl , auIII cOlldil iona . Th. ~stem of eq ua tions (t 1. 9}-{H. tO) .... iII be
CG mple1f at m '"" 0, lOG.
Si nce io the abse nu of • field $.. the guvl l.ll Uoul-field energy-m omentu m
tell !lOl' den. ity 11:-~ must h u ro, E ll. ( U. ~) yi eld.
><. _ _ ml . (t Ull
Com bi"! II&, (U. S) wtth (It.O) and (I t . H ),
liolll (H .9) and (1t. l0) In ' equ iva lent form
w.
een N prellllol the S)'IIU m of equ.-
A ll)
f'". "",'iZi'l""--;;'" 1T
r:,"" w .JtJ( 1- 1JV
" j.
•• I ~A A ~V A'~
I " - - IT T" + WV a;'" + 1(iTjI7;:" ,
r "' A
--2i7jT """'j;""'
~w f!.. _ elll .:& ,,, .. .
T'. - FI TiIfJ ' r'., ~ - 2i7jT
A TIJ(J ' {12.10J
I '1'
1"',, -W + 3JiiT-;;-
h A' MJ
. .f .
' "" - VI h'"
liW
,
r .' .
- sin
'0'"
. ...
... ...
' '' ~ ' '' - W i;""" '
l 'IV
1"". _ - sin 8 eos 9, f".. _ c.ol. 9.
f rolll the def'i nili()R R~ _""R"", ..·il h
R", _ ".....'" - I. r".. + r;.r:. - r;..r:... (t2.1t)
,-
"
combined with (12.10). we find th at
• I d'U t dV <IV I ( ' U) 2 I · .w dW
(12.12)
R. = w v d;I"" - "'4iJF"'bT -4[iii"" Is. + "'W'VW T T '
• ' [ 1 dW dJJ I <l'W
R , _ -W "WW dr'"T - w "";l;r + 2Wi'" "T
1 ('W)t +""'iVii1'T
I <Iv dW ]
-;r;:"' . (12 .13)
I I "'U I cl'W
R, "'" 1UY -V +WVd;r -
t (
-+.YUi T
'U) ' ' ('W)'
- 2VW' """Tr""
I dV 4U I <IV oW
- wvo "7;'"7;" - ZV'W Td7"'" ' (12.141
. , l "'lV I dWdV I i dW dU
R. - R . = 2VW -,r,:;-- ' ylW ~T - w + , vUW ~T' (12.H.)
All the other componenb of R~ are zero. Eq uat iol'ltl (12.12)-(12. t 4) readily imply
Now let U5 assume t hat the SOUI"(;{l of g ravitatio ntl fIeld is descrtbed hy !.he
energy"momentum tensor of II. perfect lIuid
1""" - V - gl(p + p)u" u"- g'""p)J, (12.18)
M
whel1l p is tile lIuid'. density, p the isotro pic pressure, a nd u th(\ <I -vector (If
"e l"city "f the fluid. Since the " bjec;t is s pheriCR lJ}' sy mmotric and s tatic. the
q uan t iti es p and p depend l}nly on T , .... "" 0 (0: _ t , 2. 3), lor .. o a od II . we hev e
(in " iew of the id enti ~y I .. . U.... • - 1), respecttvelv .
,
" - y_ = ----;:;
,
. u,, '" U.
y- (12.19)
rll
v I'
From (12.18) and (12.19) it follows that the noneeeo eo mpcnene of tensor 1':' are
r:- 1~
r - IP, .... 1~ A(,)
' i ~-y - g (p + p) --;r- '
11 2.20)
T; - r: ~r, - -Y -IP.
For Ihe problem at ha nd the sys tem of Hil be, t,..Ei n3tei n eq uat ions 8Ssume~
the furm
(n:-+ R) = 8np, (12.21)
~ _ _ 8n {p+ p) A {r)/U , (12.22)
ette e we eubsm ute (12.12), (12.1<1) , end (12.15) Into Eq. (t2.21) we get
He... 1I'~ _ II' (r.>. ",Hh r. the r.d i", 01 th e objecl, and C. b \ he inlt !rrllioD eon-
IU Dt. Formula (12.30) un 1I.so be wriU~ ill a nother (equ iu lenl j form. T o thi s
eod 'We employ Ihe reltUo!l5hi p d61 _ b_ p ll' d yw, ...
hic.ll follow! from (12..27),
u. •
(IV) VW 2M (W)
yw (12.31)
wh 81'!!
Comb inin, (12.32) and (12.M) with (12.37), _ _ tha t (12.38) g iYes the fol-
lowing v,l ue 01 the eoll5ta n LC in (12.32): C .- 1. He-oee, .. funelion <p ( IV) gu inn -
teein, th. t co ndi tio ll (12.38) UI met must han tb , form
""""
Th e se t of met ric coeflieienl" defined in (12.35) ahow. th,t to each pa ir of fune-
t iona W (r ) and A (rl depend hIll' on the djatance r In lite Minknwskl apau-- time
there corrospond... cllrta in grlV il.ational field and , henc e, a certa in elfeetl n
Riem a nn spice-ti me. Thus , tho Jl IUNrt-EIMJtfn tq uatloM cdolll' do not ~M.bk IU to
&ttu ml N 1M f71lvU..t lo"'ll fl,.UJ.nd. Iwlll%, tM ~6"Uw RtenulIJ/I IPfU:~II1M .. 1Idm.-
b1IUOU$lV. l.(Il U!J ilI ust-u te thi' uMrtion by 110 ,umpl.. For thllllllk. of s implicI ty
. , will copsid.,. th. rqlon ouUid e th. objllet. In thi s _ .. ( W) _ 1. It! (W) -
III _ eon' l. ,nd. henu ,
v_ If'iii ( " .... W) • . (12 .40)
J1'w- z.. th
..-
e nd the melric eoeflic ietllt lpt'Ci!led in (12.35)
, .. _ _ A (r ),
I n - - W(r) ,
f,, ~ - v~::.
I~ = -
IInI
(("t W )2_ AI J.
W (r) sinI 9.
(12.4 1)
I II (12.43) ~+ - m. 15 ' D . rbiu ary par.mlller, .... hich melllUl tha i by usigning it
different values "." obt llin • oll.. p ara lll e ~ f.roily of fUlIC lions. KlHlTting th e
funct ions W (r) . nd A (r) {gin n by (12.42) . nd (12.43», we ce n 11M (12.40) to lind
t.o MU of so lu t ioos:
U (r ) _ ( I _ 2""r), V (r) _ (I _ 2/Rlr)-', (12.44 )
.,d
(12.45)
w, _ thll the d,pelidetlCe of U- 011 ,. has nlliabad I n 51 Weeqlli l"ll! tit, llIean illg
of spU i. 1 dilulI~ I n the e lh c t i" l Rieml nJI . pae..time.
Thi~ a nalysis of the H il ber t-Ei nste in eq\laLlolls as applie d to the gi ven problem
shows that t hoir 8olMions contai n t wo ar bit rary functi ons . with tho Tll!Iult t1,at
tlo e characwrist ica (12.41). (12.49). and H2.:>1) 01 the effective Riema nn space-
tim l.' are not well-delined . I n Cha pter 18 we will See t hs t 8 solution conta ining
l\rbi l rs ry functio ns yi el ds d ifferent phys ica l result! de pend ing 00 the ch oice of
these ronc uo ns. which means t hat G R in princ iple is not a ble I.Gpr ovide epeetne
pffdictions ooneern ing grav ita tion al eflect s. At the !ame t ime the pred ictio ns of
RT e arc physicall y well-deli ned and u namhig uous; RTC corllalns fh~ HIlb w-t-Eln'
sttitt rqual/oM (8.36) 0100 Ik general c~ilInt-fidd rquat IDfIS (8.37), t he IaUer
dell'r mini ng t he str uctur e af th e grav it at iona l f'e ld. What is even mOre important
ill t ha t lif RrG all field variables I" Eq~. (8.36), (8.37) tkfUnd " .. l h~ 6pal lo. l-lem pora l
eoordlflaUf In l M MlnkJr~1 un llM,".
Th is last fact is a conseque nce of ollr fun da me ntal hy pothesis t hat t he gra vita -
tiuna! fIeld is a ph ysical field, is cha racterised by II. certain value of the energy -
moment" ", dens it y, and like all nl her physical fields mus t be d escr ibed in the
Minkows ki space- time. The genera l~llv/lri8 11 t equiltio fla (8.37) com pletel y eumr-
nal e t he amb iguit y in the 8oluUons. where by the effective Riem ann s pace-time,
" 'hi ch appears in flTG in view or t he gaometriutilln prtuctple. is determined
un ique ly.
Nowlet U8 8 n8 1 y ~ e Eqs . (8.37). To wri te t hese eq uatio ns for fUflction. U. V, W,
an d A exp lic itly , we find the mett ic tenS(Il" density g..".For mulas (12.7) end
(12.8) )' ield
?o- w
I/ UV
(V_~l ainO ,
u
Ko'= - A~ si"O,
l'uV
(t 2.52)
8" - - yuv:; W ain e. itz.., - VUVain6, ~ - - VUVlai" e.
To determjne A (r ) it hu proved convenien t to cOflSider Eqs . (8.37) i n Galilean
cooedtnates of an iner tial re leren ee fra me:
8.. (-" =0. (12.53)
For" = 0 t bi s yield.
{Jar" = 0 , ( 1 2 .~)
where we hav e allowed Ice t he fac t th attbe com pone nts of , .... are t i me independ-
enl. E mplllying t ho tensor tr ansform ation law , we ca n est ab lish tllat the ocmpo-
"'lilts of ("" in Galilean coor dinal.,. can be expressed i n t eems Qf the c\lmpo nen t.s i ll
th e spher ica l coordina tes (12.7) Il$ follower
[nleg. a tillg (12.54) over t ho apher ica l volu me anti al lOWing for (t Z.56), we fInd,
In vie... of the rlivcrgence theorem, tha t
, _ A (r,_W j r}
" Y Uy
= 0. (I _' . " )
S intt J:':q. (12.M ) i! val id born inside n o ontlli d. maUer. condit ion (12.57)
$hould be met lor a n)" v.I".
of r , Since W (r) i. nonatto , (t 2.51) im pli e!
A ir) = O. (t2 .r.8)
It ~ eonvH.iellt to wr ite the oth er wrollaria t hat !ollow from (8.3il ia s pht tieal
coord ina tes. To th is en d "'e 'A'T lte (8.37) in the 101l0win, lorm :
D';- _8...t-+.,:.;;-_0.
Allowina: for (12.4 ). (12.52). "ld (12.58). we find th at
:r(YWi n') ,..ZrYUV. (t2.59l
Comb ini ng thi s with (12.20) I nd (12.3 1) y ields
:'- [ V~ VW (V W -2M) d~W J-2,1". d y ", . (12.60)
Below the !olu ti on to th is eq uation is sought as r "" r (VWI, l lla ~ is. r aM .
lnncti (ln 01 y W . whereby i t is t nn\'e n ien t to wrtt e Eq . (t2.60) u
~ [V ~V W(V W -2M) ~] _ 2rV~. (12 .61)
dV W dV W
Ii we intr od uce the nota t ion <1l _ rV'" ....0 can WT itt (12.61) as
A gene..l req llire rnen t of the so ilit ion r _ r(y Wj 1.(1 Eq . (12.63) i~ thal t his
so lut ion must he cOlltinuOUI and monot on ie. Sup pose that t he lllaM 01 t he ohied
is concen t ra ted iM idea ball of ..d ius r•. Let us con sid er rhe eet unc n to E q. (12.63)
ou~i d e t he ball , r.'"
r ~ .." . T ile corr espondi ng ra nge for YW will be VW. ,;;;;
y W < ..". Si nce wit h in th i. ; .. nge p = p _ 0, M ( IV) _ In, an d If { W} ... L
we hive <tl(W) _ r ( IV), a nd Eq. (12. 63) a!!Sume.! tlla form
whar e C. 8nd C, lir e IlcbiLrary eonstant llu mbt.l'S. Slnee (12.36) mus t be va lid when r
hE'Gome.s la rge, we find t hat C t = sn. T(I det ermine t he va lue of e" we m ust lind
t he solut ion to gq . (12.63) inside matter. Let U8 "'Tile tbis equation in expanded
form :
y W (V W- 2M) (~)~ + 2 IY lV- M - 2tf (V Wr'(3p+ p}1 oI<JI_
d ~ W d-yW
( 12.76)
Cl IlIlO L serve u t he Unll element in t he RTC efleet lv. " 1l ml nD . p.c..-ti me. No t.
tha t Iccord ing to Scbwaruehil d'. sctuuce (12.75), in GR there ea n be no stat ie
spher icall y sy m metric o bjectll wit h II, r ad ius equal t o or IOillJ t han 2m.
where pi _ H' + II" cos' e, 4 _ 8' - 2", 8 + II", end ('" 8 , e, ;) _ HtK') are
lb. KtTr cooro iol.l u.
Kerr 'a soluti oo (12.77) does not aalid y the comple te sysllllllo of RTG equ. lions
(8.36), (8.37). Th ill esn .asily be ur ill'" if for lhe eoordin ates in t be Minkowslr. i
apace-lim e we take ~ll[l' u ... quired by RTG, ud s llb3ti t ute t he metric coefficients
frOID (12.i7) into lhe l)'Stem of eq uetione (8.37).
T o ohtela an u teri or u isymm'ktc "" l uti oD to lb. co m ple~ 5)'!1tem of RT G
equa tions for I. 5pinning IOU!!. we em ploy en , pPf'$.ell that en.bles us, 1il"I t , to
IIIe ah• • beady fOll.Dd IOillt iOil (t 2.77) to the system or H il bell.- Eill5l.eill equ at ionl
for cooau ueting I. IOllItlon lh a t wou ld u tisfy 5yslera (8.36), (8.37) ...d . MCOnd .
to IlP.nlll~ ously d , U<'JOi oe t he r. np of verl. blM ~'X l in tbe effecti va R iem ann
s p. c.. l ime . T he lau .r f.et ~ especiall y ;'l1port a nt lor undlll"Stand ing m.n y phys i.
ca l phe nomena and , aa ....il l be deme nsteated i n Ch. ptor 13 ~ing the grn it . ti on al
co llapao as e n .nropl., lu rk s . s illnitita nt d ifference be t w•• n t he predfclioll S Df
RTe and those of C H.
Note t ha t th e . ppro. ch suggesled her e for finding the "" lution of the ec mplete
RTG system of eq uaUo lU can be . pplied in . 11 c _ wh.n the iIO lut ions t o \1'1.
Hilberl.-Einsteir:t equatioT\lll a.re koown III terms Df 10m• • ys l. ... of eoord illa tes , ' .
T be .~..Iem Ilf equ. t1ons (8.37) elIta blisba • eee-re-e ne rel.tioJl$hip between lhe
t oordl n. te5 " . nd tb. Minko.u.i sp.c~ti me coDr'din. u. ,r'. Th ill me.M lhill
lher. tall be only s lI(:b effect ive Ri.maon spaee- t hlles ., . re specirled on a l illli.
IUP. lay , in c..r... i.n eoordiDa~ of the " lillli:....sld l pec...t i",e.
I n t~ ID' of theM DR' coocdiutes I I (below we wJII call t belR th e KelT c.oordiJIl-
ta), tbe non""o cOlD ponenl.ll of 6,. (;') M'I.
I",",
.. - - ,..',i..' , I' __ '+ ....'~ -
(&+ _')'.....-_ 2m8) (8' + a') 1.
(12 .80)
f • , i.."
", (I ) := " (~ + _'> I
0 ..
111" _ 2mB (B"'+e") I.
" .,
t .. (;').: -T-IP"(EP+ 1I., +2nu. IB , in' 81.
and lhe nenee ee componen l.ll (If tl~ (l') ere
Let 1M denote tile Car tes ian (Caill.an) coord inates in tb. M.inko...· ui .pace- ti lll'
by '1"1 a nd I!lIUIl1e that tJle Kerr t:O<m! illa letl t l are func t ion. of z ' . T be D.lurl l
rlll<l ll irem~ u tb a t functiOJlt of tnnsl orma ti(llUl t l _ ~ in RT G IDll$t lIIti.sfy a..
U1 e co ntinui ty a nd e ne- ie-eee nltlUe of th", fllfl(:tiolll in t I.l "" tire Min koW$ki
un ivertO.
111. con<:rete lorm 01 \.be n. lat ionBhi p betwMIl the t l ud the coord iutea z ; of
t be Alinkowski 5p.11c.t i me ca ll be fOllnd froID E,.. (8. 37), wbielt esta blish botb
th e physi ci l IIlN niD, a nd \h I ra.np of \h I l (In lti . lly th e !Ol.utiOBli 1.0 Lb.
Hilbert·Einl toli n eq ua ti OM were ,ivl n in terms of lb. Kin" coordiultlS t'l.
S)'st~m (8. 37) CllI hi reprnealed idee tica lly in Cartesi an coordinates in l ba
follow-i lll llIanlH!l":
JI I ~ Ilf - , (.q " · (..r:j l _ _ t"{..r:j r;..,(.>:)~o . (12 .8:!)
r \-'
where r ;. (.>:) ill defined by (12.9). App lyiul tAe lrsMlor lIlatiolllaw to r;. ('1"),"(",1
fw th" t1bati t olion or t l(z) for Z', WIobta ifl rrom (12.82) lbe follow inl:
r". . (..}t'" (z) _ -Ot z" _ O. n _ O. I, 2, 3, (t 2.83)
.. bUt 0t if ' h, coy,d. llt d'Al embert ian opel'ltor In lh, Kerr veeteb les ~' :
- - ir{··sin 1
Ba: + 2(8' + " jiJ"IJ,
+ ~ ~.'ZB) a.a.+2Ba.+4~ +2(B - ...)a.
:z." tB-_j a
(A+ . ')" .+ 01+_'
1.. ., "
+[ l& ~:')' tl~~' +-.f.rT ]a:+U:+ cot 04. } .
, , I ,
Hue , , ,,,,, 8' - 78 ' iJ' -lifo and ,). - , . .
Wa lfill -X the v.riable z!>;:;:l I in the for m
I _ 'I + 1 (8) . (12.84)
SIIMtit" lion inLo (12.83 ) yi eltls th e foll o....in g equatloD for 1 (8):
!l d'Jj.ll) +2( B -m) ~~hBl + 28 _0, ( 12.85)
.
-aln" llo,.~
+_' [" .-. z]... 0.
71f- d+_i (t 2.90)
,tile lor 'z' Ibe equa tion is th, n llUl e;l;cept Lb,t ain " ia .ubstituted l or (Ol!! " end
oes .. for - .ill qI. Slnu the t wo eq uat ions mu el be va lid (or any vl l" e 01 " . we
wee-sufi! )' errive u
(12.9 1)
so
" d
4'Z li Z
dd81+ 2 (B ~ m) "dF -( ."
(<\+ ",1), (12.92)
Solving Eq. (t2 .9t), we get
Z (B) =V{B m)*+ ai , (12.93)
....hinb also sat isr'8S Eq . (t2 .92).
We have . therefoN , round tbe follow ing sol u ~io rl$ to Eq. (t 2.83):
Thi s 11.1..50 Illltablishes the ta lati llII.!!hip between the Kerr var iables H'l a nd the
Galilea n (Cartes ian) ceerdtnntee Zl in th e Minkowski space-lime.
In troducing Lhe spheroida l coordinate!! {; l } = (t, r -= B - m, e , fJI) in (12.94)
ins tead of the Gal ilean coordin atf>!l and allowing lor the met ric
1'. .. _ " +.' , _ (r l +o' coet 6), - (r' + <l,) sin· O) . (12.9::;)
( I , - "+0'«11"8
we ob tai n the following relatitulllhi ps linki ng the Kerr veetebt es (1, B, e, III with
th e s pheroidal uriablu (t, r, 9, '1') :
t = l+ {(r+rn)+ y m [ ('.. +In) ln ' -+'. - {,_ +m) JIl r_+,_ J},
., <s' '.m '_ "'
( t 2. !lG)
B ... r + m,
where r" = ± Vm" - a'. Accord ing to (t2 .88), the ra nge. 01 r i~
r+-< r;;;;;; oc , (12.97)
lind the Kerr variables 9 and " assume the values 0 ;;;;;; 9 ";; :'t an d 0 < 'I' < 2:<,
etnee (hey ere si mply tile sp herical ang ular var iablM 9 and 'l' in the Minkowl!l<i
~pace- t i me.
From (12.96) it follows th at th e eecereepcnde nce bet ween Ihe Kerr variables
WI ... {t, D, e, " I an d the spheroid al coordi na tes {; l} ... {t, r, e , 'I'} is one-to-
one a nd the 1acobian 01 the reepeeuve lra nsform ation , iJ (WtJ r;), is equal to
unity . _
Aftflr find ing the function s t' (:1'), which are solu tions to the sys te m (If equa-
ti(los (8.37), it is oasy 10 eete bltsb, (In the h sia of (12.80) a nd (12.81), the ,, ~p licit
form 01 Iho soluti on to the complete syste m of RT G eq uat ions f(lr the metr ic
eoefr.cienta of the e (fectivo Riemann apace-t ime ol.taide Ille s pinning ma...... 'To
th is end it is sufftcient to em ploy the tenser tr ansformat ion law
(12.98)
"
AilowiQ, here for (12. 96) and (12.81), ....e o hulll
.......
(8" +,,0)'
o
o
,,·N.i.aoe
",'
- .
o
o
,
o
o
- ,,-• o
-' 0 _ 1 %.II'
prjiii1T+ ''(.H.. I)
(t 2.!ltl)
I n I sh:n lle r ma nner it ca n be demonstrated thd t he non le ro compone nts 01 len-
SOf K IA (i) ere
- 2JrIB - 2oI· ..·B. I"· 0
'00(.7;) = 1- 7 , , ., (z)= - p' &{4+ " ' l
- :!moBlin" -
1.. (%) =
- L
I,, (z) ""- - 4
pi
-
·.i..
• f n tz) - -p' ,
••... ·O
61pi(&+_,}. 1p14 + 2mB (Bl + .a I )l , (12. 100)
I n (12.99) , Ild (12.100) the qu.at it ies B , p', u d 4.re u .nmed to be knOWll Iuuc-
tl ont 01 url lbl. r. Note tbl t ,IJI
(i) ud t .. (z) do Ilot d epe nd on tim l , .
At lZ _ 0 the eolutioo (12.tOO) ill lll nal'o rm ed in to 1IOluti on (t2.71) fo r the metric
c:oelli.cle.nU or t he ellect ive RieolltllD s p.eo-t ime outside . s pb6l'iea ll y s ymmetr ie
objec t.
The U lerior ax lsym metrio eolut lotl t or a llpino ln, eleclr ieelly charged mass "' IS
foun d wi lh ln tlJe RTO h em llwork by Karabllt e nd Gbu","v, 1987. Be low . 'e ri ve
the me in rtllults of the s llld)', wh ich ceus tdered ••pln nlng mu s m with ' Drul er
momen tum m<l, ehergo Q, . nd mIa-litt le mo men t j.l ..;. I Q I lZ. NetulI lly, th e
proble m req ult M solv ing s imulla noou,ly the RT G equa tioll.l (8.36), (8.37) ",d th o
Mu well eq uaUoOl! for tbe e leelromagn etlc lleld
V~ F U. ... _ 41\1', (12. 101)
VIFIl + V,'a, + VA'" - 0, (12.t0'2)
wilen aa U!uI I V~ ill Ihe symbol for the oovarien t deriy ative with I'll!peel lo tb.
metr le I • • o( 111. err~ti Y . RleDlIll1lep __t ime. The oDly nDu ero tllergy-molllllll-
tllm teDleN' of m.lter oubide. the objec t ill the ele.etrom arlletle-fie ld etltlryJ'-mom&ll.-
tum tellSOt
(12. 103)
Wllh ill the OR fra mework l.h. ederlor 1I01uli on to Ih b problem haa belw foun d
by N•• me n and Kerr, 1965. Ja teems of l.he K err coord inates thie eolu-
~ .-
t ioo it
dr-(t- 2-' ,. 9" ) dt J _ 2dB dt
, -
- p'I(09)1- 1;"(BI 1""lit)' _ ,601 I ,riIl' 6j si" t 6 (d;)I (12. 10')
.,
when
i .. _ m ± y m'
ql-; - ta.n-' ( B
4'
-:'" )-+- f.
Qi
P'A(A+.· (1')
'W ith l _ (8' + 11.')' - Q."ii . in'e. Hete 8 , p', a nd :i ' "' assu med to be kne wn
functi on. or r.
Obv iou aly, fl l (il
ill ind ependent 01 I, AMumillllh.t II. :00 0 in (12.109), we er-
rive at the exterior 401llt ion for . n elqetriu ll )· charged . phericall y 8ymmetrl c
object. T he asp eessron for the li ne element in the effectlve Rie menn epeee-u ee in
ephericel coordin. te. of the Minko...osk i .p. ee4 1me Ie
'" - (,-
~ -+ (. +....j' j d'I _ (~
'- "+ -"'
~ j- ' ''''
(12. 110)
- (r + 1ft)' (JlJ> +lIin' 9 dV'),
wilh T, e, . nd 'f ... ry ing With in the Jollow-lna ruga:
1"",LI1' < ' ''';;; 00 , O :li;a ~n , OI!O; .. <2JI.
Apply lnl Ibe ten!Or tra nafonna liOIl hrw 1.0 (12.1OS), ..., ean rind tb. eleetrolll','
net ic fi. ld· s trenet h teM<lr in ~pb ....old.1 coordi a, tts i;l.;
"
h ave
Not\! that such a fleld te created by a n obj* t wi th chl rge 0 I nd magnet ic moment
11 = 10 la,
where T is the proper tilDe, an d R, e aud tp are the spherica l cceed tnet es in the
comovin! reference fume. It Is ex pedient for our dtscusalon to int roduce the
u nivera8 ecu ucn
,1.,.
(1, R, 9, q», (13.2)
Accord ing to (13.t) , the nonZllro metri c co. rr.cients ' ''' " It) are
8.. $ - 1, g,, (t1_ _ t"I. , RI , 8.. (1l - - B'(T, Rl ,
(13.3)
'tf"m... - W IT, R) s in' e .
Using (13.3) , we ca n ellllily flnd the (""m coellieienu that are noozero:
gOOm - l, g"(U " _e·ooo;·· Il), g=(ll=-~ (T, R),
(13.4)
r' (tJ - - 8""1 (T, R) sin-l 6.
The l uncti ollll (j) (t, R) lind B (T, R ) ce n be {(lund Ircm th o H il bert -Einstein eque-
t ion ~.
Following Oppenheimer and Snyder, 1939, let us consider the !impJest v ariH ll t
of gtllviht ion al co lla pse of sphe rica lly s ymmet ric dU!Llike ma lle t with t aro pre!!-
IIU"" The energy -mom entu m te nsor d en al ly in Lilia ease ill
1""'" _ v=8'p(t. R ) u" u". (13.5)
wi th p (t, R ) the self- ene rgy denaity , and u" lb e <I-vector of velocity.
Op penhe imer en d Snyder, 1939, demon stra ted th. t if p is indepen den t of R ,
then in the comoving eeteeenee fram e, or Lh e fra me in wh leh
u· =~
d"
= l IL' = .£!.=
dr'
O lil _~=
dt
O ' ,,_
·
.!!.
dr
= O' (13.6)
the shnpleet. exact eoluuon to t he H tlbe r t-E tns telu S)'.'llem of equations hu Ull~
for m of th e Tolman sol ul ion:
B _R( I _ ~r'! i f R <, R., (13.7 »
B _ { Rlfl _ Rll
•
l ~ ) :IJ · f R -R
t. I _ .'
(13.8)
..... . . II I ...
c·' (-'!!.)'
aR • (13.9)
where
R·• ..., ..!.l7lt·
2 ., (13.1 0)
wi th m th e active gra \'ita li on a l mass of th e object. Solu tio ns (13. 7) and (13 .8)
imply thn t th e rango of va luCl! of "f is hound ed a bove by the valu e t ... t . and
tlult 8 Ct . R) may lUSU rIU all valuel from 0 to 00.
F..,r th /l densi ty of matt er we 1' 81'e the following form ula:
p('t) = 6n \/ t.) " (13. 11)
For all admissible tr ansiormati on functi ons (13.13) these expr1lMions by defini.
"
l ion aut.om atic ally n ti'lfy the Hil bert-E tustet n equa t ions if solut ioll8 (t3.7}-(13.9)
ani taken into account. But in RT G the metric eoelllcients (13.14) must. in add i-
t'''II , sat i$ly th e general-covertant s)"swm " I \!quation! (8.37), whOlle soluti on makN
it possible to find the explicit lorm 01 funct i" n! (13.13) and, heaee, t o obta in
a solut ion to the complete sys tem of e({uati ons (8.56), (8.37) In terms of eocedt-
nalea of the Mink" "'ski space-\i rne.
Following vtesov and Legun cv, 1985a, 1985b, below we give a mere da tai led
a nll!ysis 01 aU these aspects than is given in Chapter 12. The present ation will
demonstra te the lim it ing nature 01the coordi na te condit ions u!I8d in GR and how
RT G lifts this limitati on.
We write the syste m 01 equat ions (8.37) in a somewhat di fferent form. T o this
end we turn to the well-known equality
r l l {;r) K"J(.z) = - _y '
-, -,~.
'
IY -UPl(.z}l, (13.15)
with r : l (;r) defined in (12.9). If we employ th e low 01tr ansformati on (or r : ,(;r)g"l(:r),
the chango in var iables (13.13) yields
f11 (;t)g_I(;r) ... - Oz' , (13.16)
where 0 is tha gtlnera lited d' Alembert ian operator,
De Donder, 1921. 1926, and lat er Fcck, 1939, 1957. III solving island pt<l blama,
e mptoyed noncevnnant harroonic condi tions of the type
~:p rV- g (.z) eN (I'll ~ 0 (13.19)
as preferred coord inate cond it ions. But why must these cond it;oM be writ ten in
the Riema nn space-tima io wrms 01 Cartesian coordi nates? Naither de Donder nor
Fock could pre- tee an explanation, srnee there ca nnot in pri nci ple be any global
Car~18 n coordin at es in a Riemannian geometry, a nd they had no idea of the
funda menta l tmpoeta nce of the Minkowski space-time tc gra \';Ly.
On the besie 01 (t 3. i8) we can writa condition (13.19) 85 follows,
O x'" = 0, q = 0, 1, 2, 3. (13.20)
For th is reason lhecoord inat.es Xl satis rying (13.20) becama known as "hermonlc",
Remaining within the framework 01 GR, condi tion (13.20) cannot be madeeovar i-
a nt. In har monic coord inates the Hilberl.-E iMtei n system of eq ueuc ns simpli fies
considerably, whtch ap parent ly prompted Fock to call t his system preterred. If
we wish to retain condi tion (13.19) a nd maka it universal , we must write it in
Co\'ar ian t forOl, which as noted earlie r is impoS!lible in GR . The new field equations
ceo be found if we \.urn to the physical suncture 01 the gravitatinnal 6eld. III
Chap ter 8 !.his approech led us to Eq. (8.3),
V - It (s ) D"Uf - g (J'} gpq (x)l = ~ ,a p IV- I(;r) 8"(z))
- r s s
+...:'~ (;t)g"'· (Z) _O, (13.21)
88
-'-(E!.lP.!!.)
Jt dn h
~ TN
' [(!!'.)'IW!!.-]_
iJR dB
')r dB
- 7Ti'
(13.27)
By solving these equa tillns we can esta blish the relaliuo8h ip th at exisl.!l between
th e eoeedine tea Rand 1: of tho comoving reJerellCO fra.me and the coord inates r
and t of the Minkowski space-t ime. Therefore, the eoluucns fi~ t he expl icit lorm
of th e admi99 ible functions (13..13) .
From physica l cOllsidera tions it is clear that f(lr a actuttcn tc eJlist the tr ans-
farmatlon! (13.13) must he one-to-one and the tem poral axes t and t must point
in th e same direction. These requirements lead us to the following soluUnns (Vla-
sov and Logunov , 1985_) Lo Eqs. (13 .26), (13 .27):
,, - -V1l+-VZ;;; (13.28)
t .. t- 2 y 2mB +2m ln VB -v "'"- '
r=B-m . (13.29.
Here for the sake of brevity \>'/1 ha ve not substituted tile explici t form of the
fun ction B = B (t, R).
Smce th e rang«'! o! th e nrillbles :If' _ (t , r, e. lJl) , which are t he coordinates In
the Mlnkowski apace-ti me, are ii.ted, the ranges of t (I, r ) end R (I, r) in RTG must
be sped lled in accord ance with the ra nges of th e Mlnhwski s pace-t i lD e vnria b l ~ z~ .
Th e M)llltion (13.28) u . pp litd to lh a ex terior problem direel.ly i mplies Lbd m. u.u
..
i n • nonst.. tic . pheric. lI)' . ymmel.rie RTG pro blem oor.up[a, " l Oy Lillie t , • • phttll
01 ndiUII 8 thd i$ . 1.... ).. gTUler thn 2m. T ht valu e B _ 2m ill aU. lned 11$ t
i. en L to i ll ~ n i ty. Th us , we ean . 1"". )" write
B(T,R»2m. (13.30)
Genera lly , th ph ).. lu l mtllllLIl( of the YlIrlabl es E-, in term s of ..hlek the
Hil bert· Ein.llteln equ atiotll ate IIITiUell. , is l!!lublished ...hM we link \b4rrI to t he
eoon!i ....lelI :&" oI tbe Minkowski . pu . t ime via (13.22); lh . t ' become In add i-
ti on. l eoordill.lw ,,'Ste lll in the Iofi llko...u. i spac:..Ume. H ~ if Ihe SOhl U OllS I • •
to the Hil bt-rt· Ei nslein 8qutt iolU hold l.rUIl ill • certa in rante Q of var iables i.- ,
then Eq!l. (13.22) usu.lly Dl rr ow the ri nK' of t', Ind these n riah les, in view
01 (13. 22), are r" net ious not ooly 01 th e cooni lnl La r" but 01 the gr",ita tioll.l
field u well. The . , et l,l-te lllpocal rtg'ion 0 " in whlcll th e t' may V ir) ' , defined
in (13.:12). doel Dot colnelde wi th Q.
