A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same conditions, and they

are classified as steady-flow devices.

Processes involving such devices can be represented reasonably well by a somewhat idealized process, called
the steady-flow process, which can be defined as a process during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily.
And, the fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume, but at any fixed point they
remain the same during the entire process.

Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve mass flow across their boundaries, and some work is required
to push the mass into or out of the control volume. This work is known as the flow work, or flow energy, and
is necessary for maintaining a continuous flow through a control volume; Mathematically
Wflow = FL = PAL = PV ()
Or pre unit mass
wflow = Pv ()
Then the total energy of a flowing fluid on a unit-mass basis (denoted by θ) becomes
Θ = Pv + e = Pv + u + ke + pe ()
But the combination Pv + u is defined as the enthalpy h. So the relation in Eq. (1. ) reduces to
Θ = h + ke + pe = h +1/2 v2 + gh ()

During a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control volume remains constant (Ecv = constant),
and thus the change in the total energy of the control volume is zero (∆Ecv = 0).
Therefore, the amount of energy entering a control volume in all forms (by heat, work, and mass) must be
equal to the amount of energy leaving it.
Then the rate form of the general energy balance reduces for a steady-flow process to
𝟏 𝟏
𝑸̇𝒊𝒏 + 𝑾̇𝒊𝒏 + ∑𝒊𝒏 𝒎̇ (𝒉 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝒈𝒛) = 𝑸̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑾̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 + ∑𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒎̇ (𝒉 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝒈𝒛) ()
𝟐 𝟐
Rearranging the above eqn.
𝟏 𝟏
𝑸̇ − 𝑾̇ = ∑𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒎̇ (𝒉 + 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝒈𝒛) − ∑𝒊𝒏 𝒎̇ (𝒉 + 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝒈𝒛) ()
For single-stream devices, the steady-flow energy balance equation becomes
𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟐 𝟏
𝑸̇ − 𝑾̇ = 𝒎̇ (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 + 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝒈(𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 )) ()
This equation is known as steady flow energy equation.
Application of steady flow energy equation
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down.
The rate of heat transfer between the fluid flowing through a nozzle or a
diffuser and the surroundings is usually very small since the fluid has
high velocities
Nozzles and diffusers typically involve
no work
any change in potential energy is negligible
But nozzles and diffusers experiences large changes in its velocity

turbines produce power output whereas compressors, pumps,

and fans require power input.
Heat transfer from turbines is usually negligible since they are typically well insulated.
Heat transfer is also negligible for compressors unless there is intentional cooling.
Potential energy changes are negligible for all of these devices
The velocities
involved in these devices, with the exception of turbines and fans, are usually
too low to cause any significant change in the kinetic energy

The fluid velocities encountered in most turbines are very high, and the fluid experiences a significant change
in its kinetic energy.
However, this change is usually very small relative to the change in enthalpy, and thus it is often disregarded.
The section where the mixing process takes place is commonly referred to as a mixing chamber.
The conservation of mass principle for a mixing chamber requires that the
sum of the incoming mass flow rates equal the mass flow rate of the outgoing
mixture.
Mixing chambers are usually well insulated and usually do not involve any kind of work.
Also, the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid streams are usually negligible
Then all there
is left in the energy equation is the total energies of the incoming streams
and the outgoing mixture.
Therefore, the conservation of energy equation
becomes analogous to the conservation of mass equation for this case.
heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid
streams exchange heat without mixing.
The simplest form of a heat exchanger is a double-tube (also called tube and shell) heat exchanger.
Heat exchangers typically involve no work interactions (w _ 0) and negligible
kinetic and potential energy changes (_ke _ 0, _pe _ 0) for each
fluid stream.
The heat transfer rate associated with heat exchangers depends
on how the control volume is selected.
When the entire heat exchanger is selected as the control volume, heat rate becomes zero, since the boundary
for this case lies just beneath the insulation and little or no heat crosses the boundary. If, however, only one of
the fluids is selected as the control volume, then heat will cross this boundary as it flows from one fluid to the
other and the heat rate will not be zero.
1.4 Second law of Thermodynamics
 There are two classical statements of the second law, the Kelvin–Planck statement which is related to
heat engines and the Clausius statement which is related to refrigerators or heat pumps.
 The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can
produce a net amount of work while exchanging heat with a single reservoir only. In other words, the
maximum possible efficiency is less than 100 percent.
 For heat engine to operate, the working fluid has to exchange heat with heat sink as well as heat
source.
 The Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics states that It is impossible to construct a
device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
 The Clausius statement does not imply that a cyclic device that transfers heat from a cold medium to a
warmer one is impossible to construct.
 It simply states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless its compressor is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor
THE CARNOT CYCLE
 Probably the best known reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle
 It’s composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic. And it can be executed
either in a closed or a steady-flow system.
 Consider a closed system that consists of a gas contained in an adiabatic piston–cylinder device.
 The insulation of the cylinder head is such that it may be removed to bring the cylinder into contact
with reservoirs to provide heat transfer.
 The four reversible processes that make up the Carnot cycle are as follows:
(process 1-2, TH constant) : Reversible Isothermal Expansion
  Initially (state 1), the temperature of the gas is TH and the cylinder head is in close contact with a
source at temperature TH so that As the gas expands & the gas temperature tends to decrease some
heat is transferred from the reservoir into the gas. Thus, the gas temperature is kept constant at TH
 The gas is allowed to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings until the piston reaches position
2.
 The amount of total heat transferred to the gas during this process is QH.
(process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL) : Reversible Adiabatic Expansion

 At state 2, the reservoir that was in contact with the cylinder head is removed and replaced by
insulation so that the system becomes adiabatic.
 The gas continues to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings until its temperature drops from
TH to TL (state 3).
 The piston is assumed to be frictionless and the process to be quasiequilibrium, so the process is
reversible as well as adiabatic.
(process 3-4, TL constant) : Reversible Isothermal Compression

 At state 3, the insulation at the cylinder head is removed, and the cylinder is brought into contact with
a sink at temperature TL.
 The piston is pushed inward by an external force, doing work on the gas.
 As the gas is compressed, it’s temperature tends to rise but heat is transferred from the gas to the sink,
causing the gas temperature to drop to TL. Thus, the gas temperature remains constant at TL.
 It continues until the piston reaches state 4. The amount of heat rejected from the gas during this
process is QL.
(process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH) : Reversible Adiabatic Compression

 State 4 is such that when the low-temperature reservoir is removed, the insulation is put back on the
cylinder head, and the gas is compressed in a reversible manner, the gas returns to its initial state
(state1).
 The temperature rises from TL to TH during this reversible adiabatic compression process, which
completes the cycle.

1.5 Third law of Thermodynamics

 Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness.

 As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become less predictable and the
entropy increases.

 In the solid phase, the molecules of a substance continually oscillate about their equilibrium positions,
but they cannot move relative to each other, and their position at any instant can be predicted with
good certainty.

 In the gas phase, however, the molecules move about at random, collide with each other, and change
direction, making it extremely difficult to predict accurately the microscopic state of a system at any
instant.

 Therefore, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero since there
is no uncertainty about the state of the molecules at that instant.

 This statement is known as the Third law of Thermodynamics.

 The entropy determined relative to this point is called absolute entropy.

 Notice that the entropy of a substance that is not pure crystalline (such as a solid solution) is not zero
at absolute zero temperature.