3D Printing Basic Concepts Mathematics and Technologies

58 International Journal of Systems Biology and Biomedical Technologies, 2(2), 58-71, April-June 2013
3D Printing: Basic Concepts

Mathematics and Technologies
Alexander Rompas, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Charalampos Tsirmpas, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, School of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Ianos Papatheodorou, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, School of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Georgia Koutsouri, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer
Dimitris Koutsouris, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer
ABSTRACT
3D printing is about being able to print any object layer by layer. But if one questions this proposition, can
one find any three-dimensional objects that can’t be printed layer by layer? To banish any disbeliefs the
authors walked together through the mathematics that prove 3d printing is feasible for any real life object.
3d printers create three-dimensional objects by building them up layer by layer. The current generation of
3d printers typically requires input from a CAD program in the form of an STL file, which defines a shape
by a list of triangle vertices. The vast majority of 3d printers use two techniques, FDM (Fused Deposition
Modelling) and PBP (Powder Binder Printing). One advanced form of 3d printing that has been an area of
increasing scientific interest the recent years is bioprinting. Cell printers utilizing techniques similar to FDM
were developed for bioprinting. These printers give us the ability to place cells in positions that mimic their
respective positions in organs. Finally, through a series of case studies the authors show that 3d printers have
made a massive breakthrough in medicine lately.
Keywords: 3D Printing, Bionic Ear, Bioprinting, Fubini Theorem, Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM),
Human Heart, Organ Printing, Powder Binder Printing (PBP), Skull Lesions
INTRODUCTION creation of mass-customized products, pro-

totypes, replacement parts and even medical
3d printing is a rapidly developing technol- and dental implants. The speed and ease of
ogy. Such an industrial revolution could have designing and modifying products has made
many applications in the fields of engineer- them the number one prototyping technique.
ing, medicine and much more. These include The aim of this article is to evaluate this mat-
ter from another point of view by focusing on
DOI: 10.4018/ijsbbt.2013040104
Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
International Journal of Systems Biology and Biomedical Technologies, 2(2), 58-71, April-June 2013 59
their contribution to the field of medicine. We where the integrals is taken with respect to a
will first examine the mathematical principles product measure on the space over A x B, then
behind 3d printing. Next we will give a short
description of the most famous 3d printing 

 


methods highlighting one special form or it, ∫ ∫ f (x, y )dy dx = ∫ ∫ f (x, y )dx dy = ∫ f (x, y )d(x, y ),
A B B A AxB
called bioprinting. Finally we will focus on a
series of case studies where 3d printers where
used to guide surgeons, create enhanced human The first two integrals being iterated inte-
parts and mend human skull defects. grals with respect to two measures, respectively
and the third being an integral with respect to
a product of these two measures.
3D PRINTING MADE REAL: If the above integral of the absolute value
FUBINI THEOREM is not finite, then the two iterated integrals may
actually have different values. See below for
Before we turn our focus on printing a three- an illustration of this possibility.
dimensional model we have to consider what
mathematical statements and theorems allows Corollary
us to materialize this idea. Practically 3d print-
ing is about being able to print any object layer Fi f(x,y)=g(x)h(y) for some functions g and
by layer. But if we question this belief, can we h, then
find any three-dimensional objects that can’t
be printed layer by layer?
So next we will be walking through the ∫ g(x )dx ∫ h (y )dy = ∫ f (x, y )d(x, y),
theorem that proves 3d printers can duplicate A B AxB
everything (any real life physical object at

least). Fubini’s theorem, named after the Ital- The integral on the right side being with
ian mathematician Guido Fubini, states that an respect to a product measure.
object of n dimensions can be represented as a
spectrum of layers of shapes of n-1 dimensional Alternate Theorem Statement
layers. This means that a 3 dimensional shape
(any shape in the real world) can be portrayed as Another version of Fubini’s theorem states
layers of 2 dimensional shapes (3dfuture, 2012). that if A and B are σ-finite measure spaces, not
In 3d printing technology this means that we necessarily complete, and if either
are able to express any 3d object as layers of 2d
planes. Below we provide the theorem but not 

 


dx < ∞or 
its proof since it doesn’t serve the purpose of ∫  ∫
 B
f (x , y ) dy 

∫
 ∫ f (x , y ) dx dy < ∞,
 A 
this article. Readers are referred in analysis 3
A B
as described in (Tsirelson, 2011; Zakeri, 2007).