Thus, while i n ler rn.!l of .ll: ~ with t he metrie teMOr Y.. ~ (.II:) th e sys te m of equa-
tl OIlS (8.36 ) h u . $O lut lon ,;.. (z ) . io ter ms of t- with. th e melr ie tensor
tb e No me sys le", of equ.tl<ms hIlS , soloUOo , ._ (t) o" ly ill Q- . H eeee, not every
so lu t ion , •• (U 10 t he Hi lbert- Ei nstei n eq ua li ons wi th , - E Q sat isliu \.he sys te m
of el!,"n ions (13.22) or, whieb is t he $lime. the .y. ~m of eq ua ti ons (8.37 ).
LQ t us now esta blish th e Ior m of the rectere teo$(l r y"," for t he MinkoWllk i epece-
li me i n ter mAof thll eoord inetea ," _ ('I", R, 6, ,,) of the eOfilo ving reference fume
by emp loy ing th.. tellllCll' tun sformatlon I,.
(13.31). Here , l(;Cording to (12.3) •
...;.. (z) ~ ( I, _ t , _ r . - r" s i,,· 6) IlDd Ihe rel s tlonshi p bet ween (t , r) ud ( I:, R)
is ~ 1"ed by (13.28) s nd (13.29).
We ah:ulate the transforma tion lJtalr i!<
., .!c o o 1
.., .,
"iF "" "i1f
.". n
Tif 0 0
~
(13.32)
0 0 I 0
0 o0 t
Combi llioc (t3 .8) wit h (13.28) alld (13.29), 111"1 obUt in
o o
o o . (13,35)
o o - (B- ...)~ 0
o o o _ (B _m)Zsinl(l
On th e hasss of (13.33) wa ca n writ f!
1\ 1:l (~ . R)
'1'.. ( 'o} -B(~, H )_ 2m
[I
+ IJ"2 (2m)'
(~ , R}
1J (~,
B (l, R)
Rl
z",
m] , (13 ,36)
For B > 2m the metric 1'",. (t) has n o s ingu laritie.1. A ~ j ngu la ri ty in 'I' m" (~)
e merges at B = 2m.
Employ ing form ula (13.35) for th e me tri c tensor '1'", . (t), we CIIn fi nd the ex pree-
aton for the Hne element in th e Minkowski s pace-ti me in terms of thecomoving
coord inates ~" :
(13.40)
We write it in the lorm
do' = d~' - dl', (13.41)
where
(13.4 2)
,.d
( 13.43)
wi th
(13.4 4)
From (13.41 ) it follows th lt ~ 1.1 the ph ysi cal ti me (Logu nov, 1985) and, t herefore,
must be reel whil e dl' must be positive. s ince it is th e squ are of thl! spetfelsepare-
t ion bet ween two d 05B1 y lying poin t ~ in th e ord ina ry three-d tmens tonel space. In
vi ew of Srl vlll5 wr' s cr il.erioll, the qu adra tic form (13.'13) will be po~ iti ve definit e if
I n ' :t.. , and 'X u are positi ve. T h i~ im pJin B > 2m.
Allo wing for (13.4a) in l hll definition (13.43) 01 dl', we obta in
Th o eqn a tions of udi al moti on of test pa rt icle s in metr ic (13.4 7) wil h a zero
voloc lty a nd lIplltilll infinity ca n be writte n 8S follows (Vlnsov lind Log un cv ,
198511, 1986a);
!!!- - -~ l/ 2m £!.."" _ m(r - m)(' - r....) (lH8)
d/ - r+m r+ m ' dl' (r+m)' ·
Th ese equa ttc ns 5Ugge:s t t h at it takes an lvl'l ni tc u me i nt er va l for a l.llst par ticl e
to rail on a s phere 1I1 rad ius r = m:
( "-
dl ) ,_'" _0. ("')
dl' r _", _0. (13.40'
T hi.s llrtcct can he ca lled Ira~'illl tillna l tlm~dilatilln [vfascv and Logunov.1 985a ,
1986/1)_
Let ua ILOilo' retur n to fo r mulas {13.28) a nd (13.29 ). Wa N!illtroo uCe t he nniver sa l
g ra vi ta tiona l cc nste nt and wr it e the expression lor proper t ime in ler m.~ 01 t he
v ar iables t and r 01 the Mink owsk i s pace-l ime :
wheN! the rate of rad ia l fall dB fd T ill tll11 (13. 3) metr ic with n> 2mG is
E!.= _ ~ ,r ];G
d. V B
and , ill vie w oi (13 .28),
-*"18- 1 lind :; I, = - v ~ ~,
"
we obta i n
" ,
'7f = '7f=ij;{[ .
Goi ng back to r vill (t3 .29) in Ih is for muls , we find that
dt _ ,-meG dt.
.+.. (13.51)
This (lX p~ion show! that lor 8 freely fallin g object the proper tim8 in\erva l dT,
with ' f'xed um e inLervs l dt of an uternal observ er, tends to zero as r appr oaches
th e hor il OD (i.e . u , _ mG) and, hence, all physiclil proees.'le.'l in t he re ference
lram e ec movt ng with t he falli ng o b j ~ts sl ow dnwn wi th out lim it . Aelu s lly ,
however , si nce in RTG the value 01 r is alwa)'! grea te r t han mG, the fall ing 01
• test body on anothtr object OCCUfll over a nniw time interval both for t hecomov-
log observer and en u t.ern al observer. Ti me d oes not ceese to now in ei th er reler-
eaee frame. Such a process is in all mpeets simila. to th e f, lIing of , test body
on the su, bee 01 a star.
We now use r esl.riet ion (13.30) to find the range of sdm issihle T'$. Since B (R, T)
aed T are link ed b~' (is.8), restJiction (l3.SO) mu ns t hat proper t ime r never reaches
T• . From t he vie wpuint of en utern . l ohserve r the sur lace of 8 spher ica l sl.8r, for
examp le, o( ~nd i us" R = R., . ppr oacllilll the he-t een (a Schwa raschild sphere of
t8di u~B (R" T) ... 2m) ever anln fllllte ti me int erval t, while for th e observer In th e
comovi ng reference fn me this precess occurs over a finite proper time illi erval
T~ -[ I -( ~ tlfo. l I 3.52)
Th is formula can easily be deriv ed (roOl (13.8) if we allow for ( 13.30). Thus, tile
RTG equatiOJls (8.3 7) l imit t ho r ange of T'S i n t he following ma rmer: T < to < 'r • .
LeI us calculate t he 1i00Iting value of density p. In to (13. t t) we sub., tit ll!e th e
express ion (13.52) for T~ , etnee th is expresetcn is \"nlid for R _ R•. We then lIa ve
a
I)",.,, "" 32Jtm.. ( 1 3.~3)
We see th at p does not become infini te because the new field equa t ioM (8.37) guar-
antee t hat proper tim e .. does not. become eq ual to t • .
Note that whi le solutions (13.8). (13.9) 10 tile H il betl·E iMl ein equa t iona have
meaning in t he entire ra nge of values of proper time, 0,,;;,; Tt;;;; Toj' accord ing to
t he RTG equat ions (8.37) t hese soluti ons hs ve no physical meaning ill t he region
fro m To to T, . ·
Fro m the vtewpeint o! an exter nal observer, t he l uminMit y of a coll apsi ng
object expooenti all y fal ls of[ (the ob ject " black ens"). but oot hi ng nnlUu s l lls ppens
to th e object since its density a lweys r ema ins finite.
• Thus, the S'S'fmCD I uI ~rdovlch 'nd Grishclluk , 19136, \.hi t ' H r y solution 1<1 , he Hil-
bi>rt·Ein, tein ",\ ualiOllO ,,"u.n ... E~ •. (ll,S' l .nd t ~. t Ih.. ~tuall on e hon~ outh ing is li mply
e' roUtou'. G,n 'tIltiOlll l coll, Pl'l' in IlTO iU... drao1lCllII)' from grovits liOll. 1 tollal'" in 0 11 ,
a l ~ u 10 lhe IOTllIer the...... n be 110 cotllstrophic WDlraelion uf .... u~ 10 an laulle dcnoity 10
all hor Ihe~ ' WOldiolw or l be WIllovlng word ioal . ~• . N, ithtr ClIO Iht .. be any oinguluitiu
or l'fIgloo. blocked fro", an e1~I'D. I obs&w,. In \.hia,..".. Il TO c,o c""ta ln nO such ob ~1$
til""'" u "bJatk bol.." in OR, ob;«:ta that dlpetld only onl h. ", OM ond cbs.g, of the o:ollll"l"ll'
object and thai have oellhe. maleri.1 boundar ;.. no. 10.... slruclure. Tho co)lapu 01 I n ob ~t
10 RT O asy", pl<ll;<.IlIy ttllds t o. " ote wi th . fmlt. deo.lt y In d . 6n i~ Nldlua , Ihe lalter 11.....y.
helog g.....ter Ihoo M.G . Sucb aD o1>j.<Ialw. y. Iu.. a m_ten d hOUDdll' Y_lid 011 in_ ••• t .... I""' .
N"lP"'Ylu tional "oaI £od l'f,~i ti o(' Il i O~ l nd motW doea nOI dlillpp, o, from OllTspOet . A.-.!ing
' 0 RT G, lnllltun tho.... coo 1>6 n. II1>, r IU lic M r nOMIOl]c 6pb.rkllly symme\.Tle o1>jeeUl wit h
• ••diua I... then or oqllll to ...c.
sa
Desp ite the fact th.t g:r..iu.tioDaI eontrac tion of • _ ive object to t be ! tu
of the respecti •• Schwl.n!C;ltild sph,,.. ,h.'faUltM' finite pro~ lIllI. iDUlru l Tc o
,..il kh is al •• ~ .b.....lu t hall ".. . . c.lI ll nuu •• y l hl t the object bu re.u:bId th is
SU te beeaU5ll ift RT C this is impossible in pr inci ple, llinCI,lJC;h I sta w eOllSt itu ~
• limit ...,d is .eMoved ooly ",hen u e e I in the Minkowski . p.e ...t ime bec:o _
inr,nite .
1.&1 UI now turn 1.0 t he problem 01 t lMl motion of \ l!lIt par t itl el in m.lries (12.99 )
. nd (12.109) . Fif1t , foll owina: Vl u ov lind Leg uncv, 1987, we consider the m oti on
i n metr ie (12.99).
To de termine the tr ljeclOor ia of test bodies in . pherold. l eOOl'd inllel (;l) WI
UK lbe H Ulill on-heohi "llI, t ioM
... (t3.54)
(13.55)
.,,-he re S is the eeuen in legnl of . tes t. part icle in lllI!t r ic (12.99) . Equ atl on (t3.55)
yi eld.
s- -
et+lIlql +S (r)+ S (8),
(" '''l' _ k _ a1cosI O_ (Gt slo e _ • )'
-;j§"""'" 5io l •
lthen ~ II, . nd A: eee wnlI!.tnts. T il. forCllIlI. for as (r)/lir GOrn!lPllnds to Lb,
ClIM of f.llill' p"tieles.
Eqn lioll (13.54.) IbCII }"itkl.s
~:;;; V {s [ (ll~ + (r+ m )')' - a' 6 Ilnlfl] _ 2m4ul(r + mlJ.
d_
"Tt-
~
11('
[1(,'+ _+"')')
+ \_+ ..
_1' 61k +
_ . ·6 In 1 ~ (r + ..) •
_+")')
(13.5 7)
~ 2.0lOI (r+ _ ) .... +~..:.in· ll
-;jj = . If. I+ \'+"')')' 7.1", I lAi It) £I;OI\r+ . j
. .. 11(.,+(,+ .,·,_ _ 1' 6 11 + (, + _)' )
- ~ + .· " I(a + ('+ . - I ~ I'" I Ir+ - J '
#it A Y'I . 1 <*l' It , . aioli ..w. ill
T = 11(.' +1 _+_)1"_._,,, III ' ll)-£;; (' T II) .
W, see th lt as th e pertic)es ' I ll to the horilon (r ..... r+ , 6 .....0). ~illl'l in the
Mlnko"... kl ap. c..t ll'lle ten d. ~o inllnity whil, ugle OJ' rIlm. inl finit e, Or dOJl/dt ..... 0
Ind dOJ'fdR < 00. t hat is , th e partlcl9'l take I II InfinHe Ume to f. 1l to the hori zon
and do not ~ w i nd around lhe horil on. Such dec:e lel8 t ion can he unden tOOli Irom
M
a qu.!itat iv, I n. lys is 01 t he forc8.I . et ing on tbe partlc ). in the v lc!olt y of ' +.
From th e uprelJlons (13.57) for lhe vs loch y cOlllpo neots of. p"t icl. in . phero-
idal coord l.lll'" we hn.
{Il"}- {V "~i~'tll* . y r:t + a' c(i;! 8 =, yr:t+41 $in8 · 11l (13 .58)
From th i' it read ily follows thd in the vicinity of the hori zon
,".
V" :::.: 4 , di" ::>! e.
that is , as r--+ r.;., aeceleratl on and vel ocit y tend to sere.
Suppose ths t 0 '= Jti2. Then for the rad ial component of the eccelsration spe-
c ifil;s lly ,
N ' (b
"T<" - ~ 7i , oi ) -
y rt+ V=. + a' {di"
") ' ' (13.59)
It_
,.,.,. r.
(t + y:- (13.70)
"'
~ El z;;;w;- <: 1.
R .I+ ~ d VW V~ , (13.74b)
we find Ib n
,y. = d1" _ (I _ V) dR' - W (dII ' + , in" & dlJ'), (J3.75)
""bercl V m~ l be up~ III lermt of R ind 1 .
Equation (13.75) implin th .t for $Olu lioll (12.75) t he si nculari ty 00 lh,
& b. ....bi ld sphere d itlppeart. From th is the . dh.... Dt te Gil coneludea lh' L
th e rallillc obsen'er lnely U'OS!tf the SchlRl'UclJlld sphen:, which meaDS lhat
1flI"ltatlOllal colla . . occurs ' nd a hlack hole il formed .
Aa foll ows fro m metr iC' (13.63) an d th e tran.!fOTmation (ormulu (13.14.) 'Dd
(13.14h). th . rad i. 1 velocity of • particle fallinl alolll the ~h"l'UICb ild radi...
is liven by t be formul.
(13,16)
"
In CR , U Y _ t and U "" t - 2MIVW, which I mplie~ that the veloci\y of the
particle on the SchwarnclJild aphere i.$ finite. Since the J aeohlan of th e tr a n.'J -
formllti(m is 8190 fi llilll, one ie a ble in Gft to exp and the appliCJI biliir, region
fot Eq. (13.76) to the singulari ty In the curvature Inva riant R ' ~ PQR I " .
In RT G wit h a m8ll!1iv8 grav ito n, th e s itua t ion Ie enti rely difflmm t. S ubsti -
tuting (13.73) into (13.76), we o btatn
VW _2M + ~ ,
,
which !Uggests that Y W >2M.
Th us, the fact tha t the grav iwn has II ucneeec WlW, irrespective of its magni-
tude, leads to repulsion of parti cles of mat ter fro m the &:h,,"arlSChild s phere.
In vrew of the s ingularity in solut ion (t 3.73) OD t he Schwsrzschdd sphere it
lo\l o~ the t i n RTC there Gin be DO spheriGa lly symmetr iG objects , either static
(I I nonste tiG, with a radius equal t(l or 1 ~ than th e gravita ti(lnal rad ius, which
abo m eens that there are no black holes.
' ("
~ ., ...T+7Tiii
....,., 8if )' ' (H .t )
whaxe f (R) > - 1 i. an arbit rar y fuactle n of variahl e R, and m a positi ve eee-
aLant .
Note that th, collectio n 01 varia bles (t . R, 6, lp) used in represollLat ion (13. 1) Inr
me line element M coincidllll wiLb the Gollectioo of tomoviog coord inalell ~ .
(t , R, (I, ",) [see Cha pter 13).
To bd \ h IlOIIIt iOll tha I u lwy 1I0t oa ly Eqa. (f4 .f ) but abo RT G equa ti OAl 01
t.ha form (8.S7),
( f U)
""0 1nU81 tra lUl ~r Irom the comov iq tOOrd iDlltes to coordinatn z i = zl (l, c, 6, ~)
" Ia th e form ul u
I _ l {'c, R). r _ r ('(, R) (14.3)
..
..I .
r - (h ). - (71f
")' e-e, ,.. '
~
--7' ,
"'- -"'Ji'ifiifT.
(14.5)
Not e t hat ai ' ( R) => 0 t ba systllm of eq lLRtiOll' (14. 1), (14. 6). (14.1) eoineidu wiln
t he s yste m (13.9) , (13.26), (f3 .27) .
No,.. let 113 h d t hll sol ut ioD.lJ 1.0 &qa. (14.6) and (14.1) for all val uM of / r uler
lhl ll _ f . W. wi l l _Ii: a mallie,U. (14.5) iooepaod' llt Ilf n r iab l, t:
~ , " (:1:) "",0. (14.8)
""bielt im pl iea thlt r _ r (8). T berefore , ..... -.It th a 1IOIuti oA 1.0 Eq$, (14.7) ill tha
for m r ,.. r (8 ). We thell h. " e
:'
;. (S: -2mB) + :; (2B - 2Jn) - 2r_ O, B >2m.
T h is ~qull i i oll has II unique regu lar eeluuc n (P~k , t 939, f 959, an d V[u ov an d
Legu nov , HlllSb)
r _ B _ In, r ;;'In. (14. 10)
(14. 12)
.w,
" (8) _ ~
l- holS .
The sl Ul ull.llD ei ~y conditio n lor eystl m (t4.t 2),
' ("if
Mf ' ("
" ) = ""if Tit )'
ena bltlll WI to lind tb , lund iClll 'i' (B ). lor wllieh we bl ve the following equat ion:
~ ( t--})+ '¥~ _O.
Takiq for the solutIon to the equatioll the function
'f (B) _ (t - 2"JB)- I, (14. 13)
H ID) = 1.
Then &Is. (14..12) yield the followi"l .lystem 01 equations foe- I:
"
. . = .y~
, + 1 ( 1 - 7'" )-' •
'1 '8'8 (1 - B2..
"iif ="lT "Tli"
r vm
,' (H .t4)
.+- ,+-
dr= ~dJI-
,-. dr' _ (r+ ",)" (o'8"+ Ulll e~ .
BIl\ th ll lOlu llOD. eorre:spoa dl to th e eQe of , .ulic .ph_leally sy mme trie ob ject
(1". t 8)
lite Ch aptu t 2). Hmce, Birkhofl'. Ib eorem hold. \ru. i.. RT C, OJ' e nOnlUt ie
sph_leell y sy mm etr ic 501lree pnu.tes a ete ue rr."iUti oo alli.eld in th e u leri oc
of th e lOUr«!.
a..'"
r- - O. (15.6)
,.
' 00
Let ~ _
4>"'" (f, I) . nd
,.
the m ililani method of tolYiD.g Eqs. (i 5•.lij. W. write the tl ll80n
r- (r, I) 10 Ier1u of tlImpon l Fouri. iolegnla:
(t 5.7)
t.)
T·~ (r ,l) _
r
J
(fl
,-1o"T""'(r,~)di.l. (IS.8)
,OJ
Sinee ¢l" . (r, t) .nd r " · (r , t) ... real, the Integr' l r.pr_ nt. tioD~ (15.1) l od
(15.8) yield
(¢l""'(r, IltW - <Il-(r, - 11» .
(I) CIl
(r- (r ••)) 0_ 1-(r. _ ...).
Hft'l! &1M!. in 1I'bal follows the Week i ndM:es usume ..l ues t , 2, , ad 3. 011 the basb
of (15.1 t } ween us U)' uprtl$S ~ (t, II) ln tarlDS 01t b.upltl, l Fouriu trll1s1orlllll
~ (f, . ) tbm:
- '
......(r, lol)- - -;r iJ.fJ,fP (f, tI),
(15. 14)
Thus, th, !IOlutioll (15.10) to the RT G ayslem 01 equa ti ons conta io. onl y ' ix teee-
pondent Fourier tr.nsfOl'lJ\s.
Th • • p. till Fourler tr. nsfOl"ms tJ)4 (e, \1» ca n be I'I'l:itle n in • for m th. t will
b ter en,bl. us to c1.molUlr ' le t he quadrupolo nature of ¢I"~ (r. I). AUowin, for
(Ui.12) ..... ean writ ll forlllub. (15.1O) lor t h•• p. ti.! Fourlll'l" tr.nsfOl'm5 .. follows:
o-"(r, (0).... - -;- $ O<> (r , w)- -,l;r a" [ lflOI (r, w)- +~ (r, w) l (15.24)
Combining (15.23) , (15.24), and (15.9) with (t5.21), we arr ive at the fall OWing
expression for ¢I'll. [r , w) outasde mat ter :
¢I"'~( t, ",)_ ~ (r , w) - ~. (8"a,..S,d (r, w)+ aao"s"°(r, lol})
Now lel us d~vota mOre at ten tion 10 solution (15. 15). Exp anding R-l in powers
of r -' . where r 19 tho distance from the SOun:/l', eenle. to th e poin t wheu the field
is deLeeled . and assuming that the lino at d imensions 1)1 t he source li fe much slu lle r
th en r, we find tilet (15. 15) yields
lb~~{r, <.(1) - - z;" ~ ei"'R"'''z'~ '~ (r'. Ill)
(8) \ 11
+2t.r oo (1' , 1lI) + e.e"T "'(1' , wll d'r ', (15.28)
with e" = r>lr and e,Jf' = _1. I n going on fnlm (t 5.15) t<J (15.28) we have
dropped the nonweve terUlt, which (ail of! faste r th an ,.'. Subst ituting (15.28)
i ot<> (15.26), we get
S~( r , "') - - ~ 1e;..R(,1:'.%'~-+'f'lI'l:~:l:'O)
{OJ (1 )0 ( V)
x f1""(r ', (o)+2« .T · (r'. w)+e.e, r "' (r' , w)] d' r' , (15.29)
It can ellllH y be demo nstrated tht , to within te rms of the order of r""' ,
a"S""'(r, lol) = - IIM. ,s'"lI (r , loll,
ffS'4( r, w) _ _ I<:.Je"S"' ~ ( r, w).
Thi~ ~Oll ble8 wri~ing (1:i.2.:i) ~h u~;
¢lAII ~(r, w) ""~{ r , ",,) + ~~S"~( r, 'C<l) +t~~~( r, Itl)
- T 'I"~. " S·« r, "')++ ~"',~,SO '{ t, Ill). (15.30)
' bet! If' I. an e ipn!undioll 01 Ole heliel'y opera tor i ~ with I D eirennlue equal to l .
Tb us. (t 5. 47)l mpliee that " ,. art thu~..rl;lnctionl 01 opera tor i,
th at dteeliblt
th e IItaleS of the grui utiollal field 1rith heli e ll ies l _ ±2, repec:t ively. Tbe
r_
s laleS of th e grav itational field wiUl he l icit.i~ l _ ± l an d l _ 0 have 110 phy. le.al
mN nlna sln.ce th e torftlllponcllDC eil' enfunetiool ea n a lways be made equ.l 1.0
lJIrourh a ppro priate C. uJll u .nsform at ioll5.
Thill, lhe lIU percoonI ina\ll ttaD!lformationl (15 .16) h ave excluded lb e noo-
pIIy. ital components of <ll- . The f"." i u\!on. 1 lield proves to be • • pl n-2 lield
with helleill es ± 2. Only phy! i 1 rom pollellts of th i' field w ill enter into lhe
oxpre.sslon for the gr. vlt.lion.I, av e n ux, aDd lhe melri c te nlar for th e elYect lve
Rieman n space-Umo is eonatruet.ed on th e hR, ls 01 (8. 1) frnm Ille phy,ieal eOD;l Jl'O"
" t nts of the field. It is th illoature tbat fixllll tho geornot.ry 01 lhe Riema nn space-
t ime.
Now, foll owing Ei nstein , 1918b, wo ....1ll ee!culate the llllenl ily ol llTev ltatlona l
wav es in th e GR Irame work. Th e meth od 01 e. leul .tinc the inw ll5ity aUilf tllld
by E in.Ue lll IIld t he var ious mod ificatio ns hue ga illed wide aeeepll llCll end 11'0
, ive.ll In mllly ut ielell IIl d mOllogr. phs. I n th is cll aplft we e mploy \lie Vlrla rlt
wed In La nda u and Lifah i\.ll , 1975. As is well-known , \lie HHbert.-Eio.ste ln eq UI·
ti ons I..d to th e followiog cllfl_ lItill ClIll!ll!1'vat ioo l.w:
a" I-I (T- + r--) I _ 0, (tS. 48)
...ben ~ _ ~ is the werrY-mom,nhlIo ~udoUIlfI)r of the gravi ta tion.1
tildd. I nUpatillc (15.48) over I ....ffi&ieotly l~ vol uml l Dd ummipC th . t the l'O
is 110 tr l.llSport of m. lttr th rourb t be run.ce bou nd lDI th e ill~t ion volume,
.... obta in
(15_49)
.os
Accordin g to Eim~l.eill, t 918b, the right-hand side of (15.49) a t Il1 = 0 is "for
certa ill the loss of energy by the mateT;s ] syste mn and , hence ,
-*- -f ( -g) '(lI<adS~. (15. 50)
Then the "'!DeIgy nu",~ Ilarried by th e gravl ta t iQnaJ waves th rough th e element al
5urfaC8 arn as.
is given by th e formula
dl => ( _g) '( 0<> dS. . (15.51)
If for the su rface of in tegr at ion we ta ke a s phere of radiusr (the as" _ - re.. dO),
then for t he int ensity of gT8vitatiollal wevea per unit solid ollgle we have
"
Jg = - ..=( -g) ",a"e", ( 15.52)
where dn ill th e unit solid angle. Cale ula tiog ( _g) 1:0" tr um, say, tho peeude tensoe
given in J;,an dau and !,ifsh it l , 1975 ( p. 282), we find that ill tho weak -field appl'OK-
Im. lion combined with (15.41) and (t 5A2) an d the TT gauge condit ions .
This leads to t ho following tra nsfnrmat ion 01 formula (15.52) lor the inten sity 01
grav ita t ional waves per unit ilO lid angle :
-'!-_-"-
dO 32..
( ....
dl
)( ....
011
)' (15.54)
Substit uti on of ( 1 5.4 ~) into (15.54) yie lds
~~ "" ~n [+(~"e;o·"~· ;--+"ji~D~a+~",aD~·ii ""l ( 15.55 )
I n tegra ~iD g (f5.55) with res pect to the an gular ,' aria bles a nd a llowing Ior
....=
) dSle..~,e ~ (1'..,'l'" ,+ y..oY~. +l'".,,~o)'
we alTive at the well-known quadr upole formu la lor t he to lal intens ft y, which
was first e~ la h1ished hy E inatei n, 19l 8h :
I . , . "'aJ
1 - trDdD , (15.56 )
wh ich imp lies that
1>0. (t 5.57)
Formu la (15.56) for the intensit y 01 grav iUt iona l waves haa been deriv d in
GR on t he assumpti on th at th e ;rA coord ina tes in t he ent ire Riem ann apace-time
are Cartesian . If we Were to select other coordinatllll in CR , we would arr ive at
a n ent irely d iflere nt result, whic h mea ns th at (15.56) is not a cOrllllary 01 CR.
T he deri vation of formula (15.56) given abov e in ttle GR framework is hued Oil
the de finit ion of energy n U ll: v ia (fS .52). And the la tter conUins thl) quan t ity
~ , which Is not II tens or.
An anal ysu. cond ucted in Dentsov a nd Logun ov , 1982d, aud vtasc v and Denise... ,
1982, ha s sho wn th at , dependi ng on tbe ch oice 01 thll ayste m of eocrdinat es, the
energy Dux ( t 5.52) thr ough every element of a spherical s urface of ar bit rary u d iu$
""
r and, hence, the tota l energy now (or toull nte.nsity) t hrough the ent ire spherictl
surface in th e ecurae 01 & finite and fixed ti me i nterv,l may be p().'l itlve or negat ive
or eere, in contrast to th e l5Ilertl on in Ei n"-ein, t 918b.
By selecting e n ap propria te reference frame in t.hll OR fram ework a nd lIarl/ og
from. Mfinillon (tS.52), in tile weak·field approxIm.tioD we een derive (Denisov
and Logunov, 1982d, and vleecv Rod Dentsov, 1982) tbe following formulas for
the intensity per unit soltd angle a nd tot,l int.ells ity 01 gravi ta t ioDal wavea:
41 1_4 [ I " ' " Il. l 'n . •• '" •.• "'''''' ]
'
dif "" "'Jij;:I .1" (t"t~D - 1~ + 2D<dD +e"t~ Dr>4 D , (15.58)
I . . .. , . . a
1_ ~" D,.~D " , (15.59)
with a an arbitrary constan t. We Be. th at only when a '" 0 do we get formulas
(15. 55) and (15.56). If, for ono thing. we take '" equal to +1 or _t, we fmd that
the inlen si' y per unit soli d angle di ldO a nd the tota l intellsity vani sh.
We have thu s arrived a t t he cooelll.'lion tltd lUI a ppropriat6 11hllice of refel"6Jlce
frame may result in t he arbi u ary sign 01 di ldO and I deflne d in GR , aCGordillg to
Eins1.eill, 011 Ihe basis of (t 5,52) or oven n nUify t hese tw o quanti ties, Thu ts
lIbsurd from tlte rlamlpeillt oj phyrles, d ll« radlatWIl, klllg a phyrtco.l reality, cannot
M " annthll<JUd" bV all appropriate trD.MJlN'ma1 /(Jn of coordlrnuu ,
In contr ast to GR, in the fremework o! RTG, as we will shortl y demonlltrat e,
there are no such dirficu lti es and th e formulas (15.55) and (t5 .56) ara str ict corOl.
lar ies 0 1 Dil l' theoret ieal idel5.
At the base of inlen sity ca lculati ons \lo'a place th . covar iant RTG eOllS(!fv Qlioll
law in th e (9.23) form:
".
D.. (T:" + t{llro) -O,
I n Chapter 9 this form of th e covariant cOl1llerva ti on 18wlor the energy- momentum
ten sor of matter and gravi1.8tlon al field take n together was shown to be io all
(t5 .60)
I'lI'l pect.as imilar to tho covar iant eonseevatle n Jaw (6.28). We h ave ehOOllD (15.60)
as tha form for the couseevancn law lor pu rely techn ical reasoos. For
already h VI the repJWentali on (9. 13), in which we have ~o:>l llted the term tb at
we '"Ir;,..
is the co:>varia nt divergence of the ten sor X'/..' , which is a ntisy mmetric in th e upper
indices, and tha~ , theretcre , cont ributes nllthi Dg t o (15.60), - U we allow fo r (9. 13),
formu la (15.60) ceu be rewr itten as follows:
D", (T:' + ..:) _ 0, (15.61)
where
..~• =- "L
~ I ' [G-' +21
+""'i&I - G-'~I ] D-"
I -"",Ipql"/ ~g, (15.52)
I n contrast to (t,) .48), t be left-ha nd side of (15. 61) ill a tr ue wnwI' aince it Is thtl
co varian t d ivergence in the Minkowski met ri c of tbe tenser q ua nti ties T;;' an d
T:, Hence, all intensi'y ca,lcula tion (or eelcalatlon of ot her ehuMter i! ti&.! of tb.
grav itational lield) based on (15.6t ) will Dot depend on t he eheiee of t ile sys tem
of coordi nal.es. Si nce in the Minkowski ' pace-time wo oao al\V8.YS select we Carte·
sian (Galile an) l)"lw m nf coord inat~, (15.61) yields
am(r:' + ,:)_ o. (15.6 3)
• Term. .. bote ~ l n, g eft C<l • •" i, b. identic. lll' in "I. ... <I.I1 h.. . ItnlClu,.. Iltd \.0 no !all' "I
« ,o""ntIOJl,
,m
Thus. in RT G, in CO lluut t o GR, the cc nseevaucn law (15.63) is 1l1.llQmd iG al1y
written in t erll\.S of Cadesia n e OQrdi na tllll. Integra t ing (tS .53) over a sufficien tly
' argtl vol ume and assumi ng th a t matter is not tra Dsport ed thro llgh t he surface
bou ndi ng the integrat ion volume, we get
ao ~ ( T: +1;:) dV =-f~dS... (15 .64}
Since at /I .,., 0 t he lett- hand aide of (15.M) is tho amo unt 01 e nergy lo»t by tho
sys tem, theenergll flux carr ied by gravi tatio nal WIVes t hrough the elementa l sur-
b ee are a rlS.. is
dl _~dS... (15.65)
If we select. t he aurface (If 1\ s phere 01 ra di ~ r u t he in tegra t ion s urface, we arr ivll
at th e foll OWing formula for Ulll in tensit y per unu sc li d angle:
"
dQ = ~ r~ dS.. . (\5 .66)
d&' .. U (t, r) tit' - V (I, r) dr' _ W (t, r ) (dll' + sin' e dip'), (16.1)
where t is tim e lind T, e, and !tI are me spherica l coordi nates in the M inko~ki
space-time. T he fundions U (I, rl , V {I. r' . an d W (I, r) lor a given distribu t ioll
of ma tte r mUllt be found by w iv ing th e system of equat ions (8.36), (8. 31). Ill.
what follo ws it is con venient to employ the syste m (8.36), (8.37) in a form in
whic h th e Ricci tensor an d the energy-momentum WAllO,. ate exprassed ;n wrms
of mi xed «lordinates:
D,;g.."... O. (t6.3)
For T: 1"11 ta ke the energy-momen tum tensor d en8i~y of a perfect lluid (Fock,
1939, 1959 , and Tolm an. 1934):
where p ill the densi ty of tbe fluid, p the isoLrop ie pressure, an d u" the unit 4' \'octor
of velocity.
