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Table of Contents Table of Contents

ART CULTURE
General Concepts General Concepts
Theories on What is Art Cultural Identity Frameworks
Theories on Interpreting Art - Cosmopolitanism
Anti - Art - Post Colonialism
Art and Politics - Orientalism
Art and Funding - Hybridity
Art as a Market Cultural Appropriation
Art and Intellectual Property Language
Museums and Heritage Sites
BUSINESS AND LABOR Tourism
Corporations Popular Culture
Corporate Liability
Outsourcing/Subcontracting DEVELOPMENT
Controversial Employment Practices Neo - Liberalism
- Contractualization State Side Economics
- Child Labor Theories on Modernisation
- Minimum Wage Privatization
- Zero Hour Contracts Development Approaches
Unions Development Interventions
Corporate Governance/Ethics - Development Aid
Corporate Social Responsibility - NGOs/Charities
Advertising - Microfinance
- Cash Transfers
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT - Universal Basic Income
General Concepts Other Development Issues
Criminal Liability - Gentrification
Theories on Crime/Punishment - Indigenous Land Rights
- Broken Windows
- Bystander Effect ECONOMICS
- Signal Crimes Fiscal Policies
Criminal Justice System Monetary Policies
Criminal Procedure Case Studies
Criminal Sentencing - The Great Depression
Prison - 1997 Asian Financial Crisis
Rape Shield Laws - 2008 Financial Crisis
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Education
Environment
Gender
Health
IR/GeoPol
Philippine Issues
Religion
Rights
Science
Sports
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Art Case Study: Piss Christ

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Defining Art
- Expression/application of human
creative skill and imagination
- Examination of perceptual awareness
and expansion of awareness of the
world around us (Robert Irwin)
- 1987 photograph by Andres Serrano
- Depicts a small plastic crucifix
submerged in glass of the artist’s urine
- Funded by National Endowment for the
Arts, a government program
- Controversial for subject matter, leading
to widespread protests and threats
against the artists

The Purposes of Art Is Piss Christ Art?

- Often overlapping, depending on the - Form/Material: Used Cibachrome, a
context glossy but difficult medium
- Can be classified into three categories: - Content: According to Serrano, not
- Physical: To perform a function or meant to denounce religion but its
service (e.g. industrial design) commercialization
- Personal: To be used for personal - Context: Artist’s ties to Spanish
expression or gratification tradition of art, “which can be both
- Social: To address aspects of violent and beautiful”
collective life (e.g. political art) - Has precedents in Goya, considered a
Great Master, whose works had
THEORIES ON WHAT IS ART violent and ugly scenes, i.e. Saturn
What It Is Criticisms Devouring One of His Sons depicting
Assumes cannibalistic infanticide
shared beliefs;
A gathering does not THEORIES ON INTERPRETING ART
Art as Ritual guided by account for art
certain aims meant to What It Is Criticism
shock and
offend Art expresses See Death of
complex the Author
Taste arbiters Cognitive thoughts, such
open to Theory as the artist’s
indoctrination life, situating it
Art as a Consensus on and excludes into a context
Matter of a those not
Taste standard considered to Artists need
be arbiters, i.e. not have the
minorities and feeling to
Art expresses
the masses Expression express it, may
emotions and
Theory not have the
feelings
Beauty based Does not same feelings
on senses, consider throughout the
Art as
grounded on artwork not work’s creation
Aesthetics
harmony of typically
faculties beautiful The art and the See Cognitive
artist are Theory
Death of the
unrelated;
Author
Three Prong Analysis imposes a limit
- Formal and material properties on the artwork

- Content (thought or meaning)