then
Theorem Statement

Suppose A and B are complete measure spaces.
Supposes f(x,y) is A x B measurable. If ∫ f (x, y ) d(x, y ) < ∞,
AxB

and
∫ f (x , y ) d (x , y ) < ∞,
AxB
  Figure 1. Fused deposition modeling: 1 - nozzle

  ejecting molten plastic, 2 - deposited material
∫  ∫ f (x , y )dy dx =
 B  (modeled part), 3 - controlled movable table
A
 

 ∫ f (x , y )dx dy = ∫ f (x , y )d (x , y )

∫  A 
B AxB
In this version the condition that the mea-

sures are σ-finite is necessary.
Fubinis theorem as shown above proves
that 3d printers can print any real life objects.
However, a practical limitation is the slicing
resolution and also the achievement of physi-
cal stability during layering (3dfuture, 2012).
3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY Powder-Binder Printing

The current generation of 3d printers typically This technique works by building up layers
require input from a CAD program in the form of a plaster-like powder that is sprayed by a
of an STL file, which forms its shape by a list liquid binder, or glue from an ink-jet printer
of triangle vertices (Berman, 2007). Also it is head. In every pass a new layer of loose powder
worth noting, that the size of an object a 3d followed by the binder spray is applied [2]. In
printer can produce is limited forming an area order to understand these processes we can
called build size. The vast majority of 3d printers visualize each layer of powder as a piece of
use two techniques, FDM (Fused Deposition paper. Having said that this technique doesn’t
Modeling) and PBP (Powder Binder Printing). differ significantly from conventional 2d ink-
Below we will provide a brief summary of each. jet printing except that each layer fuses with
the previous ones. Any remaining powder not
Fused-Deposition-Modeling sprayed with binder is removed to be recycled
for further use after the end of the process. One
FDM 3d printers operate by building layers via
of the greater advantages of this method is that
the extrusion of thin semi molten plastic beads,
the powder can all hold every overhanging part
usually ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)
of the structure in place, so no supports are
plastic. This material is quite attractive for its
needed. However, it may be required that some
properties since it has low toxicity levels, is
parts of the printed object still need support
highly durable and hard. It can be dyed with
in case they are long overhanging or too thin
different colours nevertheless ABS is typically
(Markert, Weber, & Lueth, 2007).
used in its natural off-white form. One of its
An alternative type of 3d printing with
disadvantages is that it comes out soft thus any
increasing academic interest is bioprinting.
overhanging parts need to be supported with
Bioprinting, as described in the International
the appropriate structures until it hardens (Ber-
Conference of Bioprinting and Biofabrication
man, 2007). FDM printers are known for their
in Bordeaux, is ”the use of computer-aided
ability to print strong and precise objects that
transfer processes for patterning and assem-
can be used for many applications. The process
bling living and non-living materials with a
described, is shown in Figure 1.
prescribed 2D or 3D organization in order to
produce bio-engineered structures serving in
regenerative medicine, pharmacokinetic and
basic cell biology studies”(Guillemot, Mironov, velopmental biology. Another approach to the
& Nakamura). For bioprinting purposes, cell creation of living tissues and organs through
printers utilizing similar techniques to FDM bioprinting is based on mathematical modelling
were developed. These printers give us the using a set of theoretical principles, rules or
ability to place cells in areas that mimic their laws related to spatial organization [11]. While
respective coordinates in organs. The capabil- this idea appears promising, some issues have
ity to drop cells on previously printed succes- been raised by Global Medical Society with
sive layers provides an opportunity for three regard to cell survival, tissue perfusion and
dimensional organ printing (Boland, Mironov, vascularization. Material issues as well are of
Gutowska, Roth, & Markwald, 2003). Such utmost importance since they can enhance the
breakthrough of bioprinting technology in whole process but also negatively influence cell
three dimensions draws potential from the use fate. The reader who is interested can refer to
of thermo-reversible gels. Gels are fluid at the work of Boland et al. (2003), and Mironov
20oC and above 32oC and therefore similar to et al. (2003).
conventional printing methods can be applied, In the last section, we present a series of
so as tissue structures can be printed with cells case studies in medicine where a 3d printer was
representing biological ink. According to the utilized to achieve the desired outcome.
above, successive layers could be produced
just by dropping another layer of gel onto an
already printed surface (Figure 2). CASE STUDIES