Acwrdillg 1.0 (16. 1), th e nonte rn components of th e melr ie t ensor K.." are
£ •• = U (f, r) . K,, = - V (t , r ). g.. _ _ W (t , r ), g . . ... - W{I , r) ~ ill·9.
( 16.5)
If we reea ll tha i g .. " g"~ .,. Il~, we can easily find th e no neerc components 01 t/"":
g l! - - V (ll, , j ,
(16.6)
with Ii"· _ 0 lor m ,* n. Let us assume tha t
u'" = 0, a _ 1, 2, 3. (16.7)
Thel!, in v iew 01 the ' aet tha t g",~u"'u· "" 1, we find t hat
(16.9)
".
with r: _ 0 1« /II *'
II. If w.
DOW \a kt into &«.OU lil (16.5) an d (t 6.6 ), ,.. lind
tll. t the 1I0llZB'O R iem llll.ll ian eo DlUltU OD eoef lieian ts . ....
... I lL' .... I ., ... 1 1(1 r' t it"
'. - W h ' ' '' - V h ' <.. = W- -;;" • " -Wa;- ,
I N t W t IM' tIM'
~' - "IiT "'ji""" ' 1".. "" Wh ' r:. = 7IT """1f ' l".. _ -nr -"
t ,,,, r:. - W ""
ro.. -lW"""'il '
t IM'
1'*..
I N
=mrT' '
1i. - 1W-;;:-.
'''''
(16.10)
I"".. _ I"'n " nI Q, r;._ r:. 5 in~6 , I". _ - sin 6cos 6,
I"'.. _ r.ol ll.
Usilli [orlllul as (16.9) and (16. t o) in t he covar ian t "eo naerv . tion~ l aw V .. T::' ... 0 ,
wll can eu il y o btain th e ~lJu.tt OI\4
_'_.!.L__
p+, """iT
"'!'I.aVU
iir •
(16.12)
(16.13)
...here , :.
aNI th , C1uutoffel 'l' m bob for the Minb*i ap. e.-ti me whOM non ·
lIT Ocompo0ellt.JaNIlivea In (12.4) if apher lc.al eoord io.etM.,. ued. Si nce V=; ...
l'7iV IV , in Q <see (t 6.5) , .....
wi th (16.6) lhl\
lind frolD the defioitioD r oo v=r,.- combined
where I (r) " aD ubitr&fy IUlKt ioD th at d~ 1I0t d,pe u 011 I. SIIlCe i..D ...is... of
( t6.t7) .... hue Jl V W-VU/(r). Eq . (16.H) &.I D bI., ittell as fnUon:
p~ , ~= - : 10 VD.
, to
Th ~, the COUf illlt GOIISHn tioD la w V...r.' Do 0 aDd th e RTG equations (1&.2)
fIX p, p, U. V. I nd W y i.td lb, folio_ lug n b tioDlhi...=
_p+,
'_ .!O. _ _ -.-' !II"r U.• (16. 18)
p ~, *
'"
__ ~lnYV. (16.19)
., .
Eq ua Ulln.l (t 6.t8) a nd (16.t 9) imply lb_t far th em to be va lid simull.aIl IlOUlIl y,
the follow!og eolld ltiOIl mllllt bold tr ue:
"
-C (p+p "li ) - 81 (p+p T
"' ) . ,
Note thlt condit ion (16.22) amused only d Ull" Eq . (16. U ) wu tllpreseo tlld in
(16.22)
t he form (16.18), a nd t h le beea me possi ble t.hallks to fo,oID ula (16.17 ), wbieh fol-
lows h um Ihl! RT G equa t ions 116.3) . Th is s uggtl!ll.a tb a\ Ihe d ill~nU.1 rtlb t ion-
ship U 6.n), whieh w nnetta boly Ihe eb radUbt lU of mat ter, p I nd p• • PIle" .
~l l y ollly io Rr G. Let 111 lIl U$trd e th q lad by u exempt.. We will see
,..h.1 r. t:r!ct lons are imposed by toud itio n (16.22).
Suppotlll that Ihe eq u.li~ of , I,ta of llIaUe hu the fMIlI P (t, r) _ p" (t, ~),
",h~ tb. UPODtJl ~ Cl is I Ilumber. We ISSlUDI ttu.~ botb P (I, ~) I nd p (I , ~) are
sep. u bl. , tIllt is.
P (I, ~) ... P. (I) PI (~) , P (t. ~) _ P. (f ) P. (~).
~ nd .. (t) .... an ar bi trary ruec nc u of t . Combin in"g (t 6.21) with (t 6.24), WI gel
+
W {t, r } = fIJI (r ) ViiI (t) If (r) 'I' {t) JI" , ( t 6.26)
V (' , j I' ('1 U (I) (16. 27)
• - Will, r)
We bye nOI yd dll&lI3Sed how thll H ilbett-E.ill.:'Ite ln eqllatiOIlll (16.2) tom. i nto
t he pletUl'e.. Lelll3 lumine them. Aaulll iq th.t III "'" t and Il _ 0 , lid em ploying
(12. 11) as I bu ill eombiDed with (18.9), ( 16.10), a nd (16.73), we lind thet
I"W 1n'1W 1 11' _
- ~+ 2W -';- "+ TiT T -;;-- O. (16.28)
Dh 'id llli lIlis eq uat ion by oW/Or I nd per forming ~im ple ml nip ul.tions• ..,. get
~ 11l [ ~~ *] _ O.
TMs yields
(16.29)
where" (r) i' s n nbl l ra ry fu nct ion depend ing only on r , If we .1I0w for (16.2 1),
Eq . (16.29) ca n be 'ATlt ~n th~:
.JW1;' a .~
- h- ""' Y r .... fl) ,,{ ~)l(r).
IltteJnti oo yield s
Will (t , r) = y l'i(ij [ f ~ c Cr) I Cr) b +b{t) ] • ( 1&.30)
wilh b {I} en arbit.rny func tion . Com pariso n of (16.26) with (16.30) "hows t hat
t.he two ar e .. alid .imult..ll neoU!lly if
b (I) _ 'If' (I) "" 0 , (16.31)
J,, {r) / (~) dr _{/''' (r) [ 3 ~ rV/ (r) ",r]"l . (16.32)
The lu t formul. can be used to det.ermin . c (r).
T. k illi ioto Keount (16. 31). we U D ",,. ite Eq.s. (16.2e) a nd (16. 27) u folloW!!;
W (: , r) ... U"~(t) W, (r), (16.33)
W, (r } _ / 1n (r ) ZVJ (r),
(16. 3(,)
(16.35)
V, (r) _I (r ) ,Z-lf.I(r) . (I 6.36)
On th e basI! 01 (IB.33) an d (16.34), we CIO lIu ily e!Jtablish th at formul u (16.10)
lead to the lollowing Ilxprll5l! lons for the nODWJV RillmlUDian connection coeffi-
cient!:
I'! j d1/ .... .... j dW ,
.. = 7iT T ' ' " "". i . - 1iV;"""'dr" '
r:, - ,)fl',. ",::. r:.- - sin (lcose ,
(tB.37)
I'! W , dlJ
.. "" 00 "/' Jj'"
r',, -"'2v,"--;[;'"
t dV,
'
r:. _I".. sln: e , ' - ""Zv,'"
r ,,= I dW ,
~ .
Since th e lelt-band sides of (16.38) and (16.39) contsin l uncl ioWl dependin g only
on t and t ile rigllt-h l nd si d8ll conle in fUllc tio ns depend ing only on T, ""Il ha ve
8np(l) -1WI ,
(--.u
'" )' _ cp -liJ, (16..40)
_' L, ....W, +_'_( ..., )2+ t </W, dV, =c. (16.4 1)
W, ",W, dr' 4Y,W: dr 2"iifiV';- dr dr '
,
-1¥,"+ ' (---;;-
~Y. W:
'W,)'= c" (16.4 3)
Subs utu ttcu of thie express lcu into (16.41) reveals tlla t thll constant! Co and c,
are linke d by the following rel atloll ship:
c, = - t Co' (t6 .45)
Since JIll (r) end VI (T) aTe exp ressed in t~rm~ of lh e uroe funct ion f (T) (see
(16.25), (16.35), and (16.36)), (16.44) is lletus Uy an eq uation for / (rl. I t wlll prove
convenien t, howevee, to take W, (T) lor the Independen t l unc tion rathe[ tha n
I (r) and to ftnd the solut ion with reepeev t o T as a fu ncti on 01 y w,.
U~ l ng (16.35) and (16.36 ). we can exPre'lll! (r) and Z (r) in till'ms 01 WI (r) and
V, (r) th us:
tv) -- W , yV;, (t6A6)
Z (r) = (~ V;')ll'. (16....7)
Findi ng th e denv e uv e 01 (16,47) wuh u spect to r and allowing for (16.25) and
(16.ti6), we get
wher e 301ut ioll (16.49 ) does 1I0t 511tiafy our requtreerenta, a nd (16.50) u ti.!lfJes
them onl y rOf B, = O.
T hus, tho ad mi.asibla solution to E q. (16 .48) is
.v rttr
'H ' , ] / -WI' A, > O.
W' )-""T (16.5 1)
.
pass In (16.40) en d (16.42). via (16.54). to prope r t ime T, a nd allow for t he feci
th e' c. _ c, "" 0 , we obhln
(RdT ,
" )' - a P(I ), (16.5 7)
I ~' II
/f "'Jf' '''' - T4" (3p+ p). (16.58)
T. k ing ~ll e der iu th . 01 bot h s ide!! of (16.57) ....i~" rellpee~ to -e . nd . llo....ing for
(1B.58), ~ . ni ... . t t ho foll owing exp rUllion lor R -l dRl d"t:
I JR I lip
R ~ "' - 3(p + ,1 ?T ' (16.59)
One ee n .alIily veri ly t b. t thi.! coioeilietl wit h £ q. (16.18) . Indftfi , if in (16. 18) we
Let 11$ now in lroduu the Hu bble (uDelt on
,
H (1:) - ""If7i"'
.
PAM .. i . (16.54) to propel' Umo 1: u li . 1I0w for (16.56), we ."i..
e . t (16.59) .
(16.60)
For I'" preHo t lDOlDent ill tbt! . ...olutio n of Ih' uni...erse, 1: _ ~, the .... 10.1. H IT. )
ill kn own u Hubble '. COO$t.a1l 1 . nd is puiIIiU.... . Heaee, .tier .... u traet th e root
of (16.5 7) ....e mU.l.t .-Ieet the J>O$i tiv . ... Iue
, ..
7 71 -= T
(.. P)'1=. UHf)
If for ry 6nlt. r the fund ioo p ('t) d on not ... nish , the Hobbl. fu oction H ( t )
ia po.iI lt i .
Eqo. lioWi (16.59) .od (16.80) bri ng U.I. to ...... r. llll! nera l eonelU.l.ioue eonurniJll
tb. evo lutl oo in t im. 01 • homogeneous l od isolrople un iverse.
Sinet. H (t) it positi ..e, (16.60 ) implies that d Rfd1: it positi ve, 100. T hia me- Of
tb.l.l R (t ) I, .I. monotone ineree sing function of tim . 't , en d bec.tuse p +p is
posit ive, (t6.59) implies t hat dpld1 is negative, wit h t he r~." lt that p (1) is a
monotone decreasing fua ct ion of e.
If for every finite '" t he function p ('") does not va nish ~ n d li m (unetl o" p (1)
is nonnegative, t hen (l 6.58) Implies d' Rldr < 0 and, ernee dR ld," > 0, t he
function R "" R (1) is monoto ne increasing and the respective curv e is always
co nvex up ward . This means that over a finit e time "",In in t he PMt, R (1) as!lumes
il./! mini mu m valu e R oo l" (T.,'n) '"" O. I n what follows we assume '"min to be t he
refere nce point (the nri gin) for proper tim e 1 and, t herefore een put 1 .. ,. _ O.
Let US define the cri tical dens ity l o r e'·ery v~ l ue of T 85 follows:
a
Pn(1) =8ii"" IF (1). (16.62)
Com bining (16.57), (16.60), and (16.62). we get
p, (1) iii P (1). (16.63)
We ~ell i hat the modem val ue of t he dell5ity of ma t t.er in Ule uni vel'lle, p (t.) =
Pt . must coincide wlth the crit ical value r, (T~) "" 10-11 g/cm' a t tha present
moment in ti me. Hewevee, Lhe observ ed dens ity of matt.er in the uni verse, PO' is
a1 mo~ t <1 0 ti m8$ lower tha n P. (1",). Thus, RT G predicl./! t he nJstence of a large
ulat.ellt m a.ss~ i n the un iverse in some form nl mat ter. etnce thi s lacki ng mess is
necessar y lor the identi ty P. ~ p. (1".) to be valid .
Lei 1I1I now stud}" th e system nl equat iGIUI (16.59), (16.61). Th e syste m is i ll -
eem plete sin ce lhen are on ly two equati ons in thre e UnMO OWIlS R ('f), P (1), and
p (T). Fnll owing Ze1'd ovich, 1961, for the t hiN! eq uation \\'1l tah the equa tion of
t he s tate of mat ter In t he s implest fOl'01 .
(16.6~)
with \0 beillg 1C& t ha n ullity , s ince aceord ing t n t he hypo lhe'lis of Marko>', 1983,
t he density nf mutter ca n never become infl ntte a nd, hence, t he s peed of snund
must al ways be less Ih" n the apeed of light.
Subs titu t ing (t6.M) into (16.59) and in tegrat ing, we obta in
(16.65)
where ;;- (\0 ) is the con~ ta n t of integr ation with dlm enstens of g/em". Comb ining
(16.65) wit h Eq. (l6.6t ), we get
R (T) .,.161l<i'(v) (1 +vj,]1/3(1 +>'!TZJJUH I. (16.66'
Note th at at d illerent etegee in the e>'olutiou nf t he universe the para meter \0
and, hence, ;; (\0) have d illerent values. roe example, in t ha radia non-douun e ted
era, \0 m f13, an d in th is case
P (1") z;o aR- ' (T). (16.67)
where" "'" /I-U/3). and
(16.68)
I n the nonrelati\' tstic era, when we ca n neglect t he pressuf a in compa riMII to the
densIt y 01 mat ter , in (16.MH I 6.66) we must ~e t v eq ua l to aer o. This y ields
fJ (T) = bR 4 (T), (16.69)
'"
'"
'W ith II .. -; {OJ, and
(16.10)
By u inr (16,10) ~11 e. n enily show tbl t It l.h. PreMllt !tIp in lh. 1\1'OIul ioil 01
tb. universe,
s .., 112. (16.73)
Anot her Impor tant corollary of fll' G un be obta ined .. follows. If w. combi ne
(16.33). (16.34). and (16.52) wil h (8.28). It II eall' to abo... that t"" _ 0, Lbal is.
tb. wtlll llllerty deMity 01matl<lt and g,avl tational hid lot a Fr iedma nn univsl'Sll
In tha Minkowski spa ce-ti me is w ro.
In Cha pter 11 Wi! set up a pair of equ all olll, (11.9) en d (11.10), th at desetl be a
ma!lllive llraviu tl onll field . L ~t us study th model of a homogelll1O l1!and l.sotropie
uni verse from tb, standpoint of thCSll equat ions (see Appendix 5).
Sinu the coull ant conservation I. ", V . r: _ lland Eq . {I t . I ll) ""' abo valid
lor a ma!llliu graviu tiolllli Il.eld, all lar mlll.. dlH'ived lrom tlIese equatio ns art
nli d ill thi.! cue. W, "' 00 to d6molUtrate tha t here, th at is, ",hell th' v aviton
maSll 1ft il nonzero, the I nergy deMity'" nn Uhes. Indeed, slllCe l"- , _
U (I) ,.a s in El for th6 liD' elemen.t (t 6. ~) elld. , btnu. r_ ,.al!io 0, end If w,
allow lOt tilt laet thu 1M co ,.. sio 8 ill apOOical coordinates, the n (8.1) yields
4i- _ O. 'Th is, toptber with (H . t ",), forus lIS to eond ude tb~ t for 111 ",, 0 , lor
a Friedmalln uni..erse, \he eDayy danaity ,.. of mat ter . nd gn.. ita li o...1 5,14
lakea topt h. is always Vl"O.
Wa will .!low lor the gru i toll m_ In the lollowinc lftalLll.er. W, will "-Ie
(i 1l.53) u lba u p~io ll for the Hilt eI,me t ia the Riemln ll aplce-ti m, an d 11M
Eq . (11.9) to futd U (II , p (II. end p (I). Up 10 l hla poi nt, in order to s implify th'
for mlll.. we. IIIed. tht aystem of llDiu i n which c _ .. ... G <::I t , bUl lor' the eUt
at blDd ..... WMI to the c:eoti mele!"-fram..-ond syl lem.
hi ...ha t folio..... it i. eOllvenilll t 1.0 ref... to E qs. (11.9) as vtTitle D in ta-au of
llli I ed COlllponen ts :
(7f, d1 , _
,, ), =T,. "P(T)-lF(RI (
t)' 8'+2' '
') (16.75)
I d'R
Jfdii'" = t' t
- T >\P (T) - T IlP (T) -~
( ' )
1-1!' • (16.76)
wiLh
(16.77)
Find ing t he der ivat ive (If both s ides of (16.75) wit h respect to T and allowi nli' for
(16.75) a nd (16.76), We arrive at the following express ion lor R- l dRfdT:
IdH I do 6
7i~""' -3(;> +,1<'1 dT' (1 .78)
which e!)ineid e" wit h (t6.59).
A qu al it at iva a nalyais OJ! Eqa. (t6.7S) an d (16.76) enab les dnwing • num ber of
imporla nt conclus ions eoncerning the evohttio n ~l t he uoivel'Sfl. To t his elld we
will consider the right-hand s ide 01 Eq. (16.75), hut lir.l t let us s tudy the hehevlor
of the function
f( R) .. ;. (R·-I)' (R=+Y)·
If we send R In tero ,
f(R)~~ , (16.79)
while if wlI send R til infinity ,
f (R) .::=: e. (16.80)
Also, f (1) ... 0 at R ... I. Sinee
(~:~)"'I >O.
Hence, the function R = R (Tl essum ea its minimu m at t = O.
Let us now eumi na tb e behavio r of the H ubble function (16.60) for R E
(Rill'. ' R", u)' Allowi ng in (16.76) for ULe equatio n of state (16.81), we obtsin
I tI'1l
R~=
M<
- -,
1+3v - t ( 1-
-p(,.)~
')
Ri . (16.86)
Fi nding (1/3) tl,q> (t) f!"(lm (16.75/, su bs tituting its value int o (16.86), and per -
formi ng rel alive ly s imple manipu ali ons. wiUi allow ance made lor t he defini ti on
(16 .60) of the H ubb le functi on. we find t hat
~ +3 (I:v11P .."t 't'( R), (16.87 )
wh ere
V (RJ ",,3{1.j...3vl +3 (j -v) _ 3 (t+ ,,)
---rnr- ~ ----z--. (t6. 88)
It is easily noted th at
poait ive if R < r.
'V(R ) is
I lam if R =l ,
Ileg>lti v(l if R > 1.
Si nce H ('T:) vanishes onl y at points R ('T:) = R." . and R (t) .,. R.,O', wh ile
(16.89)
H (t ) *,0 for oUter values of 'R belongin g to the interval (R"" n, R.,u) . Bq. (16. 87)
can be represented i n lhe form
and monotonically Increases for R E (8.. la , RJ, aince in this interv. l dH· lfdt < O.
Henee, t he H u bb le fu nct ion H (T) assumes its max imu m at R "" R . Le t us
find the value of R ,_ II we C(llll llina Eq . (16 .75) wit h (t G.65) and (16.M), the n
(16 .9:1) yield s
-,- ' ' ) R"I+lY
1+ ... A(_)_( Rr- (16.92)
Comb ini ng (16.83 ) wi th the npress.i on (IG.GS) for p (T' and substi t uting (l6.94)
into the combi nation yields
H =, ~ y~ (:; : )II! ( I ~ V .4 (v) l llU- V) . (16.95)
,- Y --'I' • ""
[1 %30 - vl 1('" ·
(16.99)
lI .. to
''''
For y " \'. os (11 -1I2}1(1I + 112), with " aD inUger gte.ter than unity, (t 6,99)
yie ld.
T- T'('
&" )1/1t=;-
I A -' lIt- ~)IIIII F( -t=';'i
, y" ; z : -I/. ) . ('6 • ' 00)
wh, ... F (.: b: c; I ) i. lite by (l@l1IlO..... tri c fuo.c.lion,
R ) 10(1-"1- •.
1I _ ( R;;; (16.t Ot)
,,' (t6 . t 02)
For v . ". (16.99) yields
(f) In 2&: I ; -<-'1/11 {_'I' (iT-VI" [(I +u). -'
1" _
.-.
+ v {••'"
LJ
t . ! (2lo 111!J1 +.1
1)' (
"''''']
h _ l )l!
~,
Sinet l,r_ ~3. the lea ding uy mptotic l.eflll (16. t06) in the explnsion or
R (T) i. inell penden1 olth. gr.viton mi SS. For v _ ...~ and .. .,. I . (16.103) y ields
R( ) _ [
T- 1(.. +}),
9 .·~A Jl h ...' If U. ttt .. ,w-
.
(t6.107)
It ia ru elil y nol.ecll.hat (16.107) coillcidas with (16.106) iI in Ihe lat ter'" rormall y
pu1 'Y _ 'Y. _ Ob" iws.!y . (16.107) is a lso indepelldeD1 01 the (fuitoo mass .
W. 1I0W wiah to enmi lle the HYWPtotic: ~i1oo where R (T) - R. ... < P.. I• .
III tM. '* (16. 100) and (t6 .103) yie ld
• •- -II'll-'" if ..
t - T'("'j'n
"7'" x 1 _ '\1
_ .. v•. (16.t08)
{ C..A· ·'" If
v _ ......
where h~' C. wa denote a ftulDftriu l eoeflieienl.
C ~+l [ I
. - -,;-
+ 3(bo-
~(.
t)!1
I)l
.-,
+n l(2n -I)1l ~ (. -
~,
t)l (L :lJ" 1)1! ] ' (16. 109)
Solving (t6.106) {Dr R, we obta in
'"
R (T) ~; -l IJ(I _ ") + ~ A~ll( ( - ")(t _,,)~ if ,, *,,~ . (t6.110)
T_
..... A ~ ' X1- V) {i -v)'
.-'/' ,I' (16.H 2)
Interestingly , lor every lin d \'811111 of v var ying betw een 113 and 1 all th e ....ympt otie
re l8 t i o~
(16 .110) and (16.1t t l are represeDLOO by para oolas, which follows directly
from the positi vity of the second derivati ve IPR/at' at th e minimum point R ...
Rm l ~ '
Th e Hub ble function H ('f) in th is asym ptotic region is represented th us:
7 ; 11(I-V )(1 _v) 1' if V,p 'll~ ,
H (T) ::::':
{TA....· ' -q;-T il "' - "'."
.k ~ :loo + l (16. 113)
whith eoineid.s witb (1&.68)- utabljsbed earlier for the esse where m _ O.
Now sUppo!oll that R _ R" , < R I/,. The n (16 .117) i mpl ies
R" .::.: Itl" + (2eA)·,1 (t - t il'> ' (16.120)
[t ce nnut be ruled out that the ent ire early univertfl wu tota lly ill tho ultn·
re!U lvistlc s tatl. This am
for I s ptlC il l iuveatil l tion. Tb, I'el! peeti vl formulu
can IIs ily be obtained Irem (t6.116) if we put t". _
0 an rl R," _
R" IG _ A9" ".
Then the ex pr_ion (16.117) fOf t I" um~ the fOfm
T _ l'b IR Y Jil- A-' + A-· !o (YA R+ V Aili=1 )J· (16.121)
Na klrlll )'. lor R > R.... fOnDula (16. 121) is trl dOrmled iota (16.119), wbile
for R _ R ..,. < R . u • Jorllluia (16. 12t ) yield.
R (t).::.:: A - '1* eA I{I~. + (16.122)
On I'" ba$ls of tAis it i. easy Lo tiD.d the u pllcit form of tlte Hub ble flllltt ion
H (1):
H (t ) =8 2e.A..,.. (16 .t U )
Not e lhe t (16 .t22 ) lod (16 .123) ere val id for tinUlI t < e+1,I1"' ........
Let ~ now ture to the nonrelJliTistic sur
in t he evol uti on of the uni v.......
when the J)I'955U~ Is mucb lower tha n tb & den sit y of matter end UIl be ilnored
(v ,.. 0). The illlegrl! (16 .96) een thell b& writl.lln tbus:
/ 2"
Y- Yn. .....l + l ' "&
r.I %' .1%
\8%I _h1+ SO"'I _I)I/ . (t 6.124)
R oo. '-l
wheee r . .... I Is the li llll i t took th& unive rse Lo evolve from the begin ning 01 th e
expans Ion st ail! ril ht up 10 the bertDllilig of th e lIonrfllat lvistlc sta ge, R. o" ' -
R (t •...,). and
B --..- ,...
32J'lCI ' ~ (16. 125)
b - ; (0). I n deri.illg (16.12.41) .... e!lowed loe 1000000 ule (16.liS) lor p (t) and sillCl
• is a relet i..el,. IarP COMtant. 8 is a lure par_me,.... IS wall.
lA t Il.I iotrod _ abe IIOtalioa
R. _ 1{tl2 - a ) B I'(I, (16.126)
'"
when g. i, I. IlIn.lJl ~iti\·.
number. II un eu il y be verified UUlllor . 11 ulltn 01
R (~ ) beloll(ing lO the inl8!'\'.t IR_ ... R, l we ha vI BR' _ 2R6 > 3fl4 _ I .
prov ided that .... bnl! ,seleeted a. wcll that
a.>B-IfS, (1 6.127)
If In the denc rnluatcr of lhll inUgran d i n (16.t241 we discard 3.<' - I lIInd in-
!.elln te, we B'e ~
T-"oo",.'- 3~: {lin·1[(i-)'il Rl/I] _ !l n·' [( i- ) ' /~ R~ ]} . (16,I ZS)
For tlDJe!l T> 't_ rc• and R_ ... < B' P this y ields
R (t) Q/ ({- r" \iJt1l'J (f Vit). (16. 129)
lAt os esli ma" tb. mu illlum '0,1\18 of ,. 101' ..hLeb (IG.I29) SliU rem.ins valid .
SilKll R (T) mly reach the ...h.1 R. _ l{lI2 _ a) HI''', (roUi (t6 .t2 !1) we pi
TOeo: 2 (f jl/: ~ ' ;0- ' (1_ eI). (16.130)
For t imes 1" >1:, we "' ril o (16. 124) in the form
~ /T " ~·"z
T- 'r.o + V "&1 (8.... _ £4+ £ . 1,1,1 ' (16. 131)
.
h u n • ..,; Iy be damouslnlud lhu lor , II values of R (1") bt iongilll:' to th' lnlerul
IR•• R,l we un di!ICud \h e t in the deno mi na tor of the integrand in (16. 13 1)
fo nd write
• r Z(
_ r ' I' d"
T_T.+ V .. ) (B_ :&>+3:z}',to (16. 133)
e,
Tlt e appfOJ:im. le \"111,11.'$ 01 lh fOOts 01 th e eql,l atioll B - 2.f' + :b: ... 0 ano
ll',~ • ,.
...
"s.' - IF,
-T ± -' l'3
,- R•. (16.134)
with
R. - ( T 8)'" - (' I'" . ~ (16. 135)
'r
1_ T.+ Via)
" [r (R,..r)Jil' [ (r+ R,I2)'"+ 3{R,I2)t ]'" .
" ,
Apply lll( lhe _ n-,..Ioe t lteo rem . we obta in
•
T_ l.o +* ~ Ir (A,~rn'1' (16. 136)
~
,~
with
...- ((,+-11-)' +3 (i'-ll'"· (t 6.137)
"",,- ~ is . numbe r beloDl ln, te tlte hILerva I IR•• R I. Allh ouJb . generally lJl'u.k·
illl. t be lue or II. de pends on R. lb i, dependence is extremely weak , since fot
. 11 t he Iues of R eonsider ed hOril the value of fl. ;s lim i ted by th e following in-
equalit ies;
' ( . )
}if l-T < 1'1< "'3 "
, (t 6. 138)
Sllb:J ti t uti 01l: (16.130) and allowing for (16. 188) yields
m« T' ) \fl .
dH (~ (16. 1<12)
,-.
Exper irDenull y Hu bble' , eonsUllt H (T.) AU yet to be determi ned DIMe e:lactl )".
The CUrTftlt Taillfl of t he coasta nt lies !letwHn \.he folloW'illf ' '11'0 valuM:
(5.'i± S) (km /.s)IMpo <: H h.) <: (t 10±10) (kmJ.s)/Mpe.
Thi . combined Wil b (16.'<12) pro,'ld"" the following uppe r bound for the 81' lYlto n
moss:
(16,1<1 3)
NOI. th at the f. ct that Ille gr. vil oo hu • Iill;te m .~ inere. !Ill.!i the deficit of l he
" I. len t maM" of the unl v_ ff coUlp8l'ed to the cue of • muslf!!13 81'a vit on . l n.
dMd , accord ing to (16.15), lor lbe pcesent IROlMilt i n lbe evolulioll 01 t he universe
(R > t) we AU,
(16 ,1"")
where. by definiti on. th e cri tic al density is
'"
Po(t ) ...
,,-
8.'16 ' (16. 145)
Al m = 10 -" II th e express ion for tll& IIflec~ive, gravitati onal density p. -
:.. (T)" yields Pa - 0 .72 X 10-· g/ems . W hllll, say , H ('t. ) ~ 75 (k m/a)lMpe.
the val ue 01 P. proves to be 1.04 X 10-" gtems, and th e " Ie tent m ess" deficit
iner&ase.5 twofo ld aga iTllll the value lor thY ea!lll of a mu !l ess gn,viton, wh ich
meaD.'! tha t th e "latent mese" defielt amounts to 80 Urnes tbe observable mu s.
Note t hat i f we 8Mume th at the to\.8.1 relit ffi8MI 01 tb e th ree t ypes of neutr ino is
110 eV, t he ori gin of the wa SIl defIcit can be explatn ed .
Let ill! now discllSll the value of the e:<perime nttlll y measurab le dilat ion pa-
u meter (16.72). For R :::> 1 thia parameter Is
q(1")~2
, (1+ p< l~) )... . (16.146)
Th is dem onstrates that P, and, hence, the gr avl l on mass tan be exprBllSlld i n
terma of mea"uTa ble quee uuee. the dilat ion parameter q and the Hubble funct ion
H, All R .... R",•• , the dilation parameter q tends to +M, aince P. (1) t8n'ls \.(I
lero .
To eenclude this chapter we note th at Olb&r's para doit is absent from th e given
scheme since In the contrac tion cycle a t a tllmperature T ~ 4 x to' K (p :::.:
10-10 gJ<:.m S) hy drogen ioni18tion $eta in and tll& universe b&eOlll8Sopaque, which
8 11SUn'<l that tile integral luminosity 01 the starS has II finite value.
ThUll, lntrcduct ton of a gnviton with. finite mass druti<:.ally changllS th e
na ture of the evolut ion of e homogeneous and isotropic universe (Friedmann's uni-
verse). Sueh a universe u lsl'l for an Infinitely long time, oscillates, and which is
most important, the dllIL.i ty of ma tter In euch a uulverse will always be !illite . II
we tah this untverse at • certal n t ime"t ... 0 fOf whi<:.h R (0) "" R"" . , then ovef
a time interv al equal to '" I it expands to a value R ('",) "" R...., then contracl'l,
end R (t ) wlll return to R"", ov/lt I ~i me iutervaL 1, . The peeeeea is repeated in-
finite ly.
81 -• II •
Qr" . (11.2)
T his formu la implies that a ll time variat ions 01 the qua ntities aM pr imari ly
associated with the moti on (If maUer .
Since lor t he SUIIl T syst em such cha racterial i<:s as t he dt mcnetcnlese Nuwtonia"
pcten ue r GM Irt:', the specifIC pressu re, the speci fic internal energy, end (vIc}",
....it h " the veloci ty of or blt /lJ:mot iofl of the planets, are of the order of ~, _ 10... .
the aim of the post-Newtonia n ap proximati on is to find the correctio n ter ms in
th e next erdef in e.
In tlli s chapter we will b uild the post-N ewtonia n apprex tmaucn for Ih6 RT G
syste m of eq uations (8. 36), (8.37}. Ev en if Ih6 graviton rest mass is nnne, in
view of it s eI tre mll small ness il can play no importa n t role with in the solar sys tem.
Hence. it becolTl\lll sufficienl 10 s l udy onl y Eqs. (8.36) and (8.37). To simplif.v
mail ers, in what follows WIl .e eiploy a system of unil..! in which c = I .
We star t with the expenalc ns
t~) Hi }
gfC! - l+t.. + g.. + . (17.3)
t3) (I)
gd= Y<>~+Cd+td+ (17.4)
( Sl ( ~l
gll<> =g,,"+~ +, ( 17.5)
Here Yd is the s patia l par l of the Minkowsk i l1U!l.ti c " .. ~, and th e sy mbols g","
(k "" 2, 3, 4, . . .) on the right- hand sides of (17.3)- (17.5) stand lor ter ms of the
'"
order e~ in the respecti ve expansions of C"'" . Note tha t under t ime reveru l, 1 -
-I, th e sig n 01 para meter II must abo be ellanged, whereb y llxpansions (17 .3) and
( 11.4) con lai n only even poWe'5 01 t and (17.5) only odd powers. The !ac~ ~ha~
g." dou '"
not conta in I t " seems nalura l s ince alreatl y the mai n (Newton ian!) ap -
proximat ion 10. 6." muslllot be lower tha n tile ~cnnd nrdu in R.