- Context

ANTI-ART
- Array of concepts that reject prior
definitions of art and reject art in
general
- Has roots in:
- Dadaism, which rejected conformity
in arts and in society
- Surrealism, which had leftist and
anarchist slants
- Examples:
- Fountain, a porcelain urinal
- LHOOQ, a postcard of the Mona Lisa
with a moustache drawn over
Reasons
- Conception of art is not universal but
peculiar to Europe
- Art is a bourgeois ideology, has origins
in capitalism
- Rejection of standards in art
Is Anti-Art Art?
- Essence of anti-art is to reject art
- But some works have been
appropriated as art and collected in art
institutions
- Example: Guy Debord, who prided
himself on deserving universal hatred,
regarded by France as a national
treasure
ART AND POLITICS
Examples
- In the Context of Social Movements
- Spoliarium: Won top awards in the
Madrid Expo, proved Filipino equality
- Guerrilla Girls: Used posters to
question underrepresentation of art in
women
- Note on Gender and Art: Less
than 3% of artists in the
Metropolitan Museum are female,
but 83% of nudes are women
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- In the Context of State Propaganda
- Monuments
- Propaganda posters (Uncle Sam, etc)
Art Styles as Political Tools
- Surrealism: Had leftist, communist and
anarchist slants
- Socialist Realism: Depicted communist
values, such as the emancipation of the
proletariat, in a realistic manner. Was
created by the Soviet Union to educate
citizens
- Abstract Expressionism: Funded by
the CIA, particularly the works of
Jackson Pollock, to counter-act Socialist
Realism
ART AND FUNDING
Why Fund Art?
- Economic Drivers: Create jobs and
produce revenue, as in tourism, creative
industries (crafts, NGOs), etc.
- $504 billion (3.2%) of GDP in 2011
- 905 000 creative businesses
employing 3.35 million workers
- Attracts 129.6 million cultural tourists
spending $171 billion yearly
- Enhances property values
- Educational Assets: Cultivate creativity
and other skills
- Health and Wellness: Aids in recovery
process, i.e. therapy for PTSD
- Cultural Heritage
State Funding
- In the US (2014): $306.6M or 0.037% of
state general fund expenditures
- General trend of reductions: in UK, cut
from 472M (2012) to 451M (2014); in
US, two states (Kansas and Arizona) did
not fund arts at all
- Only 26% of funding for rural
communities, but 17% of population is
rural
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Private Funding How Do Artists Profit?
- 2013: British Museum received - Damien Hirst: Commands a 2.2 acre
government grant of 43.9M but raised studio complex where as many as 150
more than twice the sum from donors employees carry his instructions
- Tendency to be highly concentrated: - Takashi Murakami: Commercializes his
2.1% of grants accounted for 46.4% of art as merchandise using his own
total donations company
- Highly fluctuates: decline of 17.5% in - Andy Warhol: Left estate of $100
investments million using pop art; often regarded as
- Often end up being displayed in private important figure in postmodernism
galleries or exhibits
How Is Art Priced?
Context Study: Sponsorships - No real basis, mostly perception
- See Museums and Heritage Sites under - Open to manipulation: art dealers
Culture sometimes buy solely to sell forward at
- British Museum’s sponsors include BP, a profit. Buyer anonymity in auctions
Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs, all prevents checks and balances
of which are/were facing controversy
- Gwanju Biennale’s sponsor, the city ART AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
government, censored a work Intellectual Property Protection
- Two Arguments For What Expiration
- Art is compromised if the financing is
Original,
unethical, as in tobacco companies Life of the
creative works
- Sponsors want exhibits that are Copyright
in a tangible
author plus
seventy years
popular, see such as part of branding, form, not ideas
hence encouraging self-censorship Trademark Branding In perpetuity

Inventions, Twenty years

ART AS A MARKET
Art as a Luxury Good
- Pablo Picasso’s Nude, Green Leaves
and Bust sold for $106.5 million, the
most expensive painting in history
- Trend of art being used as reserve
currency; bought and sold as assets
- Money managers launch art funds
- Why? Seen as having significant
aesthetic value, but also as an
alternative to trading in currency
How Do Art Galleries Profit?
- Take as much as 60 percent of the
artwork’s selling price excluding
framing, gallery costs
- Why? Galleries attract more people and
hence make sales more likely
Patent processes and after the patent
methods is issued
Fair Use
- Permits limited use of copyright
material without acquiring permission
from rights holders
- Important for purposes of education,
parody, derivative works i.e. sampling in
hip-hop
Test for Fair Use
- Purpose and character of the use
- Nature of the copyrighted work
- Amount and sustainability of the
copyright work that is used
- Effect upon the value of the work

Business and Labor
CORPORATIONS
Defining Corporations
- Company or group of people
authorized to act as a single entity
- Classified according to whether they are
for profit; and/or whether they can issue
stocks
- Have legal personality and are owned
by shareholders, whose liabilities are
limited only to the extent of their
investment
- Shareholders do not necessarily
manage the corporation, as they
typically appoint or elect a Board of
Directors to do so
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- Dissenting Arguments
- First Amendment protects
individual self-expression;
corporate spending should be
viewed as a transaction for profit
- Corporations unfairly influence
using vast sums of money that only
a few individuals can match,
distorting public debate
- Does not protect individual
shareholders who might end up
funding opposing views
- Possibility of corruption
CORPORATE LIABILITY
Types of Liability - N.M.E
When It Applies