This technology allows us to print 3D com-
A 3d printer utilizing PBP technique.
plex organs with accurate and precise assign-
Taking into account an efficient surgical
ment of various cell types to the gel. Feasibility
plan, information is extracted via CT and MR
of this technology can be shown, if we take into
images. These images provide doctors with
consideration that human cells are placed close
sufficient information regarding patient’s ana-
enough in sequential layers of 3d gels, which
tomical structure. Followed by the analysis of
can be fused and create fully functional organs
two-dimensional images, surgeons can generate
and cultured in vitro. The process is illustrated
a more careful intraoperative procedure. The
in Figures 3 and 4.
understanding of organs internal and external
This principle of cell self-assembly into
structure could potentially be magnified, if
fully vascularized tissues is similar to the
doctors have in hand a real three-dimensional
way embryonic like-issues sort and fuse into
object illustration instead of a virtual one. In-
functional forms dictated by the rules of de-
novative technologies such as prototyping can
produce different methods of organ replications
based on patient-specific data. Therefore, if
Figure 2. Principle of organ printing (Boland the procedure is meticulous and successful the
et al., 2003) result precisely illustrates the defection of the
organ under examination. Below, we describe
the steps followed for the creation of a human
heart showing a congenital defect.
Prior to implementation, a visual three-
dimensional representation of heart must be
plotted in a computer. Thus, the data extracted
from CT or MRI images are processed in order
to obtain a three-dimensional model depicting
the desired structures. All the above require a
deep understanding in the field of digital im-
Figure 3.The mathematical model of cell aggregate behavior when implanted in a 3D model gel
(Mironov, Boland, Trusk, Forgacs, & Markwald, 2003)
Figure 4. Tissue self assembly after the careful placement of cells in the original geometrical
positions (Mironov et al., 2003)
age processing (segmentation, region growing, dimensional model is loaded into the control-
smoothing) resulting into a VRML (Virtual Re- ling system of the 3D printer. The 3D printer
ality Markup Language) file which is imported produces the model from starch by slices, each
in 3D printer as input so the desired object can having a height of 0.2mm. Each slice is rolled
be produced (Figure 5). out to the building area fetching the powder
More precisely, the VRML file contain- from the feed tray. Once, the resulting model
ing the virtual representation of the three is at position the powder is fixed by a binder
Figure 5. Workflow network of processing the image data to obtain a 3D model suitable for the
RP process. The result of the segmentation is improved by applying local segmentation processes
with adjusted threshold values. After the surface has been generated, the data are exported to
VRML data format (Markert et al., 2007).
through inkjet technology. In the same fashion our model is removed with the use of an air
as common printers, all colours can be produced jet. Before proceeding any further our printed
to inkjet printers by mixing cyan, magenta and model is left to dry for 4-6 hours depending on
yellow binder. its size in 70o C.
Vascular structures have a great risk of In order to achieve the required stability
breaking or falling apart during manufacture while avoiding having a stiff 3D model we filter
process if the stability of the object is not guar- an elastomer based on polyurethane allowing for
anteed. For these purposes every long and thin high flexibility characteristics. Additional layers
part of the human heart must be bulletproof in of elastomer will follow in order to stabilize
way. Thankfully the hardware in our printer and smoothen the model without reducing its
takes care of that issue with some of its embed- flexibility. Finally, the parts of prototype are
ded subroutines. During the printing the model bended. The remaining starch in the interior
is surrounded with loose powder. The amount breaks and can be removed giving us the final
of binder sprayed onto the powder is reduced printed-model consisting only from elastomer.
within the interior of the model, so as model’s To remove the remaining starch we have to flush
weight is decreased but its surface is kept solid. it out. For that reason, a hole is drilled into the
Following this process our structure is protected surface of the 3D model with a diameter of at
from having its sensitive parts cracked, broken least 1mm. Next the printed model is left in ves-
or deformed. When the last layer is applied sel full of water for 6 hours allowing the starch
and construction completes, our 3d prototype to be resolved into the water and flushed out.
is left to dry for approximately 60 minutes. The final result is shown in Figure 6 (Markert
Subsequently, any loose powder surrounding et al., 2007).