Let us DOW find th e e:o:pans;on s f ll. g _ de~g ",~ and g"'". USillg (17.3)-(11.5),
we cau show tbat
(' ) 1.1 (tl 121 l~) (I ) (I I tl )
g~ - I - c.. +g,, + g., + 6.,- goo+ glt + Cn + gao
(.) ru (2) (: l (: l'~) ,~)( l ) ( l ) (2 )
+ + gil + g~) -
Clodg " g,,6.. - t " t" - I:ut"
(l ) (2l (l)
+1::,+g:, + t:, + . (17.1;)
(') I II
,00- 1+ 6"+ '-'+ (\ 7.7 )
m ( ~l
(' ~ ... ~ + g"II +g"~+ . (17 .8)
(3) m
g\>O. _~+ gg<> + ..., (t7. 9)
H. P"'I-N.~ ...lu " ppr.d"'''li. ~ I" RTG
(.) (·1
'"
whero the g" " are exp ressed In !hrms of the G",,, thus:
m m W (1 1 (1 1 m
g'- - - l.", K"' - - C. , Y""y'~, Jf'>~ - gOJy«I>,
111 (2) (I) (Il (I) tl) ( I)
g'- "" c"..- KIlO' jf'J_ - V'. ""'g", + V''''?'Y'~g.."go .' (17. 10)
m ( ~) (211') U I ( 2)
g....- - y"$Cot- + y<'61".g~ + V'"v"Jl""C~·
T o wri te Eq . (8. 37) fur the ter ms in npo nsi oll (17.7)-(17 .9) we must 6rs t fllld
r". Th ese expansions yield
m (0)
",
_ (I) I (2l (2l
g"lI = R"J + T~A+T V'J
t (If
A - T A' ,
t (2» )
a, [ g"'I+1')
T1 (lrJA+T
l (I) I
'f'& (('A1 - TI WAl )] =iJ.l..
'"
'F. (11.20)
,.,
Now let us write the system of equations (8 .36) lor the g .... . First we find the
expa osion 01 tensor GI:,.. in powers et e, Si nce in a Galilean reference fra me G~" ..
n.", where
in view of (17.3)-{t7,5) and (17.7)-(17,9) we find that
t m t m (! ) (f l m
r:.= T 0ot"+ T (t"oolOll- g'~a~r.. )+ . .
I (2 ) I (. 1 (2 ) (f)
r:~ = T 8"gOll + T (o.,g.. + f'l"o"rool + , ··,
j (3 1 m m
ro...= T (o"g"' + a"g..... - (Jol..,) + (t7. 21)
t (! ) I ,.) ( t) t (21 (t\
r:. ~ - T ~~Ool - T y.da"g.,,+'f4iJol" - T g"BIJ,g.,, +
I (l) t til I (I )
r:~=TY"ao~gG9 + T ytU'oolr><>- Ty""lJ"g .. +
t UI (i ) W
J1., = T y"" (at>l" " + il"g'/I-iJ"g... ) + .
On the basis nf a ll thb we can find the sought u pluuion for the eecond-renk cur-
vature tensor R", ~. Sin ce in Galilean coord inat es Gl:,~ m r~ , lifte r relati ve.ly
simple uleu lst ions involvi ng (8.31) we get
m
R., _-,.. ~.OollOO-T~ ..1l~I.. +Y"B;j.o"K""
t (21 I I. .
1 ( 2) (2) j ( 2)
- T 0" (F1l~.,,) - T F8.rJ(I/f..~
t m (2 ) 1 (2) (2)
- T 'l""'01II00""<°0l. <+T ,...,aa.g..o,s&'oo + .. " ( t7 .2.2)
j (2\ I \1) I III
Ro..=T '1"oca~g.,- ,-""O,jJ..l fI<J+ T ~oo..a~ g.,
I Pl
- T~o,;J.,g40.+ ' .. , (17.23)
j (2) t (l) I ( I)
R"F" - T "o·a.o,8~ + T "o<lJ.1lJ d +,- y"'OaU~I<"
1 (2) I W
-To"ot>l" - T Y"·o"o~g<.+ . , . (t7,~ )
Allo wing for (17. H) /lnd (17. 18), we fina lly ob tain
I (t} I (I.) I m
Roo "," - T V" BIJ"O,gH - T ~.o"goo-Ta.aogil'J
I J 21 (ZI I (3l m
+ ,... Y"",,' 1.,0.{Jolloo +2 yaBIJ"KoiJ,g.. + (17.25)
I 131
R.",'" - 2 y60a~f).lo. + ,, ', ( 11.26)
j It)
R d "" - 2 ,,· · f).o,Kd + · · · . (17,27)
To co mplete the construct ion of epprost mate RT C equa tio ns we atH! need 10
exp and the energy-momen tum tensor of mat ter in a power $erie! in l; . }'or what
follo WI [1 prove!! npediellt lo have the followinl u pall~io ll! of r-;
'"
m. (tl
T"' _ JW+7"' + . • . •
II) (I )
r- _ r- +.,....+.. . . ( t7.28)
In (.,
r-· _N+f"'lI + ... .
Colllbi"lol (l7 .3H t7. 5) .... ith (t7.28)••,e . tr ive I t th e folloll'iag formulas rot T...;
(!l (:1
T.. _ T. +T. + ... ,
I II m
TJoo -T... + To..+ .. . . (17.29)
(Z) ( II
T••""T.,+ r.~ +.
where
lI) (~J m (ll m 101
T.. _ T"". T.. - 1"'" + 2r .. 7"'.
( I) II I til (I) etl (I I W (l)
T..,. - yd 7"ll, T.. _ , ... 1"'"+(I... + 1. ... ..> 7'-'. (t7 .30)
en
1'.,,.....
T.. _ , ..
(I)
S ince on tile rililt-h lnd .side 01 (8.36) h Ive the c;o lllllina tioo
we
5... - T... -
, , ...T, (17.3 1)
T
011 the bW I of (17.29) a.nd (17..30)
ellmponenl. of S • • in powers of . :
w.
ta n usil)' find th. sen. u:pansion for lh'
t It J t m ( t) t tl (II
S. - 2 7"' + T(7"-+ 2t..r"' - y.,1"'f> + . . " (17.32)
S ubst It ut ing into Eq . (8.36) the u p.nsions (17.25)-(17.27) and (17.32H17 .3<\)
jus t esta blished, .",.." obu. in
(17.3 :'1 )
(17.36)
( 1l.37)
( 17.38)
I _, tt '
'" (I) ( 21 It) . m
For g iven 1'", roo, T"f', and ra., th e s ys tem of eq uatio ns (11.35)-(17.38)
com plet ely deter mines the enect tve Rle mllnn lall metr ic g"'. in th o Newton ia n and
post -Newtoatan approxi mati ons.
ASIlumi ng tlla!
($I
If",, - - 4G1".
[
J '"
<I'%'T'" lx' , l)
11 - a'l (17.4 2)
'so" » W Yu I dO"''''(,,'
I"'" ." I' I)
- 2y".U.
If we allow for (17 .39), (17.40), lUId (l7 .43), Eq . (17.36) ca n be wr itten in t hO'
for m
(~ ) U l (Z)
V2 (r.. - W2) ~ - 20;V + SnG (roo - 'I..oT<>a). (17.'i4)
'"
Si nce g• • m Ulll va nish a t infinlty, (17.44) impli es that
H) .,. 2U2 +
IfH
I i1.
T.< • J
r ,,';<'U(1' , J) - 2G
1" _ ""
I ( 2) (2)
d'z' (T""- y" pT"iI)
Ix . ' 1 (17.4S)
Nole th at in "jew of (17.17) a nd (17.43), U Bnd t u are lin ked as foll ows: '"
j (' )
°oU- TY"'O·KOII' (17.46)
.
u d the t'ov. ri lol cont inuity eq U. t iOD
-::f..=-
-, 8. nl =& pu"') _ O. (17.49)
I n th, Newloni. n ap proximation , that is, when , r.v itl lion is ignored,
It".
I +O {el ) , u"'= v" ( l + OCel ) ) , (17.50)
and thcrefoee (17.47) yields
,1"".. _ p (l +o (.%»). (17.5 1)
'"
7'k .. pV"( t + 0 (e Z)) . 117.S3)
In deri., illl (17 .51HI7..53)WI . IIOTed 10/' \b e lI et Lb. ! the ra ti o pIp, Of the specific
isotro pic pressure . is of tb' order 01 •• ,
II in Eqs. (f 7 .48) I nd (17.49) ,., d isear d lenns of thl order higher l~ 1l e . ....
a rr;yp at the foll o...inl equat ion lor p:
~fII -+ ~.. (p/IO') = O. (I i .il4)
This imp lies tha t i n the Nell/tonian a pproximat ion the tOlal mass of I" object Is
M - J p dJ.t
~ ll d
Is conserved.
Comb ining (\ 7.51) and (17 .53) ...·ith (tHi ), (17.42 ), and (11.43 ). ....e get
III (J , (l)
too - -'lU, t ...... 4Ydyt' I d .. 2y.,U, t l7 ·55)
with
U_ G j p\1" I)
1,.- - ,,' 1
d'.t '
'
(17.5U)
Hence , in lba lo"'esl oroft" tbe matrie: c.oeffir:ienlll I . " of lbe elI"ecliY. Ri. manl
spl ea-ti me n il. he rt preaent ed as folio..., :
,.. "" l - W. "" - "'Yat "', l at -T., (I + W), (17..58)
U .... . ' Ir> ploy the mI tti e: c:oel6c:ie nts in lhis a pproximatio n in Eqs. (17.48 ) a nd
(11.49), we ca ll filld the componenls of Ihe ene!'fly, mom.ntu m t e/lS()r of lu tl er [II
l b. Qt!xt approximat ion. But ror t his .... musl first a nd in \.be Ne'101on ia n a pprol l-
'"
mat ion V-g, uf , and the connection coeffu:ienlll r :. n• In view of (17,58) and (17.21)
we have
¥-g = 1+ 2U, u0..,t+ U--t v"lI" , (17.59)
ro.."" -o,u , Ilo.'" - u"U, I':o = 't'~ oaU,
~0.1 = - l'a~ooU + 2(i'~a +i'a.t1I} v<', (17. (0)
r:,... UsV"' + ~O.U _ 2V""l'a,t1.V·,
+
r"ko" ~ai1 t!tiJ ..U - Y""YI..a.u.
T hen tile covar iant conserv atio n Jaw (17.<\8) wi ll assume the lorm
(1) (Jl
t1.fH+ 0o.~- pO.U - 2pl!'o,. u _ O(~'), (17.6t )
jf ~r [a. (p+ 3Up- +pVo. u") +iJ.. (pv" +3pu"U+ + I'u"~)] _0(e4 ) . (17.63)
To t hese equati ons we must 8dd t he equa tion of mot ion 01 a perfect Ruid (Fock ,
1\139, ! 959),
P(riot!' + vDOI!!") 0=> 'I'd (- Pa.U + alP) + pO(t ' ). (17.64)
P (o.n -t: vl{J~ n) "" - pO"v" + pO (el) , (17.65)
with
p=V _ gpu· . (l7.66)
Accord iog lO (17.49), P h t he mess deus ity and is conserved.
In t he requir ed ap prox imat ion ",.e can write
'r" oo-
(~)
~ p~"" (UI + n- vave) + pI!' , (17.68)
rd = (JIJ"oe - "f~p.
Hence , (17.45) yields the foll owing formula lor >"g••:
(4)
g.,-2lJl + 1ii O: J
I r d'~ 'U (~ t)
I~ ~ ; I - 4oIl, - 4¢l. - 2lDl - OO\ , (17.69)
where
¢I, = -G ~ 1 ~~1 d',t', ¢tt =G ~ ~lPx"
(17.70)
¢l1 ""G ~ 1 ~ !n"1 dl.t ' , ¢l,=G ) I ~ !~'I dJz'
Bra known u the geue..liled gra vitational pol.(lIltials.
Sin ce (see Vladimi ro\', 19M )
I l' Ud' z' G r (. 'Ids%, r dOz'
""'E") 18- 8' 1 = -S J P !( , 3 \ 8- 1' 11&'- 8'1
_ _ oj p(,,· ,t)lx-x' ld'r ,
'"
the final expression for g. , proves \.0 be
(I ) r
g""... 2CJ>. -~ .1 pIx', /) I x- x' I d'x ' _ 4$ , _ 411, _ 2<11, _ 6<11,. (17 .71)
Combining the IQrnl uJa! (17.58) and (17 ,71) for the metric coeflici alllS 1 0M of the
ten ser of the effective Rieman n space-t tme, we cbteln, to within the pos~· New t()ni B lI
ap proalmetion, the following;
s.. _ 1_ 2U +2U"_ C": ) p (x' , II I x-x' I iJlz'
- 4(11, -4$, - 2<ll, -6\l}, + 0 (B' ), (11.12)
g." = 4Yd~ + O( e'). (t 7.73)
fd- i',..(l +WJ+ O{B' ). (17.74)
Until recently the demands made on the va. iou.s theories (If gravi tation were
reduce d to th e necessit y of obt.aining Newton'sl ew 01 universal gravi tation in the
weak-fie jd limit lind of deser ibing thr$f! elled' aCceMib lll to observ ation, namely,
grav ilational redshi lt in th e Su n' s lield, th e bending 01 a beam 01 light passing
in th e neighborhnod al the Sun , and the Men:ury perl hello n shift. Insullicient
accu racy 01 measUl'Emen~ in these exper imenu end t h6 .'IIllBII body of e1perimenta l
data explain why we now have a large llU m be~ 01 theories of gn villlt ion t hllt
provide a auccll.lo3ful explana ti on for all of these ellecL~.
To test these t heor ies i t is necessary, 011 the one hllnd, to lncresso tha II ccuu cy
01 meeswamen ts in the old exper iments and suggesl new expe r iment s and, on t he
ot her, to deve lop appropria te theoeenca l tools, sinCll lhe present requiremenl s
imposed on th e th enries of gr a\·it.ation are clearl y insufficient heceuse of t he la rge
number of t heor ies meeting these r&quirements,
Lately , wit h the development 01 re levant n perimen\.a l lech niques , 118peciall y
astronau tics, and the increase in accur acy 01 measure ments, new possib ili t ie.
have emerged for more neeerse measurement of the parameters 01 the. orb its 01
various planets (prlmllrily t he ll.loon) and measurement of the time delay of rad io
si gna ls i o the Su n's gr~ v i ta tio lla l liald , and lor new sola r-sys tem experiments. These
experime nt s will enab le narr owing sti ll furt her ,t he range of Viable theor ies of
gravitation . To facilitat e compariSon of t he results of experb neots conducted wit h-
in the solar sys tem wit h tile predi ctions 01 the various theories 01 gravit.atinn in
which the Riemannian geometr y lor the mot ion of roalter is t he na tural geomet ry ,
Nord tvedt and Will, 1!l72, and Will, 1978, 1981, developed wht became known
88 th e parametri zed pcet-Newtonlau (P PN) lor ma liam (for the Ilistor y of the PPN
Icr mallsm see Misner, Th orn e, and Wheeler, 1.973 (p. 1()ol 9)) .
In th is lormalism th e Htemenn-epace-um e mel.rlc generated by an object con-
sistin g of II perfect lIuid is wri tten 88 the:rum of veto us geoera lized gravitatio nal
pole nt!als with ar bi trary coefficients 1< nown as post .Newto nian paramal.ers. Usi"8
modi6ed Nord tved l· Will par ameters, we can write the Riemann-space-ti me metric
'M
85 follows :
'00- t -2U+ ~ -(2'l'+2 +~J +~') ¢I, + f.t A
+ ~1Il.. - 2 1(3y + t - ~ + b)I1\+ (1 +~) Q), + 3 ()' + ill $ ,1
- (1;< , - 010 - ~ uPw..U + O1o,.p~U~ - (2\1\3 -1;<,)ul"V.., (17.75)
,
1"' -T(41'+3+a, -a.+~,) l'd v' + T' (I+ a , -t,) N..
,
+ 2(a, -2a,)w.. U +I;<.wau~, (17.76)
Id - y~~ (1 + 2yl/ ), (11.77)
where the W" IA the spat ial component.! 01 the veloeity of e ",,!eren ee f. a mll with
r&spect to • corielll universa l rest (eeme of reference (for some theories of gravIta-
uon this is the veJoeity of the center of rou . of the sola, system wit h Naped to
the reference frame in whleh th e universe i.s at rest). In formulu (17.75)-(17.76),
in ad dition to the general ized gravit ational pote ntials introduced earlie r in (n .56)
(17.57), and (17.70). we have introduced the following potent ;. l, :
N _ r r l"'. (.a_ z' 8j(r"_z·Oj ,p'
(17 .78)
.. Y""" J I" ,,'I' Z,
Our ecluttoas (17.72)·{t7 .74) ,for g.. ~ cootaln, 'n cont rast to (17.75)-(17.77), a
term 01 type (17.82) in g•• . lie nee, we must cha nge to tho conrdin .t.e system in
which SOI UtiOR S (17.72)-(17.74) assume the form (17.75)-(17.77).
Porforming the coordinate transformation
z" =:l!' +~. (z), ",'. = z!>, (17.83)
with ~. (z) ~ 0 (t"), _ arri ve at th, follo..ill( for mulu for "lnIl5IOl1lled" maim
eoe[6t1uts:
... - ,.. + 28.t" ,;. ... t .. + d. ~ t.. - 1." (17.84)
5.lecl i"i k (z) ill u.. (Drill to (1') - (GI2) iI. ~ P (II' , I) I I: _ x· I rP% aDd com-
bi nill( (17.84) with (t7 .71)-{l7 .74), we IiDd tM rollo lrillf uprII!l$iolU" lor the
millie _ Itidents t~ in lll, e&llllllical .sy3ka1 oj coord.lll.u es:.
+
' ;. ... 1- W 2(11- 4¢l, - <W>. -'NJ, - 6l%l, +O (c'). (t7 .lIS)
,
whel'll in dflri ving (17.86) ... . mploye<\ the ;d ,"~l ~r
W. 1'1016 ill llU'illlthl when l.b. ~IUU ol \.bl gn Yita u olla1 field is a apheriu.lIy
(17.89)
s )'lIlmelrie object of radilLS ' . l.hI metric (I1.85Ht7 .87) UJllmes lhe fOl1ll.
c.. - t--.- ""'"
"" +---;r-+O ( ) ' (.. _0. (17.90)
the post- Newtonian equatio llll or moti on make it possible to determine qua n ti ties
tha t are t ime in dependent. in the Po.ilt-Newtoni an approx imation. It hu been
demonarrated , however, (see nemsov , Loguno~ , Mutvirishvili , and Chug",e~ ,
1985) iliat , generally speaking, 'it is possible tll interpret these quantiti es as energy -
momentum and a ngular mementum (i.e. as integra ls of motion) only in thec rfes
or gravitation tbat cont ain the law of ccnseevatlon of energy·momentum tenser
of matter and grav itationa l fIeld taken togBilier . For example, in GR relatlonshtps
(17.91) ere valid but a detailed ana l)'sia shews that th a quanttttes that aNi time
independent ill the posl .Newton iall approximation ere 1I0t the integrals of mot ion
of the S)'stem cOlUisting of matter and gravitatil;lnal hid.
With in I.h e framework of RTG a n isolated S)'stem Is cher ecterraed in the P58udo-
EUClidea n spllce-t ime by all teo laws 01 cOllservation in the ueual SBn$8, laws that
in the post -Newtoni an approxim at ion result in ten integral s of motion of tile
sysUlm. The fact tlla t in Rl'G the rela iiollllhips in (17.911 a m val id corro borates
this conclusio n.
18. t Equallly 0' the In ertial and Gra vitational MIUIlf:lI In RTG
Gravitational experime nts have established that tile devia tion from unity of th e
ratio 01 gravitatioo al mass to inert.i al mU'l lor object:! of labora tory dimensions
does not exceed one part in t o" (see Braginsky and Pallov, 1971). However , th is
does not mean that the grav lta Lional and ine.rlial m8.SS9S 01 an obj&ct whose di-
mens ions are great coincide with the esme accueecy . Fur objects ol lahorat ury dimen-
sions the ratio of the grav itationa l self-energy to the total energy is 110 grea ter in
order o' magnitude th an 10-" . Hence , with an eccuracy of one part in 10" it is
im pOlI.'lih le to lilly how the gravitationa l eeif-energy is distr ibuted bet ween Ihe
inerUal end gravita tioD8 1 masSes in obJ&ets of labore tory dime nsions.
The ratio 01 th e iner tia l mass 10 the gravi tati ona l mass for e~ten ded ohject s
for which the ratio of tbe graviUitlona l H lf-enefi Yto the total energy cOlU idera'
'"
bly e. eee<Ui 10 - 21 will be disc:uased In Ch. p~r 20. He... we consid er on ly
the itnllnl w ro ll.r!", to whieh RTG I Dd GR Iud i n eon oeetion wi \h \h i. prob lem.
In GR, as shown In Chapler 3. the n lve of the iner ti , l Ill. . depen d, on 1M
cb olQ of eoord lnllte U~ in three-<lhneouioo . l sp a«l. which ph JlliCll ll y ill mean loll"
I~I. T herefore . It doN no t foll ow from GR \.b. t Inert i. l mus ;s equa l to th e ee live
rn: vitat ion.1 maM. 0 0 th e ot.hec h an d , from RTC it ro llo~ thn tM lnD1ifll_ u
aNI 1M lIc:lillit VIW ltollo Nl I _ 01 4tI oil/ ret flO/Milk.
Indeed . ,I RQ th e s pec ial prioeip lll of rel.tlvl ty fOf1ft.l th e h asis for RT C , the
inertl. 1 mUll of . n ls l. nd 1lJ3111m ~ s trictly delintd an d " giYEn by the foll owl o(
lorm n l. :
( l8. t )
(18.6)
In Ihe I.., u preuion " I IuI v. letrcd ueed lhe nolll illG
(18.8)
whar.
If lor th. 7:''' we take the .pheriu l wordio. les z 'o _ r . ::1:" _ alld z" - If. e,
then on !he bas" of (12A1) ..ilh A (t l _ 0 we . Tt'ive.t Ibe 101lo..il1f rorllluiu lor
Ihe • ." (z' ):
m" (z ') _ _ WZ siJll 8,
md(z) = ~
, [ ];iT"
~ "'i7'
'~ III.. (Z 1 ~ I?I"
+ ;;;or ,~ '" " ( ~~ I
+ ~ ~. m"(%»). 118 . l t )
Henu , t akin&" illl<) acwllDl th e .... lues of the elements of the tr. nsform. t ion PI.trll"
.in Ocos " sio8 si n lp COlI 8)
~= r eos8 cos fJI r Wllhin q. - r l ln 8 , (18. 12)
(
_r s int:!sln lp f s in 6 COll ql 0
we u rl"o . t
/11."(z) _ - 8 (r) s in' 0 COS" fJI - C (f ).
IIID (z) _ - 8 (f) sin" 8 si n" fJI - C (r ),
m" (z ) _ _ 8 (f ) eos' 6 - C (r) , (18 .t 3)
mil (z) _ _ 8 (r ) si n' 8 eos .. . in •.
mil (z) _ _ 8 (r ) s in 8 CAUo 8 cot '1',
m" (z) _ - 8 (,) s in 8 eos 8 si n '1',
To calcu l. te lb e inerti.1 mUll III, of • sie ue sphllC"ic. l ly sy mmetric object, Wll con
use lb o form ula
• \ 0...· .,
z .. .....-r
",,,,"..,z)
--,- . •
1II'- - ""i'e1l1m
" . __
r {jz a.. -.In dll d'll, (18 .16)
whicll fOUll.... from (18.5) a nd (18 .6). 10 (18 .16) we ha ve a llowed for th e fl ct that
dS . _ - rz a s in 8 aedfJI .
Since Iho tu ns-form'lion matrix 8z' Y /8J hu the form
• ( ~ 8C01' ~ n 8~DfJI ~8 )"
-1;.-- r 'cos8 ... . r ' COll 811;11 , - "" s10 8 . (18.17)
- r'" ' (. in . Y-'1I8 ,.... (cos 'l'Yalll 8 0
011 the buil of (18 .13) .... . Colli euU, ca.!clliate th e in terrood i n (18. 16) i n sph eric. 1
coord l"ata ;
(18.18)
'"
I ntPfl'" Uoll ill (18.18) ""lth respeet to angu ll e nri.bln yields the fin. l 'orIDot.
for lilt,:
(18.19)
If for W (t ) " 'e Ilike lb' one-paramel.llr fam il)· 01 $Olutloll~ \0 the Hilbetl·EIIl.lll.e;1l
equ. tions. or
W IT) _ I, +
(I +.l.) MI", (18.20)
wbere <:l is an y finite number. tllen on tile basis 01 (18. 14) and (18. 19) "'e , rr ive
, t t he lollowini expression for the inertl. l mas s m, :
m, _ M ( f + a ') . ( 18. 23~
We _ lb ' l , i ll view Ilf t bfl.rhi l rui lleft in selecting a , tbe inart i. 1 mass m, may u ·
aIlme In G R an y lind vsfue IrII ;;> M . ,.·kicb illlmedi'le.ly ImpH. tbn lb _ enlriY
of . Sf. le lll may abo lIi!lo me any value: he nce, loo C1ISU lu obu illed by POlllomarev.
196:), arti erroaeoue.
In colltlusioll WI I h·e \.he asymptot ic upr1!!l!!iool for Ihe metric coefficients
(12.41) as r _ CICI. " 'hell A (r) "" 0 and W vI is liven ht (18. 2.2 ):
which im plies thlL lor t he .Riemann . pace-time with metri c (t 8.24) the .. u i5ts
an asymptotically na t Min k owd:i apace- lime .
.,
t 8.2 The £qulin... of Moti on of • Tl'5l Bod,. AJOIlj • Geodes.le
In 1M S ilO" Gn" lta Uo.... t Flekl
In « leul. Li nl the aUlldud ell'actll occurrinr in 1II. Sun', Jfu iu Lional fteld the
Willmon . pproae h l.t 10 take for III ideal iuG mod, l 01 t he SUII . stati c spheri ca ll y
SYIDmtv ie b.1l ell n d i~ R. _ Th e mev ie eoeU\c ie<ltl for ob jec b pcmessi llg thaw
pn>po!rt ies ....re determ ined in Cba pler 12. Then it w... . bo Dot ed t hat th e tolu-
ti Oll1 LO nOM but the H ilbert -Ei nstein eq ua tioltli i n tbe ut.erior of I ~t1e .spll. r i.
a lly ' y llllll.t.rie touree conu io t wo IU"bit rary h,lnet ioDJl , .... (r) ud W (r), l od
tbertfon 6 ft .:.annot In pri ncipl . ri... _ 1I-.de6ned pred idions ~rni nr ,ra"; -
... tional d eets. 0 0 t he ot her blind, tb. IOlul iOlU LO o.. .J}'lItem of RT G equatioas
for \hI lD. tric coefficien u of the efleet i n. Riemann spac:e-tl m. Ire ,..ll-.d e6.ned
.nd una mhlruous. HcM.e, i n Chapu.r 12 . . In i.. ecI a l I II important tooclusion.
namely, til lot th.re i.s 110 . rb;11"11.ri. - in RTG. I nd, lh_'ora, th at for
u tiona l uperi men tl oonaidered bol low Ihe prtd ietioas witb io the RTC Iram ewOlI
, r,ri. ,h.
a re fa ll )' IUIlIIObi, lIOIlS, •
Lel us iII ustra le Ih ia ...·itb enmplee. To lM. en d 1.0 de!aibe grav iLal ioDl 1 eBeelJ
i n th !IOll r .ySlem ...e uke t he mt>lI'ie coeflieie nlJ to be
y'W"M - 2G''''0
, . (r)_U (rj _ vW'ti '
t .. (r ) _ _ V(r j _ _ VW'o
- ( ' VWTo)'
dr'" ' (18.2.5)
, I IV Cr) ZGM@
'u (r ) - _ W (r) , g.. (r , 9) - - IV (r) l in' 9.
Tll e~e form lila. t ran. form from (12.4 1) if we Jet
A (r) _ 0, ". _ GM@, (18.26)
....here Ms> I. the Sun ', act ive llravi h,t ionl l mal' and G til e gravil.lltioll BI con.tan t.
The co ndIt ion A (r ) _ 0 doos 1l<I~ cban~ the etse nee of th e problem a od I. chOlen
onl )' to .i m pll fy m.Uel'll.
Wi t hi n the G R framewor k, V1V"(fj i. en arbi ~rat )' fu nct ion of r , while in RT C
u haa lbe lorm YWTrl = r + GM& Now Ih . t in l h' nter ior of lb , !!Duree
VlV (r » ZCM@. (18.27)
TI,a eq un io.... of motion of a m'leri,1 ptlr l icle or • pholon an .....i l tell in th e
form 01.-odnie ~lI. t i ons in the eBff; t ive Riem ann ' JMee-ti me wilh mlltrie (18.25 ):
(18.28)
"'+
;r.;r 1 "W II, d'f
w T ~ 40 - 0. (18.35 )
...her. t ud J n f eonstl nts 01 Integra tion and , ISll inlairll, of mot ion in th e
probl em considered here By rede fining, pnamel.er a we c. n .h"'1S IltlSul'l tJ.at c
in {18.36J Is equa l 10 un it y . Hence, i n .... hat foHows ...·e use , with out 10Mof ,en er-
olity, t he follo....1n, !or mlll,:
(18.38)
Su bSlilllUnl (l 8 .37J . nd (18.38) in to Sq • . (18 .34). we c.n write tIli$ eq .... lio n
at rollow . :
e - - "W"'h"
"'- " ( u, ) +W
' T''' ( 7ij
" )' .. '"'W
'" ~ (' W, ) _0.
'(;')~
'" '"
-.u= w'
I /'
(18.45)
w"I,j +e-....'IT'(;)
' . {IB.47}
Find ing dt from (18.45) and tillb sti tllting it into (18.46), we get
~(:;)2 - -ir + :: + £ - 0. (18.48)
Combining th is with (18.27) end (18.47) , wo Jina ll ~' get
4lil V' I' ( ' ,
~ =± """'W 7W- tv -
'j-"! .
"]r (18 .49)
• See LOgIlQIl'" I nd Leoku\llv , llllllk, LogllJlll'Y . Lookul./>v, ond ChUIV~V, 1986. I nd Wol~
berg. 1072.
Howe..ee.... a resul t of th e ecti on of the gravitationel field the particle In jecto ry
de..ieWII from e st n igh t li ne, LIId Lbe ml u m. 01this devluion un be ch lrlCteri ud
by the q ou tlly
6lp - 4 ., - :l. (l8.5O)
To uklth le .d., _ writ. tht 1IOIut ion to Eq . (18.49). which n pl eMe!l" in ter lllS
of r, in tha for lD
I "" (' ,
'I'- ± dr -W- 7iiJ- W-'"]r ' j-on
. (!8.5 1)
Combinin g thill with fOl"ID ulu (18.25) for U (r) a nd V (r), we obtain
" 'here WI blVe u.sed (t S.48) .nd the for mul a t ha t li nks U with W {see (18.25» . nd
hlYe i ntroduced the nota tion W. "" IV(r,). SUb/lt it utina (18.54) in to (18.52), we
."
If (rl _ IW: ' J _ Ew , (Y W.-2GM0 )}t J
.
~ cl lfW llfW IWVl C1- E)+2E JVGMGl
'
I'"IV(,j
(18.56)
(18.57)
(IS.as)
..
we d n wri te (18 .56) ill the form
whe~
. . _!lin-' (Vii';
14',-14', J,n
14', '
(18.6 1)
q
_ (~VW,
1"14', W.
14',
W,
l'" ' (18.62)
"d
•
F (v, V) - ~ (l - q111 in' W' ''' dl
G"
~ v, (yw,; -:lGJle
t'lv. y W;+6G.Il
fJI
F (v. 9)· (18.63)
G
In Append i" 4 ... sblnt' th.,. beD VW; :> 2J:;J(0) from (18. 63). III tho NcOnd
order in 2GMe/}'W';, lb u. folio... lb., U pIln!iOA
Sub5tit ut inr t bi! into (18.50), we lind that in 'th, lIllColld orde r in 2GMd YW;
.0-
"'t'
~ 4GM@+ 4 (GM& ' ( 15 11 _
VW;; w. W
t) . (18.65)
For T, we ' lit, the radi us of the SlIn, and the relationship between W. and r.
will be assume d to be
WI _ (r , + GM's (I 1) 1'. + (18.66)
Yllt re .. Is all adj...,l&bl" plra ma" ' , For ;Ill ..al u~ of). p tw y iog t he cond ition
r, :> CMr.:> 11 J. I + (18.61)
to ",·itbi" th~ _ d order ill. GMt:Jr. ~ h. n
--;:;- - 4
6q>~ ",.v", (ct;&' [(2+ "}-il" Jl]. (18.68)
I n GR the ranee of . d llli!llible ... 111. 01 parameter l ill (18. 68) is Iimiled ooly
by eondition (18.61), wi ttl tbe l'l!!Iult lh. t the p\"tdidioll II I GR w llU roinl lb,
deBec:l io.ll 01 lig ht ill tAil S un', rr... i~ tio ".1 fi~ ld tontlios. ;.11 the seeoll.d order
" _ 0211
'"in GMek.> an . mbl(Uity. In RT G, ou lb . other hi nd , pa nmew:r A m.y UlUme
oal y Ollie val u. ,), _ 0, . nd therelo.. Ih , prtd ietioll of RTGcollUrIling tb illpbeoolD-
UlOG D uruo mblpoUL Nole th at w luti(Hl (t 2.76) , ...hich ill GR lIf&lI 1000rtd by
Sc:hwu%xhild , eOnelpol:ld. to the UH w ith 1. _ _ t , Ind 1mIce the delledlO1t
of lich t in the Sun ', Crlv it.l..ion l field a lcul. ted ill the G R fr.Imeworlr d iller.>
from the RTG resuh by 4(GM(1')"' r.. If Ille .eel''''':'
in _ uring the dtlleet ;oc
of light aIld rad io . ifllils could be t a1Md to • leTel ,. which lIll&Ond-onler .fleets
t Una Into pl. y , th b . mbignit y would become uprt'lllll nu, l1y varililble.