Figure 6. A beating heart model (Markert et Figure 7. Manufactured model showing a con-
al., 2007) genital defect. The left subclavian artery (arrow)
is abnormally connected to the right descending
aorta. This defect is clearly identifiable at the
reconstructed 3D model (Markert et al., 2007).
It is worth mentioning that the resulting representation and nothing more. Apart from
printed-model described above is patient- denoting any defects of the real organ, the 3D
specific. Therefore, if we account for a new printing object could not possibly serve any
patient, the whole procedure must be followed other purpose such as organ transplantation.
from scratch in order to enclose the unique The second case study refers to bioprinting
anatomical characteristics. utilizing syringe extrusion technique, which is
Compared to a two-dimensional printed very much alike to FDM except no supporting
object, in 3D representations dimensions and structures are needed.
distances among structures can be conveniently The design and implementation of bionic
examined. Moreover, 3d printing technique used organs and devices capable of enhancing human
offers resolution less than 0.01 mm in horizontal capabilities known as cybernetics, has been
directions and about 0.2 mm in vertical direc- for many years an area of increasing scientific
tions (Markert et al., 2007). This gives us the interest. This field has the power and potential
opportunity to reconstruct all anatomical details to manufacture customized prosthetics of the
as the resolution provided conforms to the origi- human body and create organs with capabilities
nal image. Therefore, the doctor can carefully beyond the scope of traditional human biology.
construct an optimal strategy for a successful In a more sophisticated approach research-
surgery, foresee any possible complications ers aim to enhance their properties through
and plan in advance how to cope with them. the implementation of complex nanoelectric
In our example the heart model produced structures. The creation of human organs that
showed a congenital defect as shown in Figure 7. can operate in vivo or in vitro is nowadays an
In this case study we described the proce- academic challenge to be tackled.
dure followed to produce an accurate copy of 3D printers have the ability to replicate
the human heart of a patient, with the utilization organs by building layers consist of biological
of a 3d printer. The object created was a lifeless cells as inks in order to produce structures which
precisely represent the anatomic geometries of anatomical geometry and spatial heterogeneity
human organs. Extrusion based 3d printing was of the functional materials used. Secondly, a 3d
used to manufacture hard tissue scaffolds such as printer is used having as input three types of
knee menisci and intervertebral discs(Mannoor material (structural, biological and electronic).
et al., 2013). New 3d printing technologies give Such materials were fed the printers syringical.
us the capability to fuse microelectronic circuits Finally, the printed ear was cultured in vitro so
and human cells to create robotic tissues and that its cartilaginous tissue could grow and fuse
human organs. This promising area of research properly with the electronic material infused to
might provide a solution to organ transplanta- create a fully autonomous acoustic system with
tion (a. Attala) by duplicating vital human parts increased RF frequency signal reception, above
identically or enhanced with greater capabilities to its normal spectrum of acoustic frequencies,
than their originals. provided to the organ from an implanted induc-
Such human organs as the ear auricle tive coil, which acts as a receiving antenna. The
consist in a great proportion from cartilaginous ear can be seen in Figures 8 and 9.
tissue. These structures are suitable prototype To demonstrate the enriched capabilities of
candidates to check the feasibility of our claims. the ear the team of researchers (Mannoor et al.,
Two reasons are accounted for: First the inherent 2013)conducted a series of electrical measures.
complexity of the anatomical geometry of the They measured the resistance of the coil and
ear is making its reconstitution via traditional found out that was highly dependent on the
tissue engineering methods extremely difficult. volumetric flow rate used for printing it. At
Second the ears cartilage tissue level structure is the optimum flow rate the resistance measured
very simple because it doesn’t have a complex was found to be 1.31*10-6Ωm which is only
vascular structure. From a recent study conduct- two orders of magnitude higher than pure silver
ed by Princeton university in cooperation with (1.59*10-8Ωm). Next a series of experiments
John Hopkins university researchers (Mannoor regarding wireless frequency signal reception
et al., 2013) showed that we are able to create a where conducted to demonstrate the ears abil-
bionic ear with increased acoustic capabilities ity to receive signals beyond normal audible