ID dMivl ng tb&e l wo for mulu we . 110wtd fOl' the rel etionl hip betwnn U and W
(_ (18.25)).
Th l l illie" (r) through wh ith the " dil" vector , of the partlde roLites (this
arlil. II rec:koned from th e dire:tiotl l peei6ed by , _ , _) un be u1 cub\til eoeonl ·
inC to lbe fonllult
Y1i'(;', ~ yiP
,,(r ) _ ,, (r _) + ' ~ (VW[W' f' (I _ t) _J' (\f W 2CMel +2£WGM ])'11. ' (18.72)
V~ e
'. ..hlt b emerges U I result of \nt egu ti nl' (18,49) wil h respect to r IIl d allowing
for tb l f9la tillnahip belwBell V (r ) end W (r) (s" (18.25» ,
P UUlng W (r) _ W -t In (18.72) and 11Iowing lOT (t 8.70) and (18.7t ), we o btft in
'II I)
r. - 'II I r -l - ( Y It', If\i': - 2GNw,w_ l"
e vii': e vii:
2CM
Y W. .. yw
(18.73)
X y k ' Vii' (VW- VW:! (Y W:- I'"W)(VW- WJ I,/I '
wilh
'"
11' WM e vii': vW: (15.74)
. - yW. yw_ 2GM(';) v w: 2GM VW_ .
0
Integr at ing in (18.73) yields til, fnUowlng formula lor lp {r+) _ II' (r _):
q - ( Wg(y' W: y'w.:
- ) '" , (18.76)
yw_(y w. wol
'"'
F ( ; , q)=""~ (1 - q2 si n~ l)" lS dl
is a complet e ellipt ic inte gral of the fil'lll kind.
Formul a (18.75) is true for.lI tv., and W. sat isfying the inequalities
(G M@l' ]
Vw:yw.: . ( \8.77)
The variation of angle (jl when the p art~ le moves from point r -= r_ to point
r _ ' " must be equa l tn the VIiTiation of angle lp when the parti cle moves back,
' rom point r = ' + to p(lint, = r• . This means that tile total variation 01 anglll 'J'
io l he (:QIH$ll 01 a cOlD plet e rotaHon ill
(18.78)
We ~ee thd the curv" aloog which the parlid ll lllOVI'lI is DOt elceed. It precllllSllll
i n the d jr~ti on of lhe motion Qf th e parttctes, and the IDu sure of this proce$S ion
in the second-order a pprox imal iQll i n GMe/V W", ill the quan tit y
, GMGl (-=-
&1' .. 1.\ 'fl - 21'1 ~ 311 ' +---=-
y'W. y ') -W.
w_ + -"8 n (GM0)" (' +-' j
w,
51 (GMqJ '
(18.79)
+T" v w. yw~
".
...
w e select the uJ atloli ahip between W", aod,,,, ill the form 01 the one-pa ramete r
famil y
W", _ 11'", + (t + ;') GM0 1'. (f 8.80)
Then for a ll va lue.'! of Lhe IIdJ,\lShb le parllmewr ;. sati sfy ing the eeadtnon
r ;t > GM'i) ! f +;' 1
we ha ve ~he following ex pans ion 0)1 6qo in pewees of GMelr", to with in secon d-
or der term s:
' ' )
6,,~ 3:o.GMe ( -;::-+ -;:- +-,-
51" (CMq)'
'.r.
+311 (GM0)~ (*-l) t.r+*). (18.8t )
The shilt g iven by (t 8.81) ceo be uprassed in te rms 01 the chMaCler istiea pe nd
t of th e tr a ject 'lry;
where 2p i.! the la flU Ttdum. (somet imes p ie call ed the IGeel parameter) and t
the ecoolltricity linked to , + a nd r_ through We foll owing relationships;
p- ,.2r.,_
+,_' ,,_ ~
- r.+,_· (" .88)
All (18.8 t) d earl y 8hoW8, th~ acnbigu ily in t he pre dict ion of GR con cor ni ng
the sh ih 5", man ifMts ttsell, llJl in th e cu e with ligh t dellect ion , ill second-order
terms in GMdr" , and d isapp ears in RTC ercc e here 1 "'" O.
App lying fl)rnlula (18.8t) to the meuon of Mercury ulm nd the Sun, we arrive
in the very rlt's t order in Glltd r,* at the foll owi ng vslue lor 6", (i n seconds of arc
per centu ry);
6", .., lr.2.98' !cen lury.
The result s Gf observ ation yield (Sell Misn er, Tho rne, and Wheeler, 1973 (p . It 13) ,
a nd Will , 1981) 6q>,uor coo (lr. j. l ± 0 .9)"/cent ury . We see that the present level
of experiments in th is fIeld Is not suffic ientl y high to s tudy the second-order corre<:-
ttens and, hence, to experimenta lly de termine tlte val ue "f ),.
Study of the Mercur y perih elion sh irt is f urther ecm pltc ate d by t he f$C t tha t
a number of other Iact cre, besides pcet-Newt oniana correct ion s in the eq ua tion
01 moti on , a ffect the perfhel ten shif t. Among th 6lle are , say , the gravitat ional
pulls of oIlier plan ets In the !(lIar s yste m and the d eforma tio n of the Sun (the
q uadrn pole momen t of the Sufi). Th e on l)' indet erminate lector is the value of the
qu adr upole moment of the Sun , since the effeet of all th e other (act GI'S can ba cal-
c ulated wit h sufficient acc: uracy.
T he ad diti onal Mercury per ihelion ah ilt brought on by the Sun', quad ru pole
moment I, re (in tee olld, of arc pet cent ury)
05"'.~d =0 1.3 x 10'1•.
Measuremen ts conducted by Dicke a nd Col denberg, 1967, 011 the SUIl'S appa rent
oblet enesa pro vided a val ue erure qua drupole momen t I, equal to (2.5±0.2) x
to-·, while later measuremen ts by Hill et et., 1974, (see also Will , 1978 , 1979 ,
1981) yielded the est ill"te I , < 0. 5 X 10- 1. A comparisOl1of the perihelion sh ift.s
of Mercury and ManI yi elded an est i m a~ J , <3 x 10.... (see Sha piro et al.,
1972a , b).
18. R TG .ad Sc l_ S pI"" Gr.vll.IIIM. l E~ /Uri m."I.
Th ,,~, the ... bsa nee " I d irllet mell~u re ll\e n ts " f the SlIll'S qu adru pole ll\omeM
..
re6ults in ... large indetl'!'mi n...cy, which mak es i1 impo!ll!ibl" to s tudy the Mercury
pu ihaJio ll sIIal with good llccufacy.
18. 5 Time IN la)' of Radlll Signals in the Suo '. G... vlLaUonal
Field {Shaplro'a Effect)'"
Th e purpose of the expert ment is to measure th e ti ma of propa gati on of a ra d io
signa l in t ha gravi ta tiona l field of the SUllo He... is how th18 uperlment call be
eealtaed . A radar transllli tter on th e Earth !lend s a ra dio wave out to II refiel:tor
elsewhere i n t he solar ~stem (Misner, Th orn B, Wheol&r, 1973, p. 11(6). The
refilleted wave is then eeeetved on th e E8rth . Th e roun d-trip tr8ve! ti me is measured
by a clock on the Ear th. This qua ntity is compared to tho rou nd-tr ip tra vel ti ma
in the ab sen ce of the Sun's gravitation8llield. In th is W8Y the t ime delay or r8d lo
signa ls in the gnvi t8 tion.J fleld of the SUll is determined.
To calc ulate theceeuo e ltj- t he ti me delaYll f ra dio signals in th&Sun's grav .ta-
etcnat Setd Jet us turn til Eq. (18.46). Sine\l for rad io sigllllis E ,." 0, Sq . (18.46)
yields
(18.84)
We place th& or igin of the IloOl'd inate eyste m at t he S~n ' 8 center and a~ ma
lh al t hll ra dio signa l propagates in the eq uatori al plane ",~ . Lel r o be the dis tillca
froll! t he ori gin to the point where th e path of the ra dio s igna l come! el ese sr to
th e source of gravitationa l lield . Th an J1 ~ IVJ U•• where W. "'" W {r.) en d
U. = U {ro,) o It ia obvious th at in e xpet imenl$ of lth ia typ e we mus t ClllUider onl y
pa ths of ra dio s;gllala lllr which r.;;;, Re. I nle gr ati ng (18.84) wit h respect til r
and all lJwinR lor the relationships hetw(!80 U (rl . V (r ), and W (r) (se& (18.25» ,
we get
V'~ (v w )'!' <! vii"
I(r~ . rJ - " (Vw WMo/ l(vW -V w;J(Vw w ,)(yw WJ I"" . (18.86)
vw;
where W. end W . at'<! given in (t8.57) a nd (t8.58), .respec tively. This fllrmul a gives
tha tim e thlH it t ak llS the rad ill signal to prop aga te fro m point r. to poin t r.
y
Foe W. > 3GJ\f0 we h ave VWo > W. > 0,> W. , wit h the result th a t th e
integra (18.8G) can be represented thu s:
I (r o• r) = (2GM@)' I , (r) + (2GMO)" I. (r ) + (2GMe) I , (r) + I . (r), (18.87)
where
I.(r) = 2
e )(W. - 2GM 0l I jlw. (W, w.nv
(V w , 2GM
,
1. (r) ~ I VW, ( w. W.l I.,.. F Cv, q),
(18.8B)
(18.89 )
• So.. Lotun oy ud LOO kulOv, 1985a. t98Sb, 1118&, t 98lih, 1986., LC'guQOY, Loskul Ov, ud
Chugft.v. 1986, sod ShapiJ'O. 19M, t919.
I , (r)_ 2
IYW,(w, W, )l' /t
(18.97.)
Subllt ltutl ng (18.97. ) inlo (18.96.) a nd retainiDg tCfllla up to the lirs t order in
GM f:). we lind ttl al
t fl!, JI) *' ¥W: sin t. + VW: sin "4\. - GMG (. ln tjl.+ ain tJ
+GMo IIt (!+ 1i1l tel (1+ "111 ~.J
{ 1-alll 'f<)(t - .ill 'hJ
(18.97b)
'r o calcul ate the n riation io the 110111' of , jm. ~tUed by Lb. SUIl'S fravi t.tilllta.
fteld , .." m ust sub tract lrom (t8.97b) til e val ue 01 the time i l tikllS th, rad io
sip al to lI'II.-.1 from pollll r. 1.0 point , . ;11 the of lbe Still'. rral'ttaUGl'lIl1
field .
Send iAII' G 10 uro ill Eq . (18. 97b) ' Dd bHri llf ill mind that IV" , lOll. t .,. d..
pen d 011 G, toO get
wb~
'. - (tU7el
P.... ... li m
0 _0
V W"" ,
lim
0-'
..... _ t... (18.97d)
Let us ll!Itab li.5h tIle meanillf of the limit iD¥ qlJ' lltiti es P... alId ~ . .... Si nea
the IIIIfI element with D:l(ltfie aKlflkients (t8.2S) lend. to
<h' _ dt" _ tip" _ p' (dO" + . in' 6 ~1)
8S G _0 end li m yW.. p, .nd Ute li tter coincides with tbe line element
0_ '
of the Minkowski s paell-li me In standard coord ina t&s (I, r, 9, <p), we eonel ude
tha t P 1;;11 e and , hence, P" r ., r•.,..
Putting C _ 0 in Sq •. ( 8.96a1. and (t8.96b). we lind I.hll
, ,
7 -p;cos ",. (18.981)
P. - li lD
_a VW; If - c_. t·
(Jill
with r. the redtal eritb metiutiGIl number corresponding to poi nts on the surface
01 the Sun, we illtoe grate and emve, in the firllt order in GMe. at th e fnllowing:
I .,~ ~ r' ,1l - r. + GM0 1u (r•..Jrol , (18.99b)
whic h yields
I, - I.. ~ r , - r~ + GlUe In (r.!r~).
hi th e first order in GMe thls equ at ion allows for an tnve -atcn of the type
r. - r" ~ t. _ I~ - GM 0 1n (1,11..) ... II ,
L•.•.• _ 9
(V"'" T.... ~ )'" .
th en for both metr ia , (12.72) a nd (12.76), t he t VI. T rela tio n is the ~~ U10 :
t. V L~ - L: + Vv.=t:
+ GM {2InL,. +Vrpzi + ( " -")In+ (.!='.),,,). (IB.102l)
8 L. _ JI I.: _Li l; + Lo 1.-;+l.
T o decw min e We eDtl.'l cI g:rn i ta t iou l t ime dela, proper, which act ually con-
s tit utes l he ' 0lI1 of such .UldIN , one mU$l . tao isolate th4i tillie ' , ~y for the
rad iOIiloal to eev er the d~taDee frOm the Earth to M. J'C.W'y io the a bsence of the
Suo '. ,"vita lioo al field. Th is IlInn. th at ...e lIIW1t add it ionally cal culate th e
tillll', It would LUI the aigy l to pro paga te frolll (I!') to (,alln the Oa t lDlltrie ".
u ti U Pl'ftll !.his t ime, "II (t 8. t Ol b) aDd (tS .tOt e), ill Lerros of t1ae revolu tion
periods T, III Lhe illilial I ri th llleLiu lion 01 Spice,
,-.. Vri-=?';: + JI? - ~ .
Cor«llpor.din,ly. wilh me tries (12, 72) aod (12.76), th at is . with (18. lot b) aDd
( IS. WI e), we have'
.r -rr-rrr . r .........-r':" r(
1.. -1. . ) ' "
,. (1• • O) - r ,-,~ - LJ.+ r '-" - l.~ -GM0l ~ + ( L.4-' . ),,oJ ,
+L J"
(18. I02b )
(18.102e)
Thill. the li me dela)' d ue to rrav ita ti on , !\ I _ I _ I. , ~ delintd d ifferent ly in
metrlu (12.i 2) and (12.76), For GM0 , L J" . Ind L, much s mi ller th a n L. ,. Wll
ob ta in .
( t S. I02d)
( IS. I02e)
Keno . . ia t.-od_ L .l. 'l ..1tt.1_ . 1Ir; "-e_, ..bea l!rI. "",,caUl" of th e Ta,1I1 "",""l'a
pl tb It ,• • ,....... the SuII' . ... rf_. tills q"atitl' can '" _ liud .... No . .. .. il iiU]"_ bodl'orblt·
lor tho 5.11'' lOll' a circa.la. orlIll .. ith , - , J.'
The ca lculation of t can be earrie d out if from the star t we paM from cooedln ates
(t , r, 0, lfI) to vari abl e! (t . p. e, '1') . wi th p _ VW"'(rj. in tarlllS of which
rJs2_ ( I - ~
X M )
rJt2 -
(
1- T)
'tCM -I
dpJ- - fI"-(d9'-+ lIi n' 0 drp!). (18.102f>
On the basis (If exp rliSSlon for the lin e elemen t weea nobtain , in tbe rll'st orde r in
GMe. the followin g form ul a for t:
t= VP~ - P: + VP:-P:
+ GM {2 1n P,, + vpPPi + (~)'" + (v.-Po) ''')
e P. VP: - pl P~ +A. P. + Po
and for the periods T•.• . w we have
p~:~. ~
T•. •. ~_2 :l Y GM .
0
Although th e link between I and t he expeetmcntally measu ra ble T. ,•. ~ th at
{OIlD"'S Irom the above form ulas is una mb iguous, th e t ime dilley AI wil l again be
d ill'e re nt l or dillere nt mel r iell g, ~, since, in Lrod ucing th e metric ten se r VI. of t illt
nat space-t ilde in the u ithme t in tions r in order to calc ull tll t . > we aga in arrive a t
(1a , l02d) aDd (l a. l02e) if we take p to be equa l In r +
GM S and r, respectively;
an d the Inteeductio n of a flat metrie 11k (p) leads to a n am biguIt y beca use nf the
inde ter minQC y in the valu e of Po: say , for p, - GM0 we have
,, - -.
1'''' rP~ -P.t+rp:-P.1 -GM0
., - -. [( c, -.,
llI< + Pl
r" + ("P.+P
-".1 )"'] '
and (or 1',_0 we ha ve
1,= VP~ - P~ Y p: - pl. +
$(I t hat lur GIo10.' 1'.1' and p, muoh. s mall\!1' tha n P•. ~ we aga in arr ive at form ula s
(18. I02d]8 nd (18.102e) for A I , Note tb at th e value of AI calc ulated on tile bas is
01 (18,I02e) does not agree with the exper tmentally observed val ue (see Sbap;t\},
:1979).
Fina lly , we note th ai in lerms of the vllri abl "" (t , p, e, 'Il) sul uti on (18.I02f)
is net the on ly solution to Ute Hllbeet-Em ste tn equ et tone. I ndeed, as a lready " nled
in Ch. apte r 12, th e funct ioo p .... ylY (r) ca n al ways be ta ken u one uf the var iab les
In whose terms the Hllbert-Ei nstefn equ auen is wr itlell, with the result tlla t
(18 .25) will a lso be a.o luti ons to tb is erlllati nll, Ibe onl y d ifference being that in
th e latler sol utio ns p plays th e role of r and the lu nct ion W (p) plays th e role or
It" (r), tha t is, ambi gu it iM in t a ~d lit emerge because 01 th e a rbitrariness in the
ch oice o{ W (fl), BlI w as the cue ur1ier in the in it ial arilh meti~at ion in term s 01
(t, r, e, 'l') ,
SEe Logunov ud L<dkulov, l S811 b, t 986<:: , and Logunov, L"'k\lIOV, and Chu~;"ev, 1986,
'""' heA
p_ 2r:r~ • . "" ~ , (18. 104.)
r.T'_ r.+,_
q~ I-~. , (t8.t04b)
r. ill th e lllinitn.1 dUil.& nca froID th e eeowt 01 tb. sou.~ of Ita.-il.tional 6eld 10
the ~ Ih 01 the test body, and , ... i ! the muhu l d i, lI11ct.
S ine. Ib, 11'101;011 b 6nite, lor E a n d J ' ,.... 11.... (18. 70) and (18 .7t ), f't$peet i ~.J J"
From (t8.46) It ""dily folio"", th at
• ywv {I S. l OS)
7;" -l'iiIW_ J"U _EUWj.....
PI, eillll lb ' ori,in 01 tile eoonl i" . le system It the eeOler of t.hol sourat of I ",v[l.-
l iOlWl1,.,.Id . $lIpet'posiq \he tlqllat.ori.1 ple ne rr wilk tbe pl,nc in whic;h t h'" lest
body mo,'a , and Inteerat ing {IS. lOS). _ I lTive .1 th e following form ula lor til'
peri od oJ revo luHoll of th e lest body :
T_ 2 '\' ,kVWV
1!1J \W J'U EUWJ'/'
_ r'J i1t' IW u "Wi'£(,WI''"·
J 'fJ
(18. 106)
'. '.
T he orill' ln of the lu t interr.l in (18.106) un Ia ' il)' be traced if .., note th . ! under
• complete ""oIUlion , th.l I! , whe n OJ' ", ries Irom 0 to :In, the teII l body dOftS DOt.
I U<l rd illg 10 (18.t03l . rel urn to tJle inili . l poio l but is found at the point
Allowlol In (18 .106 ) for the relati onship b~t W"ll funct ions U and V aurl tho
fuu et l(>ll W (r) (see (18 .25)) . we (> bUlln
WI V-)'"
T
-
rJ _ t"'Jrw, ) (t' W
(2 l"'W: '" w
2C"'1 1(l £}"""O_JO(VW_2CmI+W"' EW I'/o'
(181 08)
.
t'"w: vw::
where IV. _ W (r . ). W, "" W (r ,) . and no Is the mUll 01 the !o01U'Cll 01 grav itaU ona'
6eld. Substi tutll1g 10111 (18. t OS) the u pressiolll (18.70) ...d (18 .71). we find that
T_[
_
IVW~W_llY"'-"" IVw.- _)
2G..
)
w. vw.- 2Cm r w: 2C.oo y lt':)
l" (2 ffl:1r -.1.:)
y-w; Y""Wi
. _
X Il t' w (YW)"" _ (fB.I09)
nf w_2C..) IW"w.- YWl eV1t' - 1!K7:l (Vw- Wtll'P
...ith
iy _ w: JIW:
2C- ....
(18.U O)
• t'w.t'w_-2G.. l/W: 2Goo l' W::
For Vw:,2GIft • • ha ve w. < VW: , with the resu lt tha t T ca ll IIl'repre-
aent.ed al foll ows;
T [ (Vw:+yw.:l (v iv."-
-
2Gal WiiC- 2Gool
2COI(r W: ,' W-::' :C_ VW: 2CmllW:J
l"
x {(2C'")'12i, (r... rJ- /J(r,. r. lJ+ (2Gm)1\2/ . (r... rJ - l o (r,. r . )1
+2Cm.{2i, (r+, r~l-i,(r" r~)I + t 2j . (r... ,.)_ I , (r,. r.)I) . (IS.lt l )
_ hert
,
(II W - 2c.) <ZG- - IVoil yw.: (lIiV: - IV0I1'fl
If the pat h of motion of the !.est bod y is s uch th lll r~ > Cm and', :» Gm and ,
hence, y IV", > Gm and V ~ :> Gm, the n (18.111) yi81ds the following Ieemula
lor the period 01 revolu ttcn (see Appendix 4):
T':::!lI (Vi¥.+V w.:),/' ( 1 + lIGm = + t IrVW:-VW';IWW';-¥W:lI'l'
V2Gm V i¥.+ yw_" YW. + ll w_
-i- [i-Sill-'( t-2 VII',
y'W; - VW::
VII' _
)]) . (18.tl5)
u_......-
, '"' . (18. 119)
wilh z' tlte . pberietll eoon!iDl tel, th.t is, zt _ t , r' _ r, r _ e, and :i' = • .
Obviously...I i. th e 4·,"eclo r of the rate 01 cha np of lb . unpertu rb ed to«dinates
"". with res pect to pataflleta' • an d Mtlsfies the loll o....i lll eq uation of mot ion (t he
geod8!lie equation):
(18.120)
"z,.. .
"'ovina lb' oririll of the eoord io. te ,}'Stem to t he ee-nUt 01 the sou,," 01 ITavi-
.
"- liond 6eld Ind JJIlper poslllg the equl l.oI"ial plane i th the plane in ....bleh the
lest particle mO'·I!!!. W1l p i e _ 1lI2. ....hi d! means that
'" ..
Allo wing for the unif ormil y of the moti on In d tbe validi ty of (l B.29), (IB.121).
• nd (18. 122), we h d lIlu (18 .120) yie ld ,
,..
U (r) {u· )t _ W (r) (utl' "" 1, (18 .124)
whid! , ...han eombined with (18.123). ean be u'IId t.o find (.... )" and (...I) t ;
,
("'l' ~ .".,- -,,-,
- a (_' ) ' (18.12:'1)
" U
( ' )1 1 M) t (18.126)
II. = 1iW" dr " ( ') •
"'"iT In ""'iT
Let u' now ret urn to th e deviati on equat ion (t8. 118). An identi cal form 01 this
eqUi ll on is
....' +'- r'. ,u. £+
-y u ,rI. , I' . U " - 0.
""'1ii' (18 .127)
'"
Th ie eo mbln..:l wi th (18.29) ud wit h the lac t lhl t 9 _ 1112 yield.
~ ~,
-.;r- + ' T - O, (18. 128)
~. 4-
4·
-p-+DT+ e ...... +fCI - 0• (18.129)
"'to
b' + ~ = O, (18 .130)
.... +k -s-
77'"
4' - 0 , (18.13t )
...:hel"Cl we hive i ntrod uud the nollt ioD
0. 211'r:.. b . 2I':'..u' . e _ 2 r~,u',
(18.132)
f - d~r (U-)l+ tIS,:' (II") ' . e_(,,_/", 1t... 2r :.uJ.
Note ~h a i in the eUlrenl prablem the eoeflic ient5 a, b, e, I. e, a nd k are eonst.nU.
Eq ultion (18. 130) }"l, ld.
t' - ~ u p (IUt), (t 8.133)
where QI .. e ud . by vir tue of (18. 132) and (18. 126),
I " lnU I
( IB. I34)
D"· V -;;r :. 11& (4-) .
II i n Ih_ rem l ining equ Il io". (18.128). (18.129) , an d (18. 131). we carry oul t b'
5uba titulloIU
t-- Cu p('_ ). l' - t u p{* ). £'-C up (I....). (18. 135)
_ ~ + ~ _ O.
-~+~+k~+1t - O, ( 18 .136)
-loO'~+iakt -O.
'fhe een dltten !hd t bm-e be nontri",i..l solu tions to theMl eq uation. yield.
(I)' _ f _ Ite - cb. (18.137)
S uppoae th l t we hnv e ta ke n the one- para met er fa mHy
W (~) _ [ ~ +(1 + ).)
Gm )'
as the seluttc n to the Hllbe re-E tnateln equ a tions , wilh ). an adjus ta ble ptrameter
ud m the ut ive gn.'· italion. 1 mn ll 01 t he source o f rr.vitationt! field. T hen com-
b ining (18. 134) wi th th e reb tioll5hl p (12.4.0) th t Hnh U wil li y W, .... obu.lo
1I
1 .
,rayitlt iooll Geld and su perpcee tb l equa.l«i al plana ,ith lh. pllll l ill whieh the
e_
rrJZ and thfrefore
- 47 - 0.
Si nee hy Igumption lb, orbi t Is a eirel. of rldhl$ 1 _ Willi, ....e hu,
,.
l/.' _ ~ _ O ,
" _0" 7
'"
with th . r ll!luh tha t lh, ' ·,-eclOr of ve locily. ..-. aMulOeI th e form
u· _ {U-, O. O. ~ . (18.15t)
If W1I IH)W tIlke into aec.ount the u presaiolUl (18.29) fo r tb. con nec ti o n coe fftci ents
r:.•. lh. fad lh t e "'"
:lf2, .nd (18. 15t ), we ....i11 find th at (18. 150) yields
~ - -(r:, - r:J ) (S~ ..,,), (18.152)
~
s.
" -r;,s "
0
,
(18.153)
W. _
" lIS.
For th e tnjtc\OtY coD!lid.red ben ...-e already know lIl, ". loci l y CODlponf'nl$
w' a nd ... . Th . ... l ues are riv~ by (18. 125) an d (\ 8.126), rllIpeet iTe ly.
Multi plying (l 8 J 52)-(t 8 .1S4) by (..')-' an d inUod ueing the nob tl on
va _ ~/~ _ dz!"ldl . (18.t55 )
w. obuin
~ - -(r:,-r:,l S";, (18 . 156)
E... 0
" , -
is. _ ~;,s, ..
(18.157 )
" .
(18 . 158)
ObvioWl ly• .,; _ II- .... 0, while for 11-, in vi,.. of (18. 125) Illd (18.125), _ bave
" _( _'- '" )on .
2 yiii 77W
( 18.159)
Now let us prn e that Eq s. (18 .156)·{18 .158) Impl y lhlt th e llCabr prod ucL of
tho 4· veeto~ S"' .
(18.160)
is t i mll ~ Ild epend e nt and, ihtlrefnrn, is eOllMr"ll'd. A llowing for (18.25). (18.149).
(18.155). and (18. 159), we lind Ihat (t8. IOO) wi t h 6 = n/2 yields
,
S~ _ - y (S,)l-w (SJ' - , (w' - '
2II yw '''
4i1i; ) (5;I. .S
(1.1 I)
Finding rbe lim e derivat ive 01 lhis uprueion and a llowin, for EqiJ. (t8.t 56)-
(t 8.t 5S) yield.
:, (S..s-) -2v'S.s~ [-}{r:.- f"u) - r:. ( ~ -~ ,, ~W ) ].
If WII eDlp]oy (18.29). we ce n demonstrat e t lLa t
+(r:.- r:.J _ 1';' ( ir- 2U ~w it ~UW ) • (t8. 162)
whf teby
,
Ti" (S.,s-) . 0• (18.1&3)
• ·b lcll is .hat we sel out 1.0 pro""
.,
. (.
.
Let us introd uce th , 3- vector Z ",ith eompon en ta
Z, _ VV S ,.
, ~ '" )'"
,
z._ - y'i; S o'
( 18. 164)
Z. _ - n"ne w - 2'U")'W 8,
Subs lilutilt, tnf' ,~pn"!lsi ons ( 1 8 . I ~ J in Lo (18. 16;)-(18.169) ....ith 0 ... Jil/2, .....
ob tai n
, '[ ..-v
Z, - "7',,, S, + z'1' (W, - ,
2ii"'ji'T 7ViV '" I" S.], (16. 110)
Z;"". . (,,,
IT S, - zl' (1V"
, - 1ii')7W
. ~VW
'" I" S•]. (18. 171)
v' a nd p" :
, tl z" U "
"" - -;t, ""'-71 -
h i f l!lISiI)' e$ubli.w.ed th at u' and u' are related to '" _ dtr!dt in th e foll owing
lII& nou :
Solv ing Eqs. (18.170)-(18.172) for S" S. , an d S. and subs tituting th ese into
(18.t74)-(18.176) an d all owing for the ide nti ty (18.162) yieJds
~~; - ~ r1 - (r~r:,-r;.~J'I·I (II" :<'· - v'1:z" ), (18.177 )
5=E."_
<11 ,' lr'" f "' - f .' , r')
.. '''I(IJ'~T' - lI' '%'') ' (18.178)
dX; 0 (18.1 79)
"dl - .
Hare, in doth- ing ( IB.I71) and (18.178), we have allowed for the ract that the
velocity vecto r v' is nrthogoolll to the rad ius vllCtor x ' .
It can be seen tha t (18. 177H I8 .179) can be wrluen in vector form :
Ta ' --;-
' (Z' 0)
• X u, (l8.18O)
where
Q= 11- (r;.f :,- r:.r :.),nJ( ~' x v'). (IS.tSl)
Equat ion (18.t80) shows that veeto- Z' preeessea a round vector 0 wit h a ra te I 0 I.
It for the solut ion to th e HiJberl,.Ein Slllin equa ti on we t.ake the one-para meter
fa mily of functions
W (r) "" Ir (1 + +
I.) Gm]', (18 .182)
wh ere I. is an adjUllta. ble paramater, a nd m t he active gra vitational IM SS of the
source , the n wa find that
10 1- lv' l l1 -rr:. .~. . - f'..f ', o!ItIZI ~ Iv') 1'_(r+(l. ll C"" ) "'I
'+(l + 2)G"' (18.183)
U the radius 01 the gyroscope', orbit is much greate r tha n Gm, for a ll valuM of 1
aat isJying the ec ndit ioll r ,. I ). + I I Gm Eq. {18.183) }'ie lds , to the second order
In emir, tho (on owing expansion:
Thi s e:rpans ion shows that the a mbiguity, d ue to the GR approach , i n the expres-
s hill for I fI J manifests ihelf i ll the seco nd order in Gmir, wh ile the value of I 0 I
in RT G is weU-dafUled because here). "" O.
18.9 GR Ilnd G'll vi!l tilmal F.Jfects in the So lar S)'Stem. ConelUSlon
'"
Genera lly, the pro pert ies of space-ti me &8 11 be established in oxperi men "' _ In deed,
su ppose th at we know t he eq uations of a ll the tim elike geodesics a nd Illl the iso-
tropic geodesics in a eeleet ed sysle '" of cc urdln ates, Th en the space-lillIe met ric
tensor III th iS ' y.-;telu is deter m ined to withi n II. cons rent factor (for the proof of
this stat emen t ~6 P etrov. 1( 66). BUI from the phys ical viewpoint the geedeslce
are the Hn% alo ng whie h \.eat par ti cles move . Hence , by s tndy ing light prop<lgll ti o n
and t he mouou of test bodies i \ is poss ible i n pri nc iple to de ler rn; lle expe rim en t-
a lly the geometry of the effect h 'll Riema nn space-ti me.
Can we deter mine th e geo metry of sp ace-t ime il ...·\1 rema i n in the OR fram ework ?
Th e H il bet t -E i n$\.e in equation in a chose n $)'st em of coord inale:! is valid, IIM e.-
ally $peak ing , for any arb ilraty fun ct ions of IOllt metric coetfictenta. [n ol her
words, H il/)('r t-Ei nstein equatio ns do not deter mine the Rieman nian geomet ry .
The common a pproach in GR to de ter mtnlng th e Ic ur unkno wn metri c ClJef ticien\.s
in a giv en coordinate sys tem is to use th e ~o~a1 l ed eoordinat\l eo ndi ~ions, which
a re four ad dluona l ucucova r ten t equa tio ns for t hll metrie eoelfideM! .
The H il ber t- E instei n equations an d tile cocrdi neve ClindiUn ns ena ble li S to
deter mine, i n a given syste m of cocr dln etes. tile Riema nnia n gen llletr y nf space-
ti me a n<l to celeula t9 tllis n. anoth er grav ite tionaleffeet. Th e choice of th e coor-
d ina te condi li ons in C R is comp1ewJy arb itrary, and j ~ [s assumed IhaL this eucre e
does not afflll':t the physieal results in a give n syst em of cee edlnates . But th b
choice dOl)s i nfluence the fllneU<>n al Ior m of l he metri c coefficients and, hence,
depen d i ng on the for m of ui e coordi nate ClJn dition s in a given system of coord i-
natlls, we have d iReNlnl gwmetriell of the Ri emann s pace-Li me. And in view of the
s bo\'e st atement d ifferen t R ieman nian geomel ries lead to d iRerent predictions
concer ning the propaga tion of light and the moti on nf tll-St bodi es. All of thls bas
heen dern nnstta tCfi "si ng 8O Jar,system gnvit. lillna l eRects as exa mples .
Sum ming liP, we ca n say th al GR is incapab le, no mstter wb.t the nd voclltes
of th is ideolog y mil)' say , of mak ing definite pred iclions eoncer ni ng the geometry
of the I:liema nn splice-time end g ravitational effects. This ecus tlnuea s till e nother
impor tan t defect 01 C R .
(f 9.2)
If l he energ y Dnx Ior metter and gra vita li onal field across the surface bounding
the volume of inlegretinD is n il in (19 .2), then
~ t<'~dS .. _ O (19.3)
'M
IUId . e au;ve I t the II . of COllRrVUiOD of th e lo u l 4-a>omftQ l llDl of &II lao/ued
systtal:
_h eAl
(19 .4)
I n \.hi, cue, 10 vie... of th• • ymmetry 01 the tot, 1 tner,y-moIUIlIUUln teolOr dens it y
t..•• the tRplat 1Il0lDt!ol UID telUOr of the s)"lIte m is .150 conM'rVed:
~ M _l = O,
Til' l. el th at the Moo. to mponenUl er. ecnserved impli" lhat lhe eenter of mau
of 1 0 i!lOlUtd system, speeifted by th.. fonn ula
X" _ S a-" .w _ pI>,- II'" (19 6)
1"''''' po
is in uniform reet.ilinur mOlloD whll • velocity
(19.61
Tb ll!, to dll!iCribe th. moli on of an lilIOl,ted -rsc.m coIISlnl1lf of ....1... . I nd
g raY;b1tiolll l IiaId it ;• .fU ff'>elenl to d' lennin. the 4' mOmetltu lD p . ( 19 .4, . Note
\h it • rea l 1)'!5l.llm Un DO! be I t n ed y iso la ted beea ua of th e lllot ioo 01 iu co o-
lIti tuen t partt. ...bieb ....... Inll.ioll of grui Utional .... ve., ,lid beo:a_ • re. 1
-r1l1l m u cha nps m ll.lt8r wilJl Olh.r " 'Il.ems i ll the form of eleet rol.U IlAet ie n d ie '
t ion, pertie' " _.to...., and th a like. Hence, ill pneR I. we ea nnot il llore th a eoettY
no.l-u for matt er end I r, vi talion,l field. TIlere Ire es l ro ph ysi eal pro<:88Mt i D
which lh eee &nllll'g)' D"XN play t he lea ding role . T , ki ol tll em 10to .c<:ount en. bl"
u. 10 uhcler'l. nd and pred ict ma ny an I!t.rophyaieal phenomenon. Al t ha II ml
l im.e, 1l0 Wfjver , for . y, Lem, wi thi n whieh t he enerlY RUlC ea for matter MId Ira vi ·
h UouMl field • ..., s mall, con dlt ion (19.3) i, met Wilh • C$rl. ih degre9 ar . ccu ra cy .
Th en, with t lul !!arne del l'\! e of .ccuracy we c. n , ta te th lt the 4·moment um of . ueh
• •y.tem i. c:onaerved. The..re t h, . y.Lems to whi ch the post-Newtonian for m. Ham
can be .p pli ed .
T o find the ex plici l form of t he 4· moIDenh m p . i n t he post· Newl on ' . 11 a pprolC-
Im,UoD, let U! tum to th e Idanti t y (6 .26). We wri te t b is ident it y in a Cart l$i . "
I)'Heal of coordiute:!l:
a..t: ~ v.r: . 1'9.7)
Mu lt ipl yi,,&, both .idea of <' 9. 7) by dV aDd il1 lqnti"l 0""" a .ufficiently lara-
",olum., we ob ta iu
a.! ~ clV +'r:dS. = ~ v.r.:'dV. ( 19.8)
AlIlJlu illl t h at
(l9.9)
'"
a.p. _ ~ V.r:d V , (t9. 10)
Equ l lion (19. 10) is met to the sa llie degree u the eo8I'fJ nUI 01 maUer lI1d
11'&'I'1t.l l lon,1 field I CI"Il!lli tM . urtle. bollDdior th e illt.erra l ioll 'folu.me ill (19.18)
is cIOM to t,ro, tha i is, ,, (19.9) is valid.
Let U6 now amploy Eq . (19.10) to determine the uplielt form of the 4· momeotullI
p • . Th ~ Cl n be don. if WI rep~nl tha right -hud aide of (19.10) i ll tb. forD'l 0 1
the t lole deri vat ive or • cM'U ln expression. Sip CfI our &OI l ill th is Maple. i, to
find lhe integrals of moti on in th, post·N(lWl.on ian .pproJ[i!:nIUoll. it ie n.tufa!
to eOllsider the r ight· hand aid. 01 (19.10) in th is approd rnatioD. Let US write the
ex presaiena lor each component of V.. r.... for tb e enorcy -momentum te nsor deosl ty
or metter:
V..T'" _ a.r- + 8..1"'° + 1107"" + U :'T"I + rolljlT"', (19.12)
v.r- _a..,....+ iJ..r"-+r:.r- + %r'.". r<-+ [""toT''', (19.13)
(t9.lolo)
.."
U. ina: the po!I ~N 8wtoll;U1 I1 pa ll$iOD of !.he mettie. (t7 .72)-{17.74). &lid the rae,
J
.... ~ V"
f"'~
rg~ - ot
u = 4 ....,.., t(1-W)8"'U-
*
_ (6!iJP t lt..a,u- '1"""'1'•.8.0) t
t 2 (iI~y<' _y"°'l'a, iI.yfj
I
(} (el ) ,
+0 (15').
y il" IWJ- oill>, - 4<tl 1 - 211l. - 6lI\ 1
(19.15)
),Iouover , wil h po$l-NewtOil ia li aeeun .ey Eq, . (17.5tH t7 .~), (11.67) u d (17.68)
yield
Si mila rl y, aubsUl ulion of (19 .Hi) and (t9 .16) into (19. \3) yields
«r: ... :, [Pv> (1+n+u- T /ytl )+p.,a.] Y
. I
- Bit
v",r- ="'jj [ pv'"
ii" U -or
" (1+ n +u- 2"'v.v"
I -A,iJU
au-+ 81i"Uo 81 j + 0 {~Ij ,
) + Pv"' + y, p" (N'" -
+a~ [ Pv"'I1~ (t .sn +U - ~ v",,') + pv" vD
V"'j ]
(19.21)
If'
Subst itu ting th is into lbe rirllt·band side of (19.10), I II0w;lIl lo. Ln. id tn~it i e~
~ Pl n~,u+u.dl,l dV .O.
~ p tU8,v+ iJ.¢I. ldV . O,
~ [ p8~U + p".4J. l dV _ O •
.~ p [I'2O.U+ 8.dl1IrlV _O,
I p8P dY- 0,
~ lH'.o,V~ IW - Jfll',P.,\.... dV.O•
• nd u kiul inlo .ceoun ~ tb. taet \b at the volu me llller.,I, of sp. ti,1 div. ra; enee
vani. h d lllr tu nsJorDilt ion lllln '\lrf.ee integ-rib , we obtain
(19 .24\
{1!l.25}
m. _ III,+ 1: ...
•
, *.
'W here E" b th e energy 01 th e field res poll$ible tor Ihe A lh inte raction. and,!...
b a diJllen.sion less p....Ol eler cha racterili ng the noneq\ll valence oJ th e eontri bll~i on8
of the Alb fie.ld 10 the ;Ilfttial and a ct ive rra vit.ti onal ~ 01 the objett .
By ana loeY. th e poaib!e d ilfen nce in the act ion of an exter nal gravita ti on a l
field on d ifferent typetl o f ml Uar un ba descr i bed b)' lhe foll owing fonn ula lor th e
puai ve c ru llati onal mass of a n ob}ecl :
m,_"'I + 1: . . p,o ~. (20.1)
•
Th",. on ly il ...., ,, ~ ....." _ 0 will the gravi lat ionl l properti es of d iReront form s
of ma iler ba the ...me; olh er....ile gnvi ta tio nal inte ratthm tea~ to be " n i"erMI .
Num ero us ex periment s hav e been etlied to Ils ta bli ' h the I1l let iotUh ip bet ween
the vad oua typea of mU ll for the Mme obj oet. I niti a ll y the o bject s involved het!
laborlltory dtm enatons . The meat famous n per im ontll meu ured gravimet ricall y
th e rl t io of the passive IIrllvlt a tional ma" to the inertial mass a nd were cond uct ed
by BUlIlnsky a nd Pano v , 1971, Eii ~v iia, Peka r. ami Fekete , 1922, and Roll , Krot-
kov , an d Dicke, 1964 . T he ma in Idea of all 'the!le ezperim ents can be Ic emul eced
u foli o",•.
Let us usume tha t not a ll the Il,,, in (20. 1) '·..nith. Th en the paui"e guv iLal ioll'
al II)US 01 an obje ct is generally Dol equal to its 'Ilert ial ml Sll T he equa tion s of
moli on of a point- like object ill all uternal h omogeneo.... ITlvitaliona! field a!lllume
the Iei'm
lIl,e- ("'1 t 1: 'IPA ~ ) I'
•
This implies tb\ the aceelerali0A5
Wi Utin Ibis I pproaeh th. praleR«l of posl.-Newt.ollil R correct ion ~l1DS iD (2(H.)
..... i nler pt'6ted u I he l'e:lIuI\ of brtlakd o"m in aome Iheori n I)f graYih ti on at Ih.
posl-Newlon ian leve l of the equI Hly bH",-een Lhe pallll!"e i'tl vitat iona l mas• • nd
the inerti, 1 m•• ol i n "teoded object. Il w.. , 1110 ata t'" t hat lb ........lity 01 tb.
pus,"" r r. vih.tiona l mass a nd lb e inert i, l mass In Ih. posl.-Newton ian I p pro:ti-
mal ion W01l ld mu n 1b.1 the eee tee of mus oj the n llnded object mov• •long •
eeoduic. lI ere it re important to note that tbe moll o" of • test bod y oeeurs. by
utfinitlon , . long I geodH ie., ....hieh is determ ined from the principl e of INJlt aet ioD:
th , funeUon.1 S _ ~ L dt I. kes th e least possible v, lue on • podesie ecrve. T he
~ u. l i on or th i. ClOn e is " yen by va rying th , L.;rang ian '1l0e tloll
(" t -;U---;;;-
L_ _ nl U' UA )' "
over Ib, ( oord ina lee of the pl rtl ele of mISS m plae td in the gra vitat ion. l field
COrTe!pon ding to metrie Ilk in the Riem ann space-t ime.
In eond ltio ns of • re. 1 nperioll nt it ;s d il licu lt to determi ne whe ther the center
of mass 01 lin ex tended objec l moves along a geod..,le. Due a pproach to t his prob-
lem hn been to dete rm ine I~m exper imen ts the v.lullll of . 11 the req uired poet-
Newto ni an pars rueters a ud, using W(IJ' s Iormula (20.'1), lind the rat io of t ho pa8lli vo
g ra vit at ion al m a~5 to u.e inerA i, 1 m ~ oJ a o ex ten ded obje.:t . nd l'5ta bJish the
patt ei'll of molion of 1111 cent er of ml!l5 of t his objeel in rel. tion 10 ' s pec lr,c r eo-
dHlic i n the R ieman n s pace-ti me.
The Ilrst to ' \ligest al\ u pe,riment of th is lr pe "' 15 Nord"'edt. 1973. By eal-
cu b linr Ih a motion of the Elrt h-MO'Q n s)'lltem in the Sun's gr" vit. ti onll Ilald,
he I Ua allll.ed the n istence of • number of ' Dom"li " in lb. Moon 's mOlion ""hose
ob6e"" l tio n mi eht mah it ~i b le 10 measu re com bin ll iu!U of pcet-N e..... tolll. ..
para Diele rs. On l sueb l oom"lf.is t he polariu tioll 01 tb. ),foon' . or bit in th e direc-
l ion oJ th e Su n wi th a n . mpli tudl 6r ::.: "I , where t is a COIll5U nl 01 th e ord ~ of
leo meters , . nd
'l - ('~- Y - 3 - t, -a, +C;I- ~ (~ + !I., - fJ - ~;...
T o dhicover thi s aRee.I, an a nal ysis .... n mad e of the da la obta ined from mu sllr-
ing t he E art ll·Moon M'pnat ion by 1_ ra nging. As II Fesult onl grou p oJ !tieareb-
ers (~e. W illi am~ et III., 1976) conclud ed Ihat '1 _ O±O,03, whil e anoth er
lound a etcee result : t'j _ _ 0.001± O,OI5. U ~i ng these cstimell1S and Will's
form ula (21J. ~) fur lhe pesetve m. lI, a number (If re$('~ rc h ol'5 concluded t b ~ l lh~
relio (If the passiv e gravil al lon al m es~ of the EU ih 10 it. inerti al maM ~ h oil i d be
close L(ln ll;ly: mplm, = 1± (1.5 x I O- II). TI' ''II, the dlltll Irom Illser ran lllnil of
th e. Moon ....ou ld seem \ 0 5Ugl:1l5t (and Lbis ....as done hy She pirc , Coun ~~ lm ~Il, and
K ing , 1976. and Wil Hams dill .. 1916) th s t in th o JlO$t-NeWlo nian a ppro)lim. t lon
the paMi,,!"g~v i lation81 ma~ or an ex lended objre t is equa l to th e object 's iner lia l
m U ll . nd lhat the center of ma..... mov e~ a long a llf'Od esic In t he Rieml nn space-
l ime.
ID ' 1. ler "'ork , Will . 1981, d id Il(ll assu m. that I h. ..eloeily 01' Ihe ex ten ded
ob ject is u ro and wrote Ih.. equ a,i ollS of Ihe moUOJI of lhe center 01 man of Ihe
e:rh ,nded object incorporat ed in I dou b le s)"lItem in Ih" form
'"ta- - -'";1'U + ""Il~ + m"':", (20.5)
...·hlJ'll lhe pPllive gra vit. ti on.1 energy m, of the spheric.lly aym llletric u lended
obj«.1 15defined _ as before, via (20.4), Ib!! oz:t, are genera ted by lhe gravita t ion. 1
$! Jl.energy of Ihe extended ob}eet I nd for a totall y cOMervat iv!! metric theory .re
u ro . U sta nda for Ihe Newlon ia n gravilatinna l pote nt i. l or lbe 5l'Cond ob;ee t in
th e !)'lItem, aud Ihe 1/.;. named iV·bod}' ac:.,..lerations by Will, cor uetn onl y <tf'ltl
(nflnkinelllu ie) pua melH cbtrkter;zing thtl ex tended objeet. its mes.. u d .t-e
independu t of lhe ob~t·. Inner lil ru&t.re.
Heweeee, Ihis definit ion 01 pus; .... mati ia incorreet . A, we .. ill shortl y show
(5M .bo Den i",.. . Latrunov, MeuY iri$hYili . and Cb"lf"Y. 1985, aDd Den~1i.
LopIlOY, and QU'gTeeY, 19861. if Ih, paMiv. m_ dl'fi.nfd in thi, munt-. coi n-
ci da " ith lh. ine rti. l m_. Eq. (20. ~) i. not l'edl~ 1.0 lhe eq...t;o n of podeJi.(;
motion 01 • part iele placed in I ~ to LiI (Tavital ional field of ' 9 0 u~nded objecl$
(uY . th e earth and the 51,10)11 tb e eee ter of m. . of one or _ (Ihe EUlb).
h . thel"dore, _ ID S Datll•• 1 to defiM th. push " gr .... i tion.1 m .~ of one
ul.end f'd ob~t. the Ea rth . in suell a manner tltat by Mui nlr it eq ua l to lh, reer-
li . 1 masswe eMure tbat the eq uat ion 01 motion of the eenter of ma~1i of th e Ea rth
coinc ides with thn eqUit ion of til, ieod~ i e motion in the tola l gravilaliona l r,t l....
Henet , de pendi ng on the ratio of tho pa" ,ve gr av itati onal m e ~ to the i n~rt i a l
mass , the cent er of m8.'l8 either fl}lJ ow~ a geodesic or d ~ not.
Th e " ovelt y of tbis a pproach Jles in the fac t lhat the equ arlon of ruolioll of lhe
cen ter of mass of an extend ed ObjilCt is com perd not to tlte eq ualion of a gOlldes;c
in the tft ~'div e Rieman " s pace-thn e, whose eurvet ure i. created only by the .eeond
utended objec t, hut to I he equat illn 01 a geodcie In th e tolal grav ita ti ona l r'er.I
generated by both objeelJl, illClud ing the one the moli o" of the center of ma$ll of
which l.$ being in v8!! tilfatlMl .
I.. tM, a pproach the for mula lor the rali o of the p~ive grav il alionel m ~ to
the IMrt ial TIl..... of the Eart h I n I.hll grav itat iona l field of the Sun assUIDes the
form (_ (20_36»
"- 'r .. )
~ -l+T . ~ -3-TL. U,e(O)+ 3 + ., - ~ + ..,. w ( ".) !Je,
!
whe rll U. (0) "'" P$dY/I x I I. !.he Earth '. gra vita tiona l ..ll.polenti a l al the
Ear t h' cent H' of mass. T hIl d illervlell bet....n tbi' formula In d Will 's liea h. the
preseo1Ctl 01 a tum pro port ional to Ute (0). Clea rl y, for tile ve lues 01 tbe PPN
paramalfll1l in Ih&RTG for malislll Will '. formula impliu thU ill the post_Newtoni_
an ap proxim at ion the i"ert ial and gr avitati onal Inasees au equal. while formula
(20.36) i mpli8!l thai !h i' is no~ !IO. I n th is cha plet we "'t Sl'£t specific physica l
expe ri mont , "'I IOlI<! result, will enable intet'p reting- th e hlotlon pat tern for ntende d
objeelA. For ob,eets of la boratory d imensio ns . whon the gr. vil . Lio"a l self-poten-
t i.1 is ext re mely loW. m p _ m, In RT G.
p_
.
whlt"' p V-=F '~ "' 9 ( I +3."U -~ v,.v' + O (e') ) I. the eenseeved lUaU den-
sity 01 110. perfed Duid , • qu.n tity th at ~ tis.li~ Ihe con tinui l)' equat ion
[ ..
V,ptl'= 1' ='; "FP -I- ~jKP _ 0.
.. ] (20.9)
.
At 1_0 t he eon r iant. eouerva tlon la w v,r'"
~
~
_a.T'" + I'_r-" =O es3U_
[p ( I + 0 -+.,.. · + 0 ]+ a. [~ (t + n - -r v,.v~ + u + p,p ) ]
the
• IIU · •
-P 7-'4KN. U - pO(l ' ). (20.10)
Let II! lflosfonn the lu t t wo tf~ 011. the leh - b. nd . lde of (20. 10). Employ inr
the equat iOftll if' d,U .. 4."9 . nd i1< a,Y*- .,. - 4n~, . e oble in
- "' - ' { ft.,p()+
PT+~.UIl!!!!l~ - ~ '
~iJ.Uij'U }
t{fh l + 1(1ll)=pII"
h • [
I + J1 _ y' v.v ¥+( l - a,-a,) U + plpl
•
+~
4, _ 1 aau ..!!!L.+ ·'+·' 2 0 U (" ~ v"' _ a" V~)
" lui. I
- -GUa« :: + Po{t'). (20. 13)
T he sum 4"1~ +
lj" ll is s)'m met rie in i edtees a: and ~ , but s ince we "'ill DOl need
il ln ,,'h at 0110'", we dQ Dot (i ve it upliei\ ly .
I t U Ol be d emonstra led t h. t vector S- c.nno l be represented III tlte fann 01 •
four-d illlensinn. 1 divercenee of • combin. tion of th e rener. li1ed ltMIv it.tiOfl. 1
pou. nliu. an d tbe cba racteri s liea of t be perfect Ould. Siau 10 metric lh eorl" of
Jlllvl t.ti oD c:oolal.a.i0i ten cOAMlTl.tlon laws yec:lor S- mUllt be tqlL&1 10 zero ,
tb il Impli. thaI th e P PN pu ame-tees in these tb eories necessa ri ly nt isfy tbe
cond it ions
~. _ O. 3t., + 2,. _O. ~I _ ~ •• t, + 2t. _ 0, (1. _ O. (20.17)
~ is know. , If we requ ire Ihat lbe angv.lar momenlum be conserved. thell Ihe
+
tensor 4:1 1t~1 mUllI be a)·mmu ric. Comparing (20. 13) ' Dd (20. 15). wa", l bat
I i -U IT
n.
t;; + t:':,.,.t:; + 1(":, only if
lit -a. - G. 01, _ _ 20,. G. _ O. (2O.t8)
ThUll, l.Jl , nqllire ment th a l t h&«! be polIl.-~e .. ~n; ... conserv at ion laW!! luves
on ly three PP N !U'U metera independent : y, fl. In d t.- Th e other patlm , t.el1 Sill:
" - _2~ . , t , - t ... to - -(V3) t ... a , - a . - a . ... ,. _ O. Th i. Is whal i!.
known IIs lhe co mpletely conserv ati ve P PN Icrmalta m, an d withi n th Is formal ism
we will opeu te .
Note th .t , II t hese lim it at ions on the val uu of thl! P P N pa rameters were ob-
tained by Lee, Light ", aD, I nd NI, 1974.....ho IUed t he p:lJlu dOleOSOl" . pproaeh.
Th is approach , h owevee, is physical ly roe l nlnc 1ellS; • c.ril iea l review or It ce n be
foulld in Dmisov and l.or\IDO.... 1982d.
"'h ich i5 llQi ly lntu preted ill. tha 10110"'; 11.' ma nner: ' p i , the df;lI.! it y of the rest
mn s of the objeet, andpn pU
the df; lIJIit ies of the in ternal and pote nt ial energies.
rO!lpeeli "e ly, . nd _ {1/2} Pliov'" th e density of th e k ineti e energy. On the basis
of the d illecen tial eonseC'll8tlo n Il w
• ('I Ii ) 0
hi tj"'J +GII -
... ani.,e I t I uniform ...d Noetili near 11I0tio ll. 01 th e eenter of mig of a doub le
syst em:
_~ -K,Il'j11+ - Ktl'1n .., J (IWJ+ ':~J1' _eoo st. (20.2 1)
~I . '{,I+ - 'W 5 ('(lIJ +t~4l'
In d dit ion to the inertll l ml$!l",e in trod uee the reer maM 01the e:tle nded ob ject,
!oJ _ ~ p dV, whleh , in .,iew 01 the eont inuit y eq u.tion. i. t ime independent . At;
shown in Foc:k, t 939. 1959, Ihe pee....Newtcn tan ".ri l~i on In the weigh ting lune-
uen in the deft n iUon 01 the een ter of maSl for extended objecU be! no efled on t ho
equ l tiollJl of moll oo of aphotlc. lI)' aymmetric extended objeel.l in ~he lowest order
in U R. _ hif:h Is th, rati o of t he charK lerlst ie . h , of sueh ob}ec: ts 10 th, ir Mptr. -
li oll. f or th is n.uoll.ll eal eul.Uo05 In.,ol.,11I1 the equat ion tbat dellCcibee Ibe
mot ion of the emlel' 01 ma!lll of an u ttJIded objeel will b. bued 00 rathu Ih, D P
0 11 lCl + tt\.}o
'f b, pollt_Newt oni an eq uiliODI 01 motion 01 • perfed Quid f;an be ohhined .
foll owinlf f od" 1939 . 1959 , by writin, th eo'. .ri anl f;oDllU'luion eqllat lon
V oT tA _ 0 I t It ... <1, I n lb . comp lete ly consern,l.. PP N rormal.lam .... hlVI
wh ere t ill' post- Newton lan eontri bution to th e El r\.l\'. l cul. rlt ion is
ed objects. I n Ihb .:aM. as showu in Deni80Y. Logllnov. and Mestvirish YiIi, 1981,
the follo..iolf t eNOr ..il ial th«l... JIl.S bold lnle:
3P.-De and ~ ~1I. d" - M0Y0<V"0 + 3P0 - % (20 .27)
T h_ . 'ere Il5ed in det>IYing (20.25).
T o a nn.-er l he q u~ti on posed at the beginning of th il sect ion a od nOel/roiog
Ih. moti on 01 t he E."h ·~ u nl et 01 mus , we must ca mp. ... this mot ion ..ilh 1 0
idealized paUe rn , namely. wit h the m o~i<ln of • tes t body in • R ieman n _pee...
time whose metric iJ formally equival en t to t he metri c.generated by two l!loving
extended objects. Th eil tlle fact thot th e llxpres, lon lor the ecceteraucn O(~I ol ille
een ter of mus 01 an ex tended obl~t coinci des with Iha t for th e eceelilrati on 4(':.,
of . point- like object would imply th at uod el' ~i m i br in iUal cond iti ons Ihe cent er
o f ili aD of lh. eJ.lended objec t (the Ear&h) and t he point- like objec t move a long
the u me Uajeelot y and a', goven led by tlul lIlI me la.. of Illotion. Sine. a polnt-
like object moves. by definit ion , alon, a aeooesie_ Ibe eeete e of ma.!!'i ill th i' ease
mov" aIOll( ' , eodesic , too. But if th a u pr-.iOM fot' "I';latu:l llc~1 di ller In po6t-
Newtonian corretlion ter ms , tb e ceD ~r of mUl of tbe u tend.cl objec.t will Dot
p nera lly move aloq • , eodesio:: ill the Rlam aoD spae..t ima. Such an approaeb .
am0ll( IItbr Ibinp , lII.&ke.. it ptl!!I!li ble tn a llo.. oatura lly for Iha eonlri butl oll of
tha gru lta tlonal xlf-nald of a given u tended objllt:t to the , pN:e-ttma cu.....n ure.
20.3 The Geodtllic Mollon Eq uatIon
We with to st udy the ' noll Ofl of • potll...Uk. object in the " (cin ily or the E. rth 's
eenter of m' 5I!. Let us write the geodflllic aquations II follo Wll:
" '+ r'... 101..101 ~ - 0 ,
""7i" (20.28)
whr . e ar... (" , d~' dz")'" is th e inta...... l (or the inv, ri . M physin l 3t p. ratl on),
and 101' _ Ib' /th I, the 4· vrdo r of velocit,.. At i = cr. we have
-T' ( .y + 3 - ~).!!:.
~l
-~~
2 III
+ O (e'), (20.29)
" 'here v;'1) is the "el oeJt~, of the poi nt-like object ...ith rll8poct 10 the E arth' , ce riler
or mass and It is l iven in (20.23).
Wa ex pand all th e potenl ial' enter ing inln (20.2'9) in power eeercs in fl -' to
wi t hin 0 (R "' ). CollfCt illg like term ~' i e lds
• "J>[
4m= -1I" 1fI t - .,. '( 4tl - ")
3-T L V$ (O)]+N'".
- (20.32)
• ."J>
",I(ol~ ••- - ml"'" ""1f' + "'o T""'jjOn- "I
[' ''0 (411-3- "T L. U19 (O) + I•~.] . (20.33)
Sinu a point-Ilk. object mevee. by d efm l~l on. alon g a jlllOdl!Sic. ns iner ti al In d
p '8Ii v8 Ira vi t . ~i on 8 1
mus es ue equa l, ....i th th e NlSUII th at we un re wril .
Eq . (20.33) In t il , form '
/11M! . ""-
0(11= - m/llOl""' ----,p- +.... ['~
TI't'It" (,-,-3- T -]•
"L.) UIl{O)+N'"
(20.M)
beelUse /RIOI - "' ~ .) 10 lh i. u se. Th i. eq uat ioD forms ' basis for delia •." t he
p. .l". p . ... it. tlon. 1 DlUil of I ' ext.ellded o bj«t. If we deflol i t in suc h. ma nnl r
Ib.t the lid of Ita equi lity . itb the inerti . 1 miss InlllJorms the eqult ion 01
IIlolion of the center of miss in lo I geodHK mot ion equltloll, then for lbe Elrtb' .
g.ulta l;ond mil . we hive , .,";tb d UB regard lor (20 .3"), t h" follo'lll'inr equation:
• N. ( ") _ ]
1I(ll- - _oO
"'1$ ".
"~""'1fr+
[ '
T-F"" 'Ii -3 --S-~" Ue (O)+N" , (20.35)
with
( ZO.3I1)
Th U!, w" can s.y t hat t he dui. tlon 01 t h" motion 01 Ihe center 01 m.,. from
th e motion , lonr a eeod er;ie i:t due enl lft:l y to Iht! dev iation from unit y 01 t he rati o
of t he Euth 's pl.!l!ive eravi lat ione l mass to l he inerti el mL-"S. Let '" now give
el p~loll.S for Ihe!e masses:
: : _ I + (4ll -3- ~ t.) 7.6 x Hr "+ (3+ 1'-411 +~ t.. ) 4.Gx 10-1'.
Since in RT G p _ ., _ t ..lid ~ .. _ 0, in t he po'!It-N ewlon l. n appro:rirn.t ion Ih e
E.rth', pas.'!'i ye , ,... llItloll.1 I'll" I. nOI eq",1 to t h il1eorti.1 mas:
-..
~ _ t +7. 6 xtO- ...
20.5 Ik" i.lUOn 01 the }(otloo 01 tae Earth ', Center
01 MUi fro m the Reference GeoOaik
Let \13 coosider the di ftert!llCe In the . eceler.t iollS of th e E.rth ', eee eee of mU!l
.nd of. point-like obillet moving in the v ici nity of the eee ter 01 mus. Eq ua lions
(20.25) a nd (20.32 ) imply lhal l hi. d i lf eren~ I. of the post.-Nevrt.Gni.n order of
llln allne$S. H ence, the deviat ion ,.. of the pol nt.-l ike objeet from the Ea rth' , " t DW'
()f mass can be u pecled to he . mall: ""'I«! _
0 (t.). Thi" mean. t hat for the eceel-
-e•• lion of the point-li ke object we ca n lak e itt express ion I t lhe Earth '. cente r of
m us. (20.32), bil l_How lor t he Ne wt onia n term iJO- Ue in it . Accord ing to (20.25)
a nd (20.32),
";.l-a(.) - ~ ~~ [+(~ -,-~ ~) ri'e (Ol+ ( 3 +Y-~+ ~ t.)o.e]
- ' Ue (. ) + O (10"" ~) . (20 .38)
SillU'" is ama ll , we un emp loy t he follow illl Ipp rni m. te lorm llI. for ",Ue (t ):
O"Ue (r) .. iI'(Je{O)+ if4ue (0),.. + 0 ((rile )' ), (20,39)
where a"'Um(0) _ 0 , and
i/'&U;p,/,O) _ ~ :~ (....... +3,..~&/r)ctlv+ ~P.1I(0) yd ... ';" Pe (O)........
Thus. ....e arrive a t the followiog equ ati on for the rld iua vtctoc ,. _ ,.. (t):
-::: +~ Pe(O) "' -&·+Q((rU!l)l'). (2OAO)
.....here the dr iyi nli: Ieeee lP it di rec.l ly proportional to Ih, d• .,iatio D frolll unity
01 the Tll io of th . E..~h·, p_h, er ayit .tional mass to th, lnertial m..., (20.36):
The l oi llti on l O
ho writ ten IS
'"
.,
-
.
&"_ ~ /I" ( ~ _ l ) . (20.4 1)
the ol\Cillatio n equa tion (20....0) with UII'(I init ial cond itions c all
T_:- V~ ~ 55 mill.
So lut ion (20.42) implin Ihal th e plane in which t b_ OICill.ti oM oeeur is
li n d by vect or n. ....hich slo....ly rol. tes with . frequency eorrespondin.q: to. period
of one )'e...
The am plitud e of t he oacill ll.lions is
lb"' (
A- -;r
"'" ~ 101 [ T' ( olo~- 3 -T " t.. ) U. (O)+ (3 +., - 4~+ 3" ~ ) 0-]
==: 1.2 x to"'" (~-3 - -5! L.) em+ 7.5 X 1.0-- (3+ ..,- 4~+ T Lo) eln.
(20. 43)
Ahboueh this v.lull of the .m plil ud. Wl'ISti hl tes • sID.1I quan tity, 11$ I*t-
Newtolli.1I order of sm.lh,e511 ill rle, with tbe result th.t this efIect U II be de-
tected ill uperilDenl5 t h.t possess post-NIl....totiian acA:UrKy , WIl liso t10le tlLlt
the O!ieillition . mpll tnde Is indepeDden\ of the E.nh's rot i ll on.
20.6 The lA.. 01 MoUon oJ " ' Electrica lly Oluged Test Body
EJ PIl riment nlly, the . boylt-dillCuSlied effeet can be obse rved only indir ectly, for
In....oce, by st udying the moll on 01 • teat body ncar the Earth' s ! urface wit h the
a im 01 det erm ining the spectr..l compositi on of the l'1l1..livi,lic E. rl h tides and
isol . ting the .... ves lb.t musl be observed if .... e ..uu mll th.t th l! Elrt h's cente r of
m ~ moves l.Ion, I ~elIie.
Due to the Slulhln.! 01 the ~-Ne....Lon il.ll correction terlllJ in the ucelerll ioD
of ('I".. "it)', ,.t.btriq uplll"imut.1d..ta reqo ires . 1000g timll. Heeee, tbe lesl body
must be I I rest In 11l1.lion to lb . l.boralOl'Y, ....hleb mUM ","e mllsc WllIpIlIl5Ite
lor tb e eeeeler.. tlon of Crulty by . pplying I fort e of noncr ll.li oDiI n.. lura 10
Ihe body. Followin, Nord tvlldt, 19it , for such I eounterlore ta ke th• • I.cu ie
force I.(:t;n, on . n eleet.nca lly ehafi1!d tes t body . The value of the eleettlc lield
..trenelh will bIl direct l)" proportl on.1 to llle forell 01 , r. vlty .eli ng on Ihe test
ch'ree In d will be e:rpressed ill t erms of nop eJeetrom8gnetie quantit ies, with th e
result lha t our c..lculati ons hold tr ue for ordinary grav imetric instrumenu"
Th us, the eleetrlc counterforee is an I Uleillar y element ..nd ih IIJi(l is jlll ti fied
only beeause ... can the n eu lly eale ulete t he post-Newt ooi..n ee ereeuens whleh it
i n trod uc~ hlto the calculat ion of I.he eompoAllIl13 01 the lue lerat ion 01 rr.. vity .
wh ich lire d irectl y mlll.llun ble by gn '·'mete l'S an d til ted pend ulums. H.re. as we
....iII shortly _ on the aSlUmptioa th. t the E.tt h·s u.1.U of mU!l mo"'llS .. IOlli
• geod ll!:!!ic in the te lal cn"it lt iOJl. 1fiald of t ba E..rth . nd tM SUD, tne-l lIlplitudes-
of SOme relati lt tl e t idal . .,.. ebangf:" E:s: peri mf:ot.al measurement 01 the m tg-
nll ude of web , ...es e ivn III id... of how t h. Earth' s centu of m~ moves..