by fusing human cells with electronic censors signal frequencies which in humans range from
that amplify hearing. 20 Hz to 20 Khz. The team formed external
This process consists of the following connections to the ears cochlea. Consequently
steps: First, the ear is reproduced virtually the ear was exposed to sinusoid signals with
in a computer using CAD (Computer Aided frequencies ranging from 1MHz to 5GHz.The
Design) in order to depict with precision every forward transmission coefficient parameter of
Figure 8. Images of the 3D printed ear auricle cultured in 10% FBS at various stages of growth. (A)
As printed, (B) after 5 weeks in culture, and (C) after 10 weeks in culture (Mannoor et al., 2013).
Figure 9. Gross morphology of the 3D printed bionic ear after 10 weeks of in vitro culture
(Mannoor et al., 2013)
the coil antenna was analysed with a network After both ears were printed, stereophonic
analyser and found to transmit signals across audio channels transmitted to them via two
this extended frequency spectrum (Mannoor magnetic loop antennas. The signals received
et al., 2013). from the two ears were fed into a digital oscil-
For terms of extensiveness a left ear was loscope through the electrodes connected to
printed (Figure 10) with exactly the same the ear cochlear. They were played back by a
characteristics as the first. The ear can be seen loud speaker for auditory and visual monitoring
in the picture below. (Mannoor et al., 2013).In particular, the signals
received from the two ears were found to exhibit
Figure 10. Images of the 3D printed left bionic ears at various stages of growth. (A) As printed,(B)
after 6 weeks in culture, and (C) after 10 weeks in culture (Mannoor et al., 2013).
excellent reproduction of the transmitted signal tion) and aesthetic improvement of impaired
(Figure 11). Moreover, the music signal played craniofacial appearance from trauma or tumor
back by the loud speakers was good. removal(3dfuture, 2012). 3d printing techniques
In conclusion the team of researchers suc- offer a promising approach in creating calcium
ceeded in manufacturing bionic ears capable phosphate implants to be used for cranial re-
of receiving electromagnetic signals in a wide construction. Due to the method’s high degree
spectrum of frequencies ranging from Hz to of three-dimensional accuracy with a lateral
GHz. The result is that strong and concrete resolution of 200 μm and less, provide us the
basis has been created for a new generation of capability to reproduce individual missing
bionic organs with promising evolution in their cranial structures.
structure and capabilities. Such hybrids can The following case study involves a re-
potentially save the lives of thousand patients. search conducted in the university of Wurzburg.
The 3d printing technology progress in terms The scientists examine a human skull, applied
of nanoparticles use, such as semiconductors, defects on it and treated it by using manufactured
magnetic cores or ferrite cores, instead of implants from a powder 3d printer (3dfuture,
conventional inks or starch can broaden the 2012). The defects were created using an oscil-
scientific arsenal of researchers in bionic tissue lating surgical saw. Next, the skull was scanned
and organ construction. via CT to provide us its three-dimensional
The filling of bony defects in cranial and computer image. With the 3d image of the
maxillofacial regions is a common clinical skull and appropriate software, the implants
problem. The aim of skull reconstruction include were visualized and saved as a DICOM file
the protection of vulnerable organs such as the and the translation of DICOM into STL was
brain (cranioplasty), functional rehabilitation done with Amira software (3dfuture, 2012).
of the masticatory apparatus (jaw reconstruc- Finally, the virtual implant structures where
Figure 11. The signals received from the two ears were found to exhibit excellent reproduction
of the transmitted signal
Figure 12. General view of the implant bearing skull. Implants are fixed with miniplate osteosyn-
thesis respectively bicortical osteosynthesis (mandibulardefect). The drill holes for screw insertion
were made after positioning of the implants using a common bone drill (Klammert et al., 2010).
Figure 13. Detailed view of the implants inserted into the calvarium (A), the zygoma (B), the
orbital rim (C) and into the mandibular (D) defect. The depicted implants are partly of Brush-
ite and partly of Monetite. Furthermore, the malar implant and the mandibular implant were
printed in colour to illustrate the opportunity to process further soluble substances, e.g. drugs
(Klammert et al., 2010).
transferred to the printer. The printing procedure implants to mend cranial and maxillofacial
was carried out at room temperature using a 3D lesions can be created. Whereas, production
powder printing system. Diluted phosphoric of inorganic materials like elastomeric hearts
acid (H3PO4) with a concentration of 20-wt% or cranial implants is much easier, live organ
as liquid binder phase was printed into trical- printing such as a bionic ear capable of being
cium phosphate powder. The solidification of used for implantation in vivo to a human, has
the printed implants occurred by the formation been proved to be feasible yet it needs further
of dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (Brushite) investigation. In years to come scientists ought
as the setting product. After the printing the to work towards any implementation issues
structures were post-hardened by immersion and eliminate critical technological barriers.
(3dfuture, 2012). So forth, it is not arbitrary to predict that in the
Both types of implants were inserted into foreseeable future 3d printing and bioprinting
the cranial lesions and stabilized with the help will be used as biomedical research tools as
of miniplates (Figure 12). the electron microscope in the 20th century,
The implants fitted to the defects very well, yet further research is needed.
although a few small overlapping areas were
noticed at the margins. In these cases, improved
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Alexander Rompas received his bachelor degree in Mathematics from University of Patras, in
2006. In 2007 he obtained his M.Sc. in Finance from Imperial College London, pursuing his
thesis in options & derivatives securities with honors. He joined Moody’s KMV as a credit ana-
lyst & product support specialist with focus on Banking industry, until 2011. He is a member
of American Financial Association and a Charter Financial Engineer. Since 2013, he is a PhD
candidate and a member of Biomedical Engineering Laboratory at N.T.U.A. His current research
interest is in the area of clinical trials with adaptive statistical designs with a focus on orphan
and difficult to treat indications.
Charalampos Tsirmpas was born in Athens in 1984. In 2009 he graduated from the School of
Electrical and Computer Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA),
specializing in telecommunications. Since 2009 he is a PhD candidate at the Biomedical Engineer-
ing Laboratory of NTUA. His research interests include areas such as Bioinformatics, Telemetry,
Telemedicine, and secure transmission of medical data. Also, his PhD research focuses on the
“Internet of Things” in healthcare applications. He is a member of the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).
Ianos Papatheodorou graduated from high school with honors. In 2009 he entered the School of Elec-
trical and Computer Engineering in the National Technical University of Athens, after succeeding to
the national examinaitons. His current research interests comprise Telecommunications,Computer
graphics, programming, Computer networks and hardware, Bioinformatics, Biosignal Process-
ing, Digital Image Processing and technologies for assisted living.He has successfully completed
several projects including database creation,network applications,simple computer gme graphics
creation and several projects in the field of bioengineering. Apart from his university interests
Ianos plays piano, draws anime, is a fluent modeler and loves playing board games.
Tzortzia Koutsouri has obtained her Engineering Diploma from the Electrical and Computer
Engineering (ECE) department of the University of Patras, Greece, in 2010. She is currently a
PhD candidate at the Biomedical Engineering Laboratory at the National Technical University
of Athens, Greece and a junior researcher at Institute of Communication and Computer Systems
(ICCS), working on several projects and as a teaching assistant. Her research interests include
the areas of machine learning, data mining, neural networks and image processing techniques.
From 2011 to 2012 she has worked at Datamed Systems Integrator and Consulting Services S.A.
as ERP, HIS and LIS consultant in the Business Development Department. She also has some
publications, is member of IEEE, ELEVIT and Technical Chamber of Greece and has participated
on the organization of conferences.
Dimitris Koutsouris was born in Serres, Greece in 1955. He received Diploma in Electrical En-
gineering in 1978 (Greece), DEA in Biomechanics in 1979 (France), Doctorat in Genie Biologie
Medicale (France), Doctorat d’ Etat in Biomedical Engineering 1984 (France). Since 1986 he
was research associate on the USC (Los Angeles), Renè Dèscartes (Paris) and Assoc. Professor
at the Dept. of Electrical & Computers Engineering of NTU of Athens. He is currently Professor
& head of the Biomedical Engineering Laboratory. He has published over 100 research articles
& book chapters & more than 150 conference communications. He has been the former elected
president of the Hellenic Society of Biomedical Technology, principal investigator in many
European & National Research programs, especially in the field of Telematics in Healthcare.

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58 International Journal of Systems Biology and Biomedical Technologies, 2(2), 58-71, April-June 2013