Let UI t.ke the II ",' of motion 01 • tesl eh..rge e of ma51 In in th e combi ned era'··
ita lio n.1 field of the E .. rth .. nd th n S ilO and in an elect ro magneti c fie.ld, en ..rae-
u rlle<!. by . '- poten tial A I, cru tlld ..rtif,eillly on tho surh ee 01 the pl..net. T he
L' a ri ngian funcll oll i. well k nown lor thi' moti on:
Ib' u_ ) 1/2
L ~ _ m ( 1'_ d1 ""Tt"
, U' t r ,,- - , , ,,dV, (20.44)
- ' I •• A 71 - -n;;- J r - I ,.
,,'hare F l. "" V..... - V_A, il t be electtoDltgnrt ic &e ld-stren,th tenso r.
V.rying th• •etion thn corresponds 10 tb e L.a,nngi..n fu netioo (20, , <\ ), we
..ri ve at thl! Mu ..ell fltld equti DM i n the Rieml n.. spl.Gll-li mr.
Vl ra ~ 4:1.i-, (20.oi5)
If, lor tllll sUe 01 simplieity , we IlISU llIe th l t the eleetrom "aneli c currell! j .
II fll neralad by moving po int eh..rges ' • • Ihll is,
".
/ - L>
. .,
'l::\ ,~t. (r - "l
.f ~
P"
dl'
"" i1.11 6 (t _ r. ) tl,o cerumen E ucli dea n dcltll fun ction and ' . th e radi us veetor
of Ihll .. 1.b ch'l'll"e, Ihen Eq " (20.oi5) for k _ 0 ..seu m,,",- Iho form
,.
t"A· _ -7jr AI +h
~
LJ t.6 ( r - r. ) II +(1 -T)U I
+ (3- , ) 1J"A.' iJ..U +O (A'E-) , (20.' 7)
wi tb 9" _ a.a-. The solution to this eq uati on ca n be writ~n ....ith pot l.-Newl o-
Ilian aceUfllt.y .. folIo.....s:
.
A" -l: --"-
1 . - r~1
+ TI~
If-
.
E t • Ir - r• l - ~
-.!±1 l: roUl.,)
I. - •• !
.' .
+ ~[~
z L.J Jr """'if.=7I
, ' d'"
1.'--'••1 - ~
U (r) L.J Tr'=f:i ] . (20 .48)
• •
We use th is solu tion to lind th e expresaicn for the law of molion 01 an e lectric
t eet ch.rge in lh e electromlpetic a nd gravi ti t iona J fields. Vuy ing th, t..rnngi a n
function (20.44 ) ov er lbe coo rdi nates of the cha rge Iu ds us to the foll owinl equ a-
t ion of motion :
(20 ..9 )
whet . "" is t he ra dius veete r of lhe teU charge re.ck unod frOID lhe Ear th '. ce nter
o( man . and 11['",) ia the eon l ri hu Uoo to th e . eulen li on ce used by gnvltt tio n. l
interae li oo a nd i , delined in (20.30). T he contri bution to the acee lerat ion ea ll~
by tbe Lon nu lorte and ill post- Newton i,n correc tions, which we b. ...e dtnolH
by ~ , is givt o by t be followi ng form u l. ;
I n th l, form ul ' It Is s uf!i()ielll to employ the foli owir>g expression lor t he vec tor
pot en ti" l ,4o.,
whe re I':: ;s th. " eJoe;ly of the lest eh,~ in th... l:",oe",ntric noo rol,tilll co mo,, ;nl
reference I... me in which , II ea ltul. ti oll5 wi ll be ca rr ied ou t .
Se lecling tb e cb""", ' od ualS!l of th e l.e!It. body so l bet l be eI..>dric ttll'U eom-
penH I"" for Ih",. c..e.le"'l ioo of gnv;t y I ...(\ rest ricti ng lb e . e.eun ey of ealcuil l ions
by 10 -" (th o sens lli" it)" 01 th e CUlTl!!n l cro p of gr . vimete" i~ 10 -.°), WI obta in
(20.52)
where we bov e Intrcd uced the loll owing noutlon for t be lial t! K tl nll" on the
t~t charl:e ;
,. - . ... 3 (,CI - r:'l I I'C.k ("' - '~I·
E""_ ~t, l '- '.~' • ll£'> _ - T r t,
1' - ', 1'
• •
l:Iere we haY e ellcwed lo r the bel Ib' l, wilhin l he c:hO!en ll«ur,c:y, U (f.)'"
U (r) nd V: ... YI~" Th . N_Ionl,n pol~tial U a~ l h $lIrfeca of lh~ E.rth
;1 defi.ned Ihus::
dt _ V-t.dl + V-
••
,. dr>. (20,55)
(2O.6t)
Thill eqUliOD dl!!lCri bei llJe . oa t iOR of vee t er I of eOIlJI.n lle~ b abo ut veeree Q
..1111 • co nst an t angular veloc ity 10 I. Lei us Iiad lb • .teeOod derivative d.
to
wit h resped to I. U~i nll: the defi"it ioll5 tJr-ldl _ 11.,- V; an d d.1P/dl _
V. - I'e aDd 1111. oroeN,o(-m.,pi tud a t:!ilimates /tIe/ll ... 0 (to-I), rl R _
o (10"). aDd • • ( V~ - V<;)) :::< 0 (feVe) - 0 (to-4j. wilh ~e - 0.1111 l hll
/IIlUntJieit)· 01 Ihll IlGh ptic, . 'e obtl in
~, -
"'"ii' (,-: .. -
---;li'""" ~)
dl (1+ 1 ~
R ) + 0 (10-- 01 1). (20.&3)
BelOI1l we writ e t he llns l expression for t he st rength of t he cOIn (lenslt ing eteet r te
field. l evera l remark. are in order.
Fin t. let us &: 0 over 10 the positi ve sc; a lar pr oduct of IWO " rc tl>l'3. I · b _
- 1I. b· ;;lo O.
Seceed, i n vi. .... of the s pheriu l symmetry in the distrib ut ion 0;>1 maUer in tlt l'!
Ear th , we employ Iltll following u plnsioM or t.hl'! gra" ita lio"" t poUnl ;11 and
their gradie nu lor I I l ;;lo Ie:
if"lJe - ATel"/fS.
Fo urth , .... Dote th. t Will , 1981, Itas ana lyaoo lb . R- I· posl· Nt ...ton i,n eOG b i-
buliOJl \.0 tbe ac:eel.... tilMl of gr.... ily. U1illl ibe dl ta obtailhld by War burt on and
Goodk il1d, 1916, <_ aha Melch ior, 1918) tIlrougb th e elOplny ment of l'Upen:OA-
dUeli ", grui met.er. b. establi5hed th . upper limit on .... PPN para meter ; . :
M •
: E:' - T + (DX{UX 11>-
_M~, {"''' [~~ - 'l'-3 - 3~ (f +JI!')J
+ 2t."n" m· n (t - J$) - m" (171 ' n ) l~ (2- 5/f1) )}
_3Jt"nl . n)
, M~'
- "2 ----f..1',.a+ 2M"ftI . n - 5lOl" {m· n)%1+ 0 ( 10-1)1). (20. 67)
No le th ,t the I ~t two rrovllS of t,r1ft! are the NewlOn. ln quad rupole (oe n -a)
a nd ochl pole (IX R"') t id, l Kteler, tioM. Th e l\Ib$cri pt "ng" 011 the elKtric tield
l'trt nlllh slr nir.u lb. t the Earth'a eeater of 111"rnov. _01. .long • geodHi c and
the Iccelerat ion (>f the cenler 01 alan is d~ribtd vi, ('20.'25).
Let us now see hollo' th e elect~ie firld strvltth Id ire.:t1y proportion.llo th e accel-
eration measured by lIr&villlemc iostrumeo13) ehlnllM II ...·e /l.S.'Ju me that the
E arth's tenter of llllW doe!l move alonl: a geodesic. For Ihis we ooly o~d to sub-
sli \l.lt.e d l':"OI (O)/dl, th e Icc.ler.tion of a point_like objKI. t the E art h's center of
mU 5 deeertbed via (20.32). for accelerat ion dV'"e/dt (... ..r, )). This chi llies the field
d TC llgth in compa rison 10 ~ . U can cu ily be ded uced from (20.25) e nd (20.32),
br tbo following q uanti ty:
Th is dill'ertllCe is t'qu.1 to the driviug foree in the oecill . tion equ .tlon (20.1111)
' Dd pl'ilporlion.1 to the de.. i.tiOfl Irem " nity of the ra tio of the Earlh'. pU l i"e
£,.. .. il.tion.1 all'lS 1.0 th e Inert ill ml!lll.
On lh l !luis 01 (20.61) lAd (20.68) "'e CID uri....t • formula for by per-t::
fnu n ing Ih. followilll IUbslitution io llle formull lor E:.:
,
{3+.,- ~)0e - 3 (3 -.<\~1 Ue(O). (20.69)
2Cl.9 Slu 6)'lnl lhe MoHon 01 the Ea rth 's Cenlet" 01 M_ b)'
G r. .. imdrl e Experlrtte nlJ
As is know n [see l\le leh ior. 19i8). lh e ",,",iul proj ed ion 01 \ he .c;(llIleulion of
gruity is meeured by an .. imeters an d th e I\ori1.OlI U I projec\ ions , b}" ti lted (heri-
:lOn l.l) P'l!ndulum,.
T he verti<:.ll projection of e:. i, gi "en by tbe foll owinll iorm u l. :
: E., . m ~ "'zl +lll HQ · rn)I- Q1.)
+ ~ 1 1 - 3(rn. n}·1
3 M_"
- T ~ ( nl' II) 13 - S{m· n)"1+ {Io-n,d· ° (20.70)
H,.. we a.. intllres t8d only in the spec tru m of \be post- Newt Ofl la ll term propo r-
t ional to a ll atnee . h5,ol ule measu rement in . ".a "im,uit u peri mln t of l be bu -
moni~ cOlTel5 ponding to \ hill term will Inlble ~ 10 answer tbe qu estion of wbe t her
t bl Earth ', eeat.... of mass mO\'61 alODe a geodesic.
We denote the si de rea l [req uene y of t he E' rtb '_ rolat ioo _bout iLa uia (i.e .
ro tation eOlli idn ed with raspeet to ":ud staJ$) by D iII d Ibe si d erea l freq uency of
the Earlh 's revoh ' lIon abou t \b . SUn, by l1oI. If _ lUIume IheL a t 't _ 0 th e E arth
i , at periheli on , \heo in tbe poulltrie ecli ptic ~ rdi n_~. e s ystem ee ne ra lly
accllpt.ed in aslrollomy, the foll o~ing exp reilSio Ri (see Duboshin , t 975) for vec ton
n , m , end\' an d tbe qua ntity R -' hold true:
(l-oC>ll a ) oosO
111 · 0 _ _ 2 c~I(Q+(O))T-, 1
~.
- - , -(1 +ccsej eos[(0 - w) 1" - 11' )
+
- sin II ~ ; n (J. ~ in WT 0 (t~). (2O.72)
Since (I + cos 0.)/(1 _ CO$ el) .. 23.1, in what follows we consider only the
(0 - w}-"'·a vII. Its amplitude i~ mu imal I t II =- if, that is, s t the equa tor. In
this case, using (20.71), we arrive at the following llxprm;;un fur the Newtontsn
wave at this frequency (in the theory of tidal waves denoted by (S,)a):
(S,)e-,._ *" Mr,$ (t + cos 0.) (23- IOC05 el- 25 cosl a ) cos [(O_w) T- 't'l
- -O.65coa[(Q_IH) T_lpln Gal . (ZO.73}
Here we lise the unit 01 nanoGd to measure the amplitudes 01 tidal waves:
1 nCal = 10-' Gal, I Gal ,.. 1 cmfa', g = 982.04 Gal.
It is characte ristic that thl! Newtooian quadru pole (2 - loll-wave ("" p~I'
which generally haa an amplitude of about t ()O nG, I, is lCTO , 1 the equator, whi C
t he octupole wave (20.73) is equal, in order of magnitu de. to the relativ istic
(f.! - w}-wave, whose a mplitude is
M", ( " .
A OJ
&Oo o.(Q - wJ = (3 + 'I' - 4~) 7 ~+ 31 I e ) -I +-CO&
r -<l(OlI [{Q- w)T - '{I1
19
= 0.11, (3+ y-4~}c~ 1(0- bl) T- Ifl nGal. (20. 74)
II the Ear th's center of mass were to travel along a geodesic, th en, according to
(20.6\1), the gravime ter would have measured the followinll wave instead of (20.74):
20.10 Studying the Mollon of the Earth' s Center 01 MMS hy Tiltm eler&
Using horhon tal pendululJI! and ttltmcters, we cen measure the varia tions in the
tangential components of the .accelereti on 01 gr"'it y (3IIfI Melchior, 1978). At
present there are many tYPe! 01horizonta l pendu lums and t lttmeters (Backer, 198<1,
and Melchior, 1918).
Let us pTOied the pnenl upt _ ion (20.67) lor the eleel rie M id st re ngt h ont o
the uni t vect or u tanltOn .1 10 th e Jurl aee of the Barth:
MO
AI _O' (<11) "" ""3p' sin a [~ , .
2l (3 +y -"~)(3 -Je) + 2(3-<lI') ] .
Ue(0) Sln .. T
e
_ [0 .21 (3 -<l~) - 0.07 (<l~ - '1'_ 3)] Sjll lo>t nGal. (20,8<\)
At ¥ = j) =1 t he ampli tu de6 of these waves are, respectively ,
An, = 0, S. = - 0 .41 nGa l, AI = - 0.21 nGal.
l( the wa" ll AI is absent from such me83u~em 811 ta. we can say t hat th e E arth's
cent er of mass does not tra vel along a geodesic.
ILmust be emphasiaed that the relati vist ic tidal wave! Oil the Earth oOllsidered
ill th is seeuon will become delecta ble by ffill/lSUrements when th e present accu racy
of gravimet~i c and ttltmeter'meaeurements has increased by a lector of 50 to 100.
Asid e from the vadations,in the accelera tion 01 gravi ty at the Eu th's surlace,
the fact that tha Earth's cente r 01 maM does not tfavel along a goode"ic may be
studied by invest igating the post-N ewt(>n ian eorrecucns tc the sepe rarton between
the E arth and an art iliciel E art h satelli te.
Her. 'Ill' hut . 110...-0 lor lhe fad t h' t lri t h I II KeIU1lCJ'1UJ6eit nt for OUr
Vle) · ,n - 0 aIld \7.) _ Mii/l for all. ani flei.1 Earth u te lliUl Irl veling . 1001 •
pu t~
c ircular orbit of nd lllS I wilh • ulOll ily Viol (lb. re' ,reou Itame Is t btl sa me u
before).
WI will eeed thl following eombinl lion 01 grldienu 01 ftnitltionl l polen t ia....
",h leh (;I ll eu ily be ea leulat ed il we employ Ihe llet that thl Eart h is spherically
s ymmet ric:
+ VIII + 211.'1'l1li + 3D.",",)
(n,. j ~~,.e - j' j''''''US)
...
- ~ (-i- mtJ.{Ill· n)· (1- " Ie -}) + .j- Il" (m. n)1(3ie"*- - 1)
+ m." (m. n) (T' - / e if- - T /e v" )
_3110_ (. , ·)'1
where tb' - .m . t ioll Irequ llCY a coinc ides . ith the or bit.1 r.".oIut ;oo freq uency
of lb. U UllIiUl, a = (MeJl")\JlI, . 1k1 6 .taod. for all pos l.--Newto nian and tida l
co rrec tiollS to the . ccelen.tion.
11 th e pro~t;ons of the .bove q llUltilies 1',,,,
accOl'dlng 10 the barmoo ic I••• or
6 · m _ A cO!!;'I: + B lIin ; '1:, (20.91)
(IJI x 6) · U L _ CWlI;'I: + D lIln ;;;'1:,
E
e(T)'" A- 2 lU I O COll;;;'f+
CO_ to'
B+2 IQ~l C
Q'_"'"
lIin ZT. (20.92)
The geostal loll")' orbi t i, nlon sulte ble for obller ving . ..te]Jite. l n sueh .11 orbi t
th e sa telli le appeal'll to h.ng . t. ti onary ever a point on tb e E.rth' , equ ator U an
al ti tude of . ppro:lirn. II!Jy h _ 3.6 x to" km. In Ibi s eeee, the r,d ll obser vat ion
0 1 thi sa leU;\e ia Ilot 1'1llIl rieted by the ti me of observetion. The d istaoca 10 th e
sa telliUl il determi ned from thi li me i t t.kell the pu lgel to trave l by llIulll plyinlf
thb Ume by lh , spMd. of light, .ince.... shown by B'lerl e!n , 1967, . 11 relat i. istie
effectl U!OCi at~ with dfDectloli . lId del. y 01the bu m In th e Earth' s gra \'it.tioDll
fifld un be i&'oored.
Le t tl6 liD. eoiWder th ' hu mol1ie composition of the llCfI l... p roduclll fII·" and
L· (", X n], ~illCe lhMe prod:uc:1l dete rllline the Eerth' JlteJli le llfpua tio n hl r-
moni cs to .bieh th e t.lInu ton1a ln ill&" Oe ud UII ('0) con tri bu te. Em ployinJ
(20.7 1), •• 6nd l ha t
m . n= - - 1+ r
_ - 0 COl!I (0 _1ll} T_ ~CO$
t -\\<*o (ll +ll) T,
(20 .93)
(nl X n)·lJL _ ~ a.in {Q - ..) 'I:+ ~ lin (0 + 61)'1',
.- il h Q . W, and a df finf'd ('ulip. ""hpn we d ....."fIe'd th l' moti on 0( the E. rth's n n .
In 01 Ill.... ill rra " im elrlc pS llf'ri on.ln~
Let u, t'oll5id p, th e (0 _ .,,-ha m.Qtlie or lil" E. rt h-Nllf l1lt" H>pa ra t i op. A,tOl'd-
inl: 10 (20.8i1 and (20 .9t)-(20.U3) ~ "a ~ (' ,
of "'IllS n ,.. "" pMllion . "" j" rqua l 1(> n,r N""lnni. n veiue lIr t " = ' . , ......i11!
il l l... u nl, 'r oe m ~~~ Ir H,·.. I~ " I .)l~ ~ l=f'OllC'~ ir (with Ih .. :loH llhl YRh."" 01110.. I' I' N
pnralU.'I..no), .....' ,, ~ " ..
I J .., I :; , \ I ~ r(l~ {U - <01 T m.
II all" n'" ,,)1 (If "1,,11,,11\'1.1 1'' '':'''('1\.<; 1111 <II t he ,1" 1,, on l ho Enrl h-u l\!Jli ll! "..p" rnl iol1
nn I " f h h " lr' ",rh' r ," !lll i 1'''1,,1 "'rm i" d i]l(o Y.,.".t . Ilti" rart ili a)' II('. \' OII" '" l Illd i rlX~
;n oJi c" Il"" ,111,1 lh .' I":..r, h·" n''''"r " f til,,"" ,l ~ li nt 1Il0"'e Illon/i: . g_ I,.,.I" .
Th., modl'rn 11''''''] of .. ~ fM'ri mC'n l,, 1 1.'C'h niq ",:, e- V_ I, I ~ I pro" i,t"" It,,pc.
th " l t h" "" lp lHlr " ):p". i" ..."t ""~",,, I I'<I hl'l'~ " 'ill _ " be reltliled.
(21.1)
where k, and k. are the P eters-Math ews coelfleients , k. the dipole radiati on coo-
licient, 111 and It! t he reduced and total masses of l!l.e syst em, R tha separa tion ba-
tw een the compc nents. u a nd R" rPIR t ha total and rad ia l relative velocities of the
cc rnponenta. and I'l, and Q. are deft.ned. as usual, via (20.24).
III such an approach, to each theory of gravita tion there corres ponds a delinite
sat of valUe!! of eoeme ieol.$ k" k • . and k d th at character ites the lh eory In tb e weak
graVitational wave approxi mat ion te tha aame ed ent as the set of post.--Newt onia n
parameters characterizes lhe P.OSt- Newtoni an limit of this theory . 8y comparing
the valu ll! in thi s sat wit h th a values found in experone nts it will be possi ble to
.esta nlb h a correspondenca between the pred let ton of each theory Qf grav ita Uon
a nd tha resuJl.$ of observa tion .
(21.2)
where ' is ,1>0 distan ce from th. center 01 mOl 01 the binary .ystem lu tl'e o~
'"
" . t lon point.,
(21.3)
with
q=r-+b1. r+n..n,T"" , n- - X'"/ 1Xi. (21.<1)
Let tit r,nd tl.e post-Ne-. l.Oniu Up" RSion 01 , . If lor the energJ'· mo meo.t ulD ten -
$01" ' " u.ke n pa nsioll (19. 16), ..-e get
q- p[ I + +u"+n + U + pl p+ 2n,.u"' + (n ,p")"+ O (r) l (21..!J)
Since (21.3) conta ins lhe N In de<! va lue of (21.5), we mWit. aUo"fing for the GIl l-
mil"" II ~ e, u p.nd 1,1,., in the j' elghborliQod 01 the rel arded time t' _ I _ r:
[,I ... = q (I') - +
i,(") n.X· + 'q (f) (n.X ' )I + pO (e"),
where X' is t he r. rlill ' veelo r 01 the point s of the obJecl.S in t he reference Ireme eon-
neeted wilh tho cente r o f ma!lll of the binary Iy.tem . From (21.5) ud (19.19) It
foll ow! l ha t
t21.:1)
.... un eoannlently write (21.7) in th e fona
...- ; .... (1 + (,- ~ )-i-+ M'lt' ....l
+111 M'ii M, ..Jt· (... R'+ "'~1
+111 (t - ~ ) ~(....,R")a+ ", HtO(el) . (2UO)
To est. bllsh the componeots of th. gTu lLat ion.1 lIeold, we n nd \.be IMlCOnd time
de:rl\·.tl". of (21.10) .Dd •• Uowi og for th. post-N.wtonln Ilqll.tioRi 01 mot ioo.
SIIbatitut. thi . denv.tiv. Into (2t. 2). A5 • ruuh we obt.in
MR'"
+~ r ( .. ). ( •) ( .. )......
- 2+ 3 2 + 7 71 - - y. -
4 +'11" &>"+6 1 - 7
To d.termine the .,..f6eienu "" "., .nd A;. in RTe .... m....t reta iJl in (2t. U)
OAI)' term . of the order of 1II."' ro
~- - ':" [p:~ -+poep",){l1'u"- ,II:;~ +O(c') }.
Find log u.. seco nd ti me ded,"t lv, of this expression ud S\lbst iLutloll lhe dorh-
ativ. IMo (15.53), we . rrive .t the followi ng u preulon for theln l.enaity of en.1l[Y
em iss lOll In the form of gr. v1u.tlon.l waves by • eo m pae ~ bi nary syst.em ill RT G:
df
dir - .... .1/. { ,
>OR' lPR'-.RI(nyll·)I-~uI (n..R ' l"+" (n.v·)I (II. R •)'
- ~ (Hy&>"'I "-6R.,u· n.,II'R _,...+ * R.,u· V (R..n-l"
wlol!<e t he eeneeeuen coeiflc ienl.$ ~. are exp ressed in t orma of t he metete ten sor
I .. . in Ihe follow ing m ' l me~:
r:..=7,r' (oJ " + iJ. If~", - o,r..,.)· (A1.2)
Ac.c.ordi nr 10 R, 'C. t he y.,iables ~ on ...hlclo I •• , ""'. , 0,. And ot her q u uli t it's
depend art curvili near coordinates in t1~ Mlnkowski s p:oc:e-l imt, Hence, cOlAbi" i lli
a,.I,. _ D . I , . + ,-:",,,, +.,:.,,, (A t.3)
wil b (AI.2) and P"formiOif I'f'llll vely l in,ple u lcullliioua )'ields
~. = c"_ +V:'. , (A lA)
where the connecti on c.oe[Jjeienti V:',. can be expressed in lOrlDs of ure lDetrie
tenser of Ihe Minkowski I pae. ·t ime, V",.: t hul :
."
.,. . -+.,..(0. '1'''' + 8,.." .. -8,,,••), (A I..:;)
(AI. 6)
Note Iha' IIIe d'.. «l ll5l it ule a Iltird-n nk UnlIOr ..ilh .... pec.l 10 p nen. 1 ecce -
d i"ate traosrorlDllio ns.
II (Al A) is l ubsl lt nl«l ;"lo (Ai .I ). we , et
R~•• - 8~c:.. - a.c:., + G~.d,', -G~A. + .,t"c'.,. +.,:".d,'p
- y~.d... - .,~ .c:~ + a,"~n - a~ y~ , + Y~nY~.- i'~vi':. ·
Th e IRst rOlif ttrms in t his u prusion eonuitula the eurva t ure lcllllOl " I alit space
. "d, hence, Ire Idenli el Uy eere . so th t ....e pi
R:"'p_ apc:.. - a.c:. p+ G~C:. - d• ..c:,. +":.,G~ +l~~c"~
- l~.d.p - l~/a' (AI.7)
A, noted . ar li"" IIl.~. coostit.ute a 1.0!lOr, in vi. ... of ...hleh for ilpc:.. we h lv,
op'_ - D,.c'_ -l~"'. + 'l'~" + ,:..c~",. (AlA)
Suhs ti tulion 01 (Al .8) Into (AU) yi.lds
R" Dpct_ - D.c:.p + G:....~p -G~•. (AI.9)
W e "" ~hll the JH~m.n.o-Chri"offel cu ...... tUl1! lellsor does 101 c/tInge undlll' the
ap- D p tnuf ormtti nQ or, in olh er wonI" ~.p i.e for m-ioYariant WIde!" sueh
tr~onn'liOD .
lAnlnle tinl (AI. 9) (In th e inditeS Ie aDd p yields th e Rieci teasoe
R... - D"G:" - D.~ + d-G1p - d.,cr.. (A1. 10)
S imilarl y . contraet ion of the Ri ec:i I.eMDI" .,.i!h th~ _lIie te MOl' , . . yields lhe
follo willl u preahm fnr the _ lI r c;u..... at.u.l1! R:
R _ , -R.... - , - (D"c:.. - D.G:'p) +,... (G',..Gfp - G'."Gf,J. (AL it)
Compl rini (AI. IO) .nd (At. l l) ...ith th e su ndard U preMillnl rOt the Ricci tensce.
R ...._ tlpr:.. - o.r:.p+ r~.rrp - r'",pl'f. ,
and rhe !IeI1, r eurn ture,
R _ , .... R... _,. . (apr:.. -nor :.r ) +r"'. (f"...rrp- r;"pl1'n),
we S\l\I that these qu antit ies Bt l [or m-lnn d a nt u nder the 0. _ D. tr anslor-
ml tion .
Le I l iS now (lst.blbh . 0 impor tr.nt rtl1lliin nship bet ween tile co"a ri aut de elv-
alive. D.A'::;::. a nd V"A =,· ·:.., wllere V• • u ncb lor the opera tor 01 eovlril nt
dUletenti ttion witll "",peet to metri e I", •. By delinitioo ,
V. A ~ :: . _0.A.::'·::.+ ~,A ~ : : . + I'".. A~ : : . +...
- r~pA~·::. - r'_A :;J:::- .. .
R.p1acinl the r:.. wi lh (At A ) , we get
V"A::'·::.'"" o.A::'·::. + ,:,A::;::. + ,~ A~ : :. +...
- ":'~::':. : - ,:"A:1:: :- " _
+C:I A~ :: . +c;:,A~::. + ..
- G'..rt:::::- c?...A.:J::: - .
Combini,,&, lb.i' with the defillit ioD of a covariant derivati vll D . A ~:. , '11! II'
V"A::':::._ D.A~: :. +C:1A=";::. +G"'",A~'; : :_ + ..
- do...,..1", · _ C·_
A . . ..... "'u.
A~ " _ ... . (AI.I 2)
If we rec. 1l th .t V. ,.. ... 0 , !.ben (AI .t.2) y ielcb lb.. follo. illl well-known for·
mula :
(AI.12.)
Let U!I
.,-
g'''" - r _ g (" n ,
- .
now expreae (A1.tO) lind (A1. It ) in term s of Lb e tenso r densities
- , .. " - l~ 1m. " ( AL t 3~
First. bowevee, we will der ive a num ber of e :< p reslIiollll for the dellsititll 01 the
met ric te nsors of the effecti ve Riem ann s pace-t ime, or (Al.t3). Obv iotlsly,
; "'''; . _= 6::'. (ALl4)
Since
(A t.l5a}
(Al . 14) yields
..,
easily demonst rate th at
(Ai .20)
(AU t )
H eoc.e, (AI,l 11l) yie lds
D;-" _ )I=-i( D~" +d,..,-). (At.22)
.-,
SillliJ. r1y , ue rti ng with (Al.t 8), we eao . bow t bat
- I ......
D"g ",. = --;r=- (D~ ..." - 1IP-1..,,)' (A 1.23)
Let us u p~ c:...
in terms of i •..
To tbis end we 'alet D " •• from (A1.23)
alld aubsti t.ul.e i t into (A I.6). Th e JNoh il
..... :;<0. 1 . / I • • "" 1- - ...
'-- - "'- + 2 6;,G",+ 2" ......ool- T s.."'"too . (A1.1A)
wh~
(At.27)
.... heN
( A 1.28)
Substi tutin, (AI. 27) inl o (Al .I O), we errl ve . I the followinl' u prasion for Ihto
Ri« i 1.8D5Of:
R _ ~ D;;:... +i- D,<i....,.~,I- G:..Gr.. + .}Gt- a:.
- T
1-II .,.-o.
--,- 1--:;:;1-
~c:.. - T , •• r"'II.,G{.. (AI. 29)
.HICG u d in wha t 10110"'' ' lb e symbol (0) abo... t he Ricci t.eMor a nd a oo" , R "i,-
Il i ~s th lll Eq . (AI.3O) h u been ta ken illto aceoUD t.
Let us now go on from q uantitiu wit h thG t ilde mark 10 qua nt ities wit hout that
mark in (AI.3 t ). Comb ini n, (AI. 23), (,\ 1.24), and (At. 26) wiLh (Ai. SI) , we ,et
Itl I
R..... _ T ,.. D. (DJh + D.l~ . - DJ • • - C'. ., .. - G',.J~"J
(At.32)
Contf1lCtiGll of (A1.32) wilh ,". yie lds
l~ 101 t
R= ,-R... - ,M,..·D, (D..t h - T D_r_-c:..r•• )
+,- (C:~_-C'..,.c".. ). (AU3)
If w,' _ Eqs. (A1.3) llnd (A1.4) . ,Id perfu m l unll i" t non.sfur nllll ions, we
u n wrl lt. (A1.32) • •ld (A I .3.'l) . , folltlWll:
!II I
H,. • .- 1"" r'* Ill. (dJ A. + d.r. .. _ 0. 1.. . - f""-.l"h - r:..,•.J1+ r:•.rr....- T:rr:..
- {K'" [G~rl';'T'• • -+ '.rY;"I'~ -+ '.r\'~rt. .] } .
,..R "" , "' , '" [8. ( 8",g... - T, i}~g•• -r""lg~. ) ] +1."". (r: pf"l....-
(A1.;{4)
r:.pr ~)
_ {.I.'r".I.'. " r g.l y~ ~.. N-gn' y:.. I~J} . (Al.:l;,)
Th ~l'l' Ionuules sho w thllt if ; 1I \h /l u pressio lls for 111/1 l\icd tenlM,r ..." ,1 ~h .... ~ ... llI.r
<. 1 , 0)
n
c" rvnl ilfl' R we a llow lOr t he R'f G eq lla ~i oll (AI. 3O), H .... " ml c.t 1lll8 \.0 lJI' lorm '
i l1 v . ri' ll ~ under D... _ a..
t,. rlSfor nl... ~i OIl" .si roee Ille n pA'1lS iolls ifl!lidl' Ihe brACes
in (.\ 1.34) . ud (A1. 3:) . /'4I 1101 idt'llt iully UfO.
Thns, we _ Jba\ . 1l...willJ fOO" Eq . (8..37) i n Eq~. (8.3G) m. ke Ihe latll'r Ill'-
pc" d"blll on the melr it It nlOr of Ille !\.IiokoW$ki l!p.Cf'-t iml' f'J;pliei lly.
V.riou ll q llt:!l, iotlS w nUfllt'l1 wil li ltT G require ... inr d i R~Dt lorn .., of Ihe
lI ieei U~ R ... "nd the .111.,
r urv lwre R. A stllrtlni poln l for obtllillh.g the
dill"erelll forn" of R•• • ud H I. l ilt. Riema nn -Crisw",l tllry. """, I<! I..... ill for m
(A 1.9). S lna'
Iur R'",np" li l. II:'. ,. w, have, ill yi~_ .... or (A U ;), (AU!) . and (A 1.36). th o fol-
Io.... ing:
,
Hlou l' ''' T (D,D..CI. - D,D,Ii... - D.D..GI'I+ D~ DI'''''')
- D,.g.~c:. . + D.Klfc:.~ + 110 (c:..(,~~ - c:.,l.-:"), (A1.31)
whe re ....., b.,oe allewed I" r t ho for mu la
(A1.31:1)
.....hie-II un filSil y bt. ob uintd from Lile condi t iOIl ~ltI _ li~ c:ombi ned
(AU 5I) ..lei (A1.3).
Di recl ly lu hslitutinr (A I .6) ""f u n show Ih.\
- D,K.A.+I,~c:..(,~. - - ,_.,c:.~ .
(A 1.39)
D. I"Gto- g"c:.,c".. ~ ,_~c:...c:l '
App".dfz 1
'"
wh enee
,
R f "u 1> - T (D"D",gl~ - DJ'Df''''~ - D"D...g"r + D~ Dlg,~,, )
- "1 (~nC:l - ~. ~(). (Al. t,O)
Co nv ol uUo n of (A1. lo0) with te usee s" brings U5 to Lhe following formu la for Lhe
Ri cci tensor:
R ... -. , IP R I ... P =+i " (DpO",g,. - DpD"m . - D~O",g!" + 0.0,1",,,)
- g'l'g'9 (~~G;I-c:.,.G~, ) , (A t At )
W e in trod uce
whieh is aeontrava ria llt vo<:tor. If we ta ke tnto account (A1.38), we can rep rcscn t
(At A2) in th e form
G' "" - ( D~(" Gl,('~ ), + (AI A ~)
.-,
Compari ng this with (AI.22), wI) get
(;; = _ ~ / I D~?'l. (AU4)
using
a~ln(-y),
th e well-k nown
we obtain
repreIllHl La t ioIlll~. -. 1- an In ( - g) and v:.."" + x
Th en, co ...bininr (A I.55) 'lId (At .58) wit h (AI .4 I). ".• obtain for R_ Ihe
foll O" 'ing form" l. :
R... _ -i ,"O,.D,,_ -+C',"..(OJ" , .. + D~i"~",l
+G_ +r ",•./f.,p..,. (Al .5i)
w. see th .t on lhe righ ~hl nd aide 01 (AI.5'l ) only the first Ilrm cont.l,.. • co-
v.rlln t second-or der der iu t iva 01 g.. ~ . nd t ba t III tertll! of D" t his ter m I'll.!! t he
ateucture 0111'1, d'A lembe rti .n cp era toe. Th, other ter m! cOIlt,aio only covar i.oL
[1I·:it· order deri v.tlve! of Lhe Illelde teosor of tile Riemal.n s pece-ti me.
L' t us now e mploy c:..
tc iny oo uee othe r te ntOr qUl ntHie$:
G p• • • ~ I""c:.~ - +<
0..1••+ D." ..- D.,....). (AI.58)
~ _ ,..·,.,.C" .. .
c'.u _ ,....,....d_ _,-,,,,,r"G,...,..
lAt.59)
(At .6O)
Combi llio, (A1.60) . it b (At.52b), 'We ee n eully obuiD the foUowu., repre·
&enUtioD for Cl,kf:
C' ,I, _ +(" ' 0,.,-' _"" 0",," - "- 0.,'1), (A t ,6 1)
Wo defioe th e co vllrle nl seeo nd-rec k ten.'lOt A ",~ t hus:
A.. ~ _ ,...," (O" ..,O.Id - C" ... c.,.,). (AI.62)
If we now a llo. for the formul.e.
D." .. _ G,.• • + G. " . , (AL63)
....hich ca n e..ily be dtrived ~lD (A1.58) , . . fiod tha t
A..._ f"'r" (G,...,G...... + G..,"0,,••). (AI. 64)
If we employ (AI.59) lind perform etlrta ; n lunllforma tion" A .. . ce n btl writte n
In /I somewha t. differe nt form :
(A1.72)
." 1I_' 1..l1
'" No w IIlL lIS ...nUl lb. su l u corvd UN ill dlllet'eDt ' Gl'm l . B y dlllini t ioo , R _
f.,,~. to u. at (At.7t) implies
SllhJtltnthl, thl. ioto (AL ? 3). _-e .rrlYe , t th, foll o..illl UpnI!ISlon for R :
R_ _{-,I'O,D" III ( -,) - +r'Dr,,,,D,.¥'V+G -~c:.. (AI .76)
It tan be proved that the loll owlol Identity holdt lr nll:
Add ln, and sub tracting (1/2) G"'D. In (- g) on the right -hand sid e of (A1.77)
and in lr oducing the notat ion
K _ -+ O..gA'C:, --t<7D, ln( -tl. (At.78)
On ~he been of (At .M) a nd (At.85) we can easily derive an u plieit expression
for ure Hilbe rt tenser:
Appendix 2
The poo ~ulated syst em of equations (8,3) for th8 gravitationa l field is 1I0~ a corol-
lary of th e pri nciple of least act ion. Being uni versal, therefore, ~hesa equatl ons
muet be taken as ~addi lionR ln condit ions in t he principle ofleaet ecucn. In ctbe e
words, the varia tion of act ion
(A2.1)
e ver the fields ib"'· or, in view of (8.1). over the it""
must be carried out on a
manifold defined by the sylltem of lJ\luations (8.3), O",f"' n = o.
It is well k nown tbat such a varietio nal problem is eclved by Lagrange's method
of multi pliers, A s tan dard approach here is to add a tenn 11..0.(0. to th8 La-
grang ian L in the integrand of (A2.1), whim! the 11.. are Lagrange's multi pliers,
and to apply th e pr inciple of least ecuen to th e integTal
(A2.2)
Since var iati on of (A2.2) means ~h at we must vary the 11.. and th e components 01
the tensa r deDsity B"· indepeudentl y, we flnd th at
" -"2,
......
-sr-: (D"'1.. + D..." . ) = 0, (A2.3)
Appendix 3
Let u. eOltsider thll I ravit at ionl l.f1,ld wg ranglsn deMi ty 01 l~me ra l forlll. quad-
n lie in the 6rst-order dari vat ive.s D;g..·.
Relati viat ie invarianee implia lh a' th e lou l Lai ra ngll a deu it y can .be repee-
H1I1td in llle form
(" 3.t)
"'+
- zi'-ib;••D/ (O;i-ro..:i"l+ 20, (j-ol;.,) D,D..:i"
+2;.,D.r O,,0.. i.,D", 10';-"0. ;"'),
fl\.J\_20. (g..., '") O,O';;-"_.I.D" (i ...t:~ 0,0;;""
(A3.8)
..b.ral.h, u::
a Dd X~ eoolAin t oYar;u l lhird -wd er
,ivan by lh, follotrlna: formulu :
dl!1'jyll.liy~ of;- n d a rt
U1." - 2;...
1" (;- ;.-D..o
pD;;" - 'pI;'"D,D
uj,1l _ 2'" (2iu D.DIID,; - - 'i...V ,OID ;i-),
2;_;-1" (2;•.o,D,I).r - T"O.OJ):i"l ,
v.,JJ_
,, - --- -- _ ... -
U\ - 2T"(T ' - I••D,D ,Dr"" + 'h . D.. D,Dr - v• .•D. D,D~).
WI. 2;'·, ,.... (2Y•.n.D.O;r- T,.o. D.D~ ,
" II J - ':I
U\ ) -!T'''~ 'D,D~II::;
-
_ __ _ _ __ 3.17) _ )(.. .
.r. - 1/7l {2'Y ..~D. D.D,""~- 2'1•.rI~,.D. D[D.I~I + 'Y..,("'I••D. D,D.t"' '
xj,ll_ - 4Y'''i"," D. D"D[i'''~,
X1,11 - 2Y,,.g...;,p(ZYhD,DpDr -Y.,D.D,.D,g..,),
X\'l_ - YIP(Zl.... D.D,.D,;- - 2Y",.;-;~.,D,D,D,r +' .. ,i-;. qD. D1 D";" )'
.nIl _ 2, ", v',,;-
(2f...D,.D/D;;-'- Y..,.D. D,D";'04),
X\' )_ t- CZ'..D. D,.D:i"- ' _D.DpD.i" + '~. D",D..i"l .
Sinu we hi ve 110 oiled tor lbe UpressiODI for lb ' 11'\ ~. 11I, ~, end a:-Il'
j - 1, 2, . • _, 6, \b ey &!11 not , iun ben. The olily PlOpn\i of U1_ q uentities
Ihat .i11 be Il8Ild in Ollr dilwlSion is the fac;\ th l \b e fl/ ud Y1.1) c.Il nUl in In
, ac.h term both the fitst- alld aeeood-.order deri ve\ives of i-.
,.hile the wf and
r.» eonUlio only fitst-onl.. . deriva ti vu .
Comblning (All.{l) and (A3. 16) with (AJ. t ) yields
•
+ ~1 Ib/(U!./)+ Vl,JI + »11') +&1 (X~)+ r.,J1 +zl/1J}. (A3.18)
:E1lIt'4 )+ ;::,
._
,
il4,~~i) +:E
i_ I
i
.
~ (b,u1JJ+ cJxY'l _ o,
1001
(b,Vl.Jl+c/l'\') ... o,
(A3.20)
(A3. 21)
i
~,
(II,U'.II +c,X\~ _ O. (A3.24 )
Eq uaLlollS (A3.11) dlillDIlStrite \hit \.h' (JI~ elld XIJ,) .re iDdependent of eac.h
othtll", ...hereby (A3..24) Im plies
6, _ c} "" 0, i - I, 2, .. 0' 6. (A3.26)
".
Allowinll' for (A3 .Z$) u d (A3.:26) i n id enti t ios (A3. 21) an d (A3.2.2.), we get
Hence, as (" 3.27) .lId (A3.28) c::1...r l}· MO". th ' e~6ci.n t ". is l>Ot delerm illed
by th e two . Its ~.l uo i. dew rmiJ:led by tb . eOfRlpondellCe prin c::ip le.
If wtI 5Ilbati l ute fA3.30) into (A3.28) , we lilt
... {o'. " - ol.'') _O . (A3.31)
S ince t hl5 diflerel'\C:l! 01" - 0,," is lIot Idl!lIl iUllly te fO (_ (A3. 12) and ("3.15»),
....e GOne l.,de t ha t
a. _ O. (A3.3:2)
eoefficlf'n~
The lin.! formula. ror the
,
<l ' ~z a"
,
II, (/ _ I . 2•.. " 5) ere
Th us, If th e gl llilo prin ci ple lor mullll ed in Chapter 10 is taken lIS ~lo e aLa l ti ug
poin t 01 our dlsclWioll, ~heD , in vie w 01 (AS.26) and (A3.33), t he general form
A3.1) of the u. IIUnll ia n d e nsi ~y leads unam bigo uolll ly to the 101ll)\l" illll U prfll3ioll
Ior ~ba L' Kru llla n densi ty :
L. _<I,[ ;~ID.;"D..?'" + f il"DI;", . D':;-'· + {- ;~':;.I'i'''DI ?''O"r] . (A3.34 )
If we ..led the value 01 0, aec:or<! illil to th e correspondence princi ple ,
.. , - - •
3%... • (A3.3 S)
".,
w, ~"'MO+O (( ;i?, )'vw.l. (M.3)
(18 .61) and ( \8.62) yield . respect ive l y.
0_"+' ' Me _ ' ('Mw. )' +0 (('M O) ') (A4.4)
T T Y w. T y • Jlit';
".,
(A4.5)
Now lel ld e mploy the "-ell-known ..ries expansion of elli ptie ;n legn u 01 Ih.
fin l kind {Abre nNlwlU end Stegull, 1964, u ,d Erde lyi, 1 9~1 :
(A,(,.6)
" ltere
• "+
' [("')
S•• (v) -Z!i' "
-.
L.i (- I) -('. _'"_ ) -~.~-] . (AU )
Tb is eOlllbl.lI8d with (M A) a nd CM .S) yie lds lbe followiq u panslo n 01 F (v, 'l
ill pours of GM(E'/VW; up to MeO lld order ineJusiy.:
+ 6 ( ~l )2 + + ( ~~ n+ O( GM0)~)' (AU t )
If in (18.76) we allow for (A4.tO) , it is easy to esta blish th a t
~ (GMel'
•
1('::::::
(2GM §'
./-
r w,
-
2GM@
V~
"'. + ~
V
vw.w_ +' (C.1II0) ,
V1',". -
, ( GMG ) ' )
V-
w, + 0{(Gfl.f 0 )3).
(AtI. 12)
Th en, using the well-k nown seri6.'J expansion of complete elli pt ic integral! of the
nt:'lt kind (A bramowi l~ a nd S,wgun, 1964, a nd E rd~ly i , 1955),
F (; , q)=-i-[l +({ )! f + ( ~~~ t q4+ . .. +( 2:::)I1)2rf + ...] ,
(2n n
n
(M.13)
we obtain
• ) • [ GM0 GM0 I (GMf)l ' 25 ( ~ ) '
F ( 2 ' q :>!T 1+ 2y w_ - ~ tI VW.IY- + Tti v w_
- ~ (~M: y] +0 ((GM0)1). (M. 14)
Subs titu ti ng (A4.ll ) a nd (A4.14) into (18. 75), we lind the Bo ught expausion of
'" (r. ) - cp (r _):
cp (r. ) -Ir> (r_) :>! Jt [1+ 3G~0 (V'w, +~
V'w, )
-i-
5?(GM el- (
HI w:+w:-
' ' )
+T
51 ~]
vw.w, + O ((GM0)") ' (M. 1S)
A4.3 Time Delay of Radio Slgn .1s in the Gl'Ilvilationa l Fie ld o f the S un
In ex perl ment s ecunu eted by I. I. Shapiro and hia gronp (Shapiro, 19(14, and She-
piro, 1979) the flrst measurements of the time delay of u dio aigna l, in the grav-
itational field of the Sun were perform ed. 1n t hese experiments th e eeneetoe was
t he surface of Mercury in the superior conjun cti on. Hence. the ex peri mental coo-
diti mu were auch tha t
(A4. t6 )
App.nJiz 4
v· ... ~
" 3CMQ I vii'; I 6M@ O( (~
T + 2yw; -"2 Yw•.• - "2 Vw.,. +
)' )
yw,'
(A4 19)
.
whil e lor qt, which enters into (IB.88)-(18 .91), we alrea dy hav e the a pproximate
express ion (:\ 4. 5). Note tha t the de nominator 01 (18 .58) conta ins the di fference
IV, _ '1JJM0, which vanis hes if for W . "''& take expa nsion (A....3). Hence, to cal.
culatc the u ymptllti e val ue of I. (' .,p) ' we must take an expansion 01 W,
con ta ini ng the next higher-order term. J::q uat lon (18.58 ) yleld a
(GMr;)'
W. ~2GM@ + 8 w, +O(GM e) ' }. (M.20)
II lor F (v. q) we use repreeentauou (Ali .5), for n (v, 0, q) with [ c 1<1 an
expansio n of the form (Abra mowitl an d Stegun , 1964, a nd Erd' ly i, 1955)
(M. 2l )
bel"$Ome calculat ions, "'" arr ive at the loll owing asymptot ic express ion ' or I ) (r•.• ),
I =- 0, 1, 2, 3:
lo(' •. ~) ~ V"W.'-,.- wo+ GMe {y~ yw, )'/2TO (( 6M
2
vw•. •+ I"W. I"w.
r). (AU3)
(A4.3O)
for {e 1 < 1 and I q I < 1, and cJleul . ting n (:tI2, G , q) lor 0' > t aceord illl to
for mul. (A4.27) with v _ n/2, we arrive at th e followi ng exp rl!!lSiorul for 1, (r <t, r_)
and i, (rl , r . ), 1 -0, 1, 2, 3:
7,(r" r_)~T(YW: +VWJ +T G/Il. . ( AU t)
, r,.
-, ( , , [ ' " ., (, - 2 yo:
r , ~ (Vi¥.W:)lII T -,-· ,n yw;, yVW:- VW;
O; lIW: )]+O(G"'.,
(M.3 7)
l (r r ) '::>t l{ VW': - ll'W;)(VW';- yiiiJl....
• ,. - Vw.w. w,
+ V'iv.+ vw:. [.!!..2 + MO-l (t - 2 v'W:: Y iV: - 1/ :::,)] + 0 (Gnt). fAlt.38)
:(I'W.w:f'" yW'; l' W, Jlw.
Subs ti tuting t hese ex p."-'Sir>llS int o (f 8 .1H ), bear ing in min d t hat
(
(VW:+Viii:HvW: 2Cm)( lfW: U:m) )"2_ { vw:+vw: )1 /1 (A4.39)
2C", (V W.W_ 2Cm VW: :w", yw:) - 2 .. '
Mnd [ela in ing ter ms whose order is no hig her t hen th e first in Yam, W6 arr ive
at th... foll owin g approx imat e ex press ion l or T:
r~ n
Append ix 5
In RTG the grav it a tio llal field is a physica l flsld and acts on test par ticles and
light. Hence , just li ke IIn y nIhil' field , i t does not take th e world ti ll C.'l 01 p• • tid""
an d l ight uut.'lide the clIU$lll ity C<}n8 in U.e Min kow:!lk i space-ti me. In ot her word s ,
only t hose grav ita tiQIlal fields , lll d is , solutions of Lilli eq uat ions of mot ion lor
the gra vita tio nal field, are phy"i<:al t ha t do nc r eccete rete pa rt icles to velocit ies
greater t lls a th at of ligh t in /In i ner tia l reference Irame. T h is means that for cau-
'llIll y re lated events 10 ta ke pla ce i n the effective flj8m ~ n n epaee -ume (dr ;;a 0),
do> mus t 00 e lway s nonnegeuve. Th is requi rem ent IU d! to e ~ i tue t i o n in which
the metric coefficienls Ku (J:) in Gali lean ecordtuat es In any inertial re ference
fra me mest. sat isfy t he foll owing i nequ ality:
g•• (.e) + 2g.~ (xl e" + Cd (:<) eaea,;;;; 0 , (A5. 1)
wl th e« _ /p llv I (a = I , 2 , 3) lha uni t ~' al oci ty vector in tbeee-d t men sienal
Eucli de an space i n Cer tes ie n Cl)urd inates. It is ea "}' to neuee Iha L ill this cue
the worl d lin es ot par ticl es lind ligllt lyi ng In the reg ien w~ >
0 of the effeclive
Hiemann sp ace-t ime a re s ure to lie inside th e Ugh l cone of the Minllowski sp ace-
time.
I n Cha pter 16, when stud ying a homogcn8Cus au d isot ro pic un lvcr$ll, we ignored
tile q uesti on of whet her the cbt etn ed sol ut ions are phyaieal, that is , whe ther
or no t th ay obey U,e gene ral requirement (A5 .1). I n this Append ix we dlscuss
this end ot her rels ted ques ti ons .
On th e baaia of t he RT G eq ua ti ons (8.37), i n Chapter 16 we es tabl ished tha t
Iha line element for a homogeneous lind isotro pic un ive rse (the Frie dma nn un i-
verse), (16 .1), can bo red uced to (16 .53) if eepresee tod in term s 01 spherica l CQor-
d illa to!:! of Ihe Minkowski space-ti me. I n terms of Car tes iall coordina tllll il can
be writte n l h Ull
cis' _ V (t) dl' - V 'I' (t) (.u' + d" t + mt ) . (A5.2)
Wh en deri ving for mula (16.53) in Ch apter 16 , we aelecled th e so lut ion to the
RTG eq uaUon" (8.37) in th e for m
V (tl ... V'!" (I) (A5.3)
(sea (16.33), 11 6. 3~ ) , and (16.52 »). However, one e Rn eaa lly notice that th e fun c-
tion
Y (I) _ aVI/" (I), (A5.4)
'" Apr-Ju S
..iLlt. a I po$ ti v. COIISLI..D.t. abo ,.ti.slitll [ q t . (8.37) . f or 101ut ;01l (AS.4 ) llla liDe
element of lb . Friedman n uni,._ assumes lb. fonD
dr = U (I) th' - a U'" (t) (dr + dv' +
cb~. (A5.5)
Th is reedily lelds lUi to cond ition (A5.t ). Combining Ihll s u.n du d nota lion U (I) _
Rt (t) with cond it ion (AS.i) , we get
n' (I) (R' (I) - a) '" O. (AS.6)
Si nee in tho cn e 01 massl ess gn vit oll tile 8<: 8.1. factor R (I) chang ell from 0
to CIO (see Cha pter t6) , 101' IVery fillite positive a th ere 11'9 alwa ys va l u~ 01 R (I)
lor ..hiGh ineq ual ity (1\5.6) ceuea to be valid. Th ia m..nl that in RTC th en!
can be no hOllloeeneo~ and bo U1)pie uni verses in the Minkow. k i . p _ti me
with. mll$ll!eN , tl vik>n, ti oee . 11 sv<:h un lvllnell lead to non pbysiul , ru lu -
t lonal fields for R' (t) > a .
T he si tUitio n ch anges drutiully wben Ihe Vl.\'lklll. h.. . noa~eJ'O rest Ill.,.".
It ,.,at sOOwo · thlt fo r 1lOl utl on (A5.'1) the ti nge wi th hl whith th e su i, I:Ict.or
R etl may cbanp is aho finite :
R.. ,• '" R (/) .s;;; R N u , (A::'.7)
wit h R "". +- 0 and R ., u < 00 . Sine a R (t ) .c;; R N U ' by &e lecting an a ppro priate
va l uB lor (I , ~ay n:.... + I , we can easHy ll'uaU nleu tb at inequ alily (A::'.6) i3
Vllid. As we !lee, the e.'l.'lelltial thilli bere b that Lhet a ex.illu a fin ite R .... , whlcb .
In t urn , Jollo ws from \.he a8lu mpti oll tb at the rav ito ll hu • nonzero IUt mllSll.
Thu s• • ceordi ne to RT C .• hpmogeneo...-and i.:l l ropic uo in rse ill th e Minko ",,·
aid I paca-time exla ts on ly If tlie rrav itoll hu a P ODuro rat mass.
It mW!t be . mphaslzed th a t 'in RT C the aolut iona for I,..
(z) ha ve ph)'5ica l
mea ning onl,. If they .....tisf, COftdiU OJ\ (AS. I) .
Let Ull check the vali d i ty 01 (A5.1) lor lIevMal imporlaot !IOlnt ioos or RT C
eq uations.
AS.1. In Cha pte r 12 we lound th e so lution (12.71) to the RTC eqUlt iOllll for
th e metr ic coefficients of th e e llflCti ve R iarM nll apar;e.-tl me GUuide a " pherica U)'
"~' mmett i c and I ta tiC source. Following Pock, 1959. let Ull wr ite th ese coefficient"
i n term" of Ca m ean coordlna t6ll:
,-.c
I. (.cl- t +"C ' I ... (z) ~ 0,
(AS.8)
,.... (;I:)=> (t + -; V1'... - ~~: (~. ;0.,,",.
_here t =- V·~ + it + ?,., and", is the mus of the source of gruilatio",,1 lield .
Sub atitu U..... (AS.a) ;n\o (AS. t ), we obta in
.-..c _
7+'iiiG (. +-"'-):
• _~
.+ -e ~
~
(;o ,.u-O.
• /.- (AS.9)
Sl ~
,_MG
.+ ~ - (.+ -;:-
.c ):- 2mC 2..c
- "';':j:'ji;G- - . - - --;r-
( I"G) ' <0
.
loeq uality (AS.9) for solution (A3.S) out$lde the !I011rC8 is always va lid , Hence ,
the rnvi tationa l field fou nd from (AS.S) o n the basis of (8.2) is a ph y.ical li~ld
outside ma Uer if the nd iut of th e SO urcfl, t , is P ;lUr th an mG.
° wea".ili. h ili, ... A.....a
V•. Y. C!uoe-".. t ll8B, T.., ,~ MNri ., I*' £ .-1.-
, /0• •, IV U._~ (MOKOr. ........ tllti". . plfte) tiD 8 . . .11).
Aa 2. UlIlng the sol utlon (15 " 2) found in the ",..k·fie.ld approxi mlltion, we
e en ", ri te \.he I,.
(s) In CartesiliD coordl natll.ll q follo'lll'S:
, ,.. - y,.. + "',." (.o\ fJ .t O)
where
It,. ~ _ 111, . + ~ 1 ,.111: . (AS. t t )
:M... - 0, (AS.13)
am.\... _ O. (AS. I ' )
H. re -;.. _ r-I\ • I.
Su~t itutinr (AfJ.tO) in to (AS. I) y ields
~h ... '" O. (AS. IS)
Let u.t .now thlt if ..... Id h6lll to the degree 01 ac.c:lIrK )' aecepted in Chap te. 'S.
the left-hand s ide of (AS.t5) nnim es. I lld ~ , , illce
<I , <I - • - u
7f=T (er) - di f + e " , - eo,
....e hue
(1\5.16)
SlIhstit ul illi thl. into the left-hand sIde of J'lequallty (AS. IS) and all owing for
(A5 ,t 3), we obt ai n
,.. ;;~ ';; ' ,.. ';; 1 - d/lo;
e'L~hd - 7 ""71 ""F h~ - - '7'' ' t!' ~. (AS.17 )
But to wilh ill term. of the onler of r ' and hia her "Ill hive
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Name Index
Eddington, A.S., 15, 21, 2' , 224 Lilshitz, E. M. , 17, 18, 20, 21. 24, 67, SIi.
Ein!lei n, A" 8, 10, H , 14-21, 24-28, '2, 45, 104, t 05, 22~
aa
IIJ' , l OS , 224, LigbtOlOO , A. P. , 136, 178, 225
Elltnh. rl , L. P., 32, 225 LcgUIICY, A. A" 7. G-II, 13, U . 20, U, 28,
1\<,'1"01, R. V., l7 t , 172, 2:!5 37, SO, ~1, 66, 71, 84, 81, 38. 90, 91,
ErM lyi, A., I ZO, 217-219, 225 93, 95-91, lOS, 106, 110, 136, IU , 146,
149, 152, 153, I~, 115, 176, 118, 180,
t 8t , 224-227
fi ddeev, L. D. , 28, 225 LOfIklll OY, Yu. M. , 14:l, 146, 1 4 ~ , 152, ISJ ,
Fek"~ , E ., 171, 172, 2U 155, 225
Fock, V, A., 9, 13, 14 , ~, 'S , 66, 1/7, 108.
132. 176, 179, 22:;
f olome!hk in, V. N., n . 1' , 37, 225 )t aN O" , M_ A , 115, 225
Fronsdal, C., ' 3. 2:!5 M~l{h ior, P' I 187, 189, 190, 225
MeshirishvUI, M. A., 7, II , 37, SO, 57, 136, seM dingt r, E" 8, 13, 226
115, 116, 180, 224-226 Schwerudlild, K., 76
Minkowskr, N., 9 Shl~iro , 1. I., US- ISO. 155, 114, 216, 226
Mimer, c, W., 20, 21, 24, 84, 133, 148, Shirko1', D. V., 30, 224.
149, 19S, i 96, 225 Shlrokov, M. F., 28, t se. 226
SJlY<!er, H" 65, 226
Moller, C., 20, 21, 24. 29, 226 80101"", V. O., 26, 224
StegIw, I. A., 120, 217-219, 224
SYlIfl', 1. L., 27, 226
.NflI'mlll, E. T., 61, 226
New&cla, I. , 110, 226
Ni, W.-T., 136, 178, 225
Tbinlng, W. E., 53, sa, 226
Noetbu , E" 30, 226 Thome" K. S., 20, 21, 24, 84, 133, 148, 1'9,
NOld l vedl, K" Je., 133. 113, 174, Ill', 226 195, 1~ , 225
Novlhv, J. D., 84, 221
Tollllln, R. C., 19, 20, 22, 24, 52, 66, 67,
NOl'o . bi lov, Yu. V., 30, 226
108, 226
dcnoollOll or light ... d rldio IlIJull. 1'31, Jfuil.a li ""el colk PM. M
217 10 JUG. 92, 96
dillere " t l. ] . on>croall on I.WI, 30 g rav ita tiou l 11I1I1l'1. I"'..iblll l y of local-
llloil', 29
g ..."lt. ti"". 1-6eld La, t. nll' l.n dellll 11 , ' 2 .
d ecl l"e Riera aollian lQ.I,~ In N. .IMlian m
. ,d po. I·N""'»ll.... """",im.t""' , 1301 1..." ;1.11.......1 ' eld(l), dtIIeclOoe 01 lit hl alld
,lIfel l". H ~ 5plU'ti _ , 12, !7 rldlo .."'u in, 14Jf
£I-.In ·, I*Udolealo., 19 dela1 of radio lipab iD. t <it
elftui u lly cUrcU teeI body, t M u a f arl u y-Ma n ml k id, 8
elftlrolll'P,tic &dd__. . .th _ ' , I, J( rtt iolUte t"" of _ tltr wi th. 31
I*In..... 82 _ I.,., !oS
Ie tpMroMl, 1 eNrd.iaala. 113 ....rk. 01 Rit<aU 1I IpIICt-tUne u ll, I
IM"y, ,.,.ir:al -.tIi". of, n
eae " y. lIOIM'lllll............ lio . III CR. II, 26
.iR RTC, 12
.wIT Lql'Mlfll o dta~t1 of. 13
tHII1-1llOlIltnlllm ..-dooteno~ , p "lt aliolllu _ v ui ltll""el . . . . 20
'''6, 11 acti.... 85. 131, no
fG. .. y·..._ ...tll.. Ita"" , H Ubert, 'II, ~ p.ISII"e, no
~r nlt all "" alphenomell.l. ", l. tl vlty prlnel ple "'....i•• ,ra..lt at ionl ] field . 65
. nd, 1 1) mao. m_rem.DI•• pendulum u perillloDI.
g,ni lui on. 1 time <lib tioll. YI In , 172
grnl\t tional·",ne nux in CR, It Mu well equl llon. 41
g,nita lion.al wav e. , 119lf M.rc ury· s pe",",lion , b ll~ . 146. 218
energy ca rrl" by, 105 I"'l't-No";-toDlen w rffi:l ien. 10. 148
quadrupole le .mul. fo, . 11)5 meu l. 1.Il.OO' of Ri. menll . p•• •· time. 1$
graYil" n m...., u pper bound fo•• 1241 l8 ymptol i( bob... io. 01. 11
grA..ity . nd ioertla, d illaNllOll between. 14 gra. it.tional 6. ld alld. \I
eq ulv. lenee 01, 8. 14 Lie ... . '"Iioo of. at
gyroetnpll in orbi t , ]ll"le'!""lon 01. 161 metr ic Iboor i., 01 R.a.i ta lion. 1751
PPN lormi llml I nd. 116
Millko,"oeki , ploe-l ime, 11
barmon ie condh l<>1\s, 451 m.lrio 01. \I
nanco u r' ont , 81 Y•. Ri l ....nll Ip•• ,H i", • . III
humonle eeonli nel ..... 87
Hilbe rt· EIMt";n equal)o" (, ). 17. 51. 57
fo' jl(Irloot Huld. 89 ,v · body .....1.,.1;""•• 175
weak·fie ld opp,,>xiln' l ion 0(. 58 N, ,,,· loni. n limit . Ibse "ce 111 OR 01. II . 201
H ilbe't . neIll'y· moment um leMO'.
48, 55 noneo....lonl b. rmonic ..nditio o., 87
hOlllOgl!n""u. and l:lOtropi. uni...."",,, 108 no" ..IIII..h tl . e. a , 1151. 122
e.." lution in time el. II' Nord ~.·.d l·Will pa.amele'". 133
" " bble (u",tiOIl. !l4
HUbbl e'• •OWI' on t, 114, 12'
hyperbolic "PK". 34 Olbe.'. l' u adOt , 125
Inel'lll and g..... ity . dino..". e between . 14 pa.r . molrlud poot·N. ...toni.n {PPN) lorma_
e'l" I, "len•• of. 8, U lilm , 133f. l in
ine.l il l mOM. H', 201. 13i . liO
p. ..i. o , rn its Uo"11 mu s. 11()
phy&i""l mel " IIlf e l. 22 01 Elm , 18 1
of 'I'hc, k lil y .ymm. l ric objee to, 21 !",lIoulum e, !""i m' " lI i. mu . ",._ .. men t!.
inerli el ml .... to-g..... it. tion. lm.... ra tiO, 1361.
In
'"
intel,al ..n..rvallon In,,'. , Killing ,~Io ...
pe,feout auid . eneIlrY·"",m ." tum te,,"". 0/, 118
Pete .....Ml tII...... enarliel. nl' , 19S
and. 3 1 -post· Newtoni.n . pprot l",. tion, I ~
Ili. mann . p...,· t im. and. 31. s a po. t· N toni . n Integ,al. 01 1Il0Iio. , 16511"
inle". lly or g. ... itali""ol e" ergy, t 8 prote o ..I nee f •• me. Ill5
p.i neipl. 01 1 1 actioll. 211
K. rr eoo,d ;". ~ . 17 p"",rl,,·E ud ldu n geomet.y of .paeH ime, 91
Kill ing '. "'Iu l li"". 31 p,,"udo-Eu.Ud.so . p.... 3'0
KlHinj{ """Ion , 9 PSRI9 13+1 6 pul..r Iy.lo m. 197
integral "'>J'''''''oli nn J. wa ... d . 31 g ' H it l l ioos l w.... s emil led b)', 198
L. g,. ngil n rl......lty . rree-gra..ihtinnal.Ji. ld. 63 qUl dru pole le,m oll lOT grl . II. Ii.....11 wIYe••
g, " vl t" tlon"l· fteld, 42, 212
L.a n d ~ u . Ll bh i tl symmet ric pIleudotc n... r, 19
L I~ oommutalor. 59
'"'
, "dlal ran 01 teal bodies, as
Li.t vulll ion 01 metri ( len so•. 31 ra diotl on·dOlnlo .1ed era, 115, I ~ 2
Lobach. ... kii" .pa... 34 relc ce I•• m"". inerti al 'nd Itonin••tl.l, III
locali. atl"" " I gte .l ta t ian.1 e"" Ill'Y . 29 ••Ie good... i". l BJ
Lorenl. ·. ~ udo len"" •• III , .llll.i.\;o Ibeo. y 01 gra.i ut;"" IIITCl. 9
S llbju f bdu