Corporate Personhood Conduct that amounts

- Recognized as juridical persons, i.e. to a crime. e.g. fraud.
Can either be directly
entities that have some of the legal committed by
Criminal Liability
rights and responsibilities given to corporations or
committed by officers in
natural persons (humans)
behalf of the
- Reason: Corporations are composed of corporation
people, and people should not be
Liability of
deprived of their rights just because manufacturers for
they act collectively Strict Liability
injuries that defective
- Implications products cause. No
need to prove fault or
- Allows corporations to sue/be sued negligence
- Simplifies taxation, regulations and
Liability of employers
other transactions that otherwise for acts committed by
involves many people Vicarious Liability their employees in the
- Protects individual shareholder rights performance of their
duty
- Protects right of association
Labor cases, acts
Other Forms of
prohibited but not
Case Study: Citizens United v FEC Liability
crimes, etc.
- Citizens United wanted to air an ad
critical of Hillary Clinton, violating the
When Corporate Officers are Liable
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act which - General Rule: Liabilities incurred by
banned corporations from doing so
corporations does not make officers
- The Court struck down the provision
liable
- Why? Free speech extends to - Exception: If the corporate officer
associations and does not allow - Assents to the unlawful act, or was
prohibitions based on identity of the
guilty of gross negligence or bad faith
speaker. Hence corporations apply - Must be clearly proven
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Tests for Corporate Criminal Liability - As a general rule, principal is not liable
When It Applies for acts committed by subcontractor
except for failure to pay wages
When an individual
commits all the
- But only to the extent of the worked
elements of the crime performed under the contract
Identification Test
and the person can be
seen as the controlling
Labor - Only Contracting
mind of the corporation
- Occurs when:
When all the elements
of the crime are
- Contractor does not have substantial
Aggregation Test committed by various capital/investment and performs
employees though not activities directly related to the
in a single mind
business of the principal, or when
When policies and - Principal, not contractor, has the
structures lead to the
actual power to control employees
Blameworthiness Test corporation not taking
precautions to prevent - Makes principal liable as if he is the
the crime direct employer of the employees
When the company
Benefit Test
benefits from the act Facts and Figures
- 2000s: US MNCs cut work forces in the
Piercing the Corporate Veil US by 2.9 million while increasing
- Legal decision to treat the liabilities of overseas employment by 2.4 million
corporations as if they are liabilities of - Reduced middle class, seen as driving
the shareholders; hence shareholders force of the US economy
will be held liable - Global electronics manufacturing
- Applies where the company is only industry expected to be $426 billion
being set up for fraudulent purposes, or - Primarily driven by labor costs, though
where it is established to avoid an gap between US and China is as small
existing obligation as 16%, and taxes
- BPOs generated $28.5 billion in 2014
OUTSOURCING/SUBCONTRACTING - Reputation conscious companies had
General Concepts 35% working violations than generic
- Occurs when a principal contracts out or brands
outsources the performance of a task to
another company Case Study 1: Nike
- Trilateral relationship among three - Since 1998, has been observing US air
parties: pollution standards worldwide
- Principal, who subcontracts the work - 2009: Set up a model factory in Sri
and is the indirect employer of the Lanka, signed long-term agreements
contractor’s employees with factories since changes make
- Subcontractor, who accepts the work suppliers less productive at first
and is the direct employer of the - Effective in Mexico, where only 10%
contractor’s employees quit per year, but not China, where 10%
- Employee quit every month
- Why? Mexico had unions and NGOs,
China did not have any
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Case Study 2: Wal - Mart CONTROVERSIAL EMPLOYMENT
- Fire inside Tazreen garment factory in PRACTICES
Bangladesh left 112 people dead Kinds of Employees (Non - Regular)
- Wal Mart responsible for 60% of the Description/
clothing produced there, but never Requisites
actually placed an order with Tazreen; in Only employed for a
Seasonal
fact, marked the factory as unsafe and specific season
banned it as a supplier For a period up to six
- How? Wal Mart hired a mega supplier Probationary
months, after which can
(Success Apparel) that hired Simco, be dismissed if did not
meet standards
which then subcontracted the orders
to Tazreen’s parent company without Only for a specific
Project project, with a fixed
telling Success or Wal - Mart term
- Aftermath: Wal Mart sourced
For a fixed term, as
production back to Li & Fung - another long as the agreement
mega-supplier with 15 000 supplier Contractual was freely and willingly
factories, some of which also had fires agreed upon under
equal bargaining terms
and stampedes among others
Performs functions not
necessary or desirable
Mega - Suppliers Casual
to the business of the
- Conglomerates that coordinate employer
factories for retailers Note: As a general rule, all employees
- Reason: Fast-fashion, i.e. constant have security of tenure; hence, cannot be
demand, means retailers cannot rely on fired without a just or authorised cause
the same suppliers
- Business model is organized to keep Termination of Employment
retailers away from factories, so that the - Just Causes
former will not directly deal with the - Serious misconduct or willful
latter. disobedience
- Often also do not know which factories - Gross and habitual neglect
the orders end up in (See Case Study 2) - Fraud or willful breach of trust
- Commission of a crime or offence
Outsourcing by Generic Brands - Authorized Causes
- Trend towards greater demand for - Retrenchment
cheap and undifferentiated goods, - Closure of business
which are made with low standards - Redundancy
- Why? Fastest-growing demand is in - Disease where continued
developing countries which do not employment is prejudicial to the
have strict laws, i.e. China and Brazil, worker’s health or to co-employees
or do not face public pressure
- Ex: Timber companies in Gabon ship Contractualization
80% of logs to China and India, cut - Repeatedly using temporary workers for
thrice as many logs as before since periods not exceeding five months
orders are now about quantity rather - Often used as a disguise for labor only
than quality contracting

- Examples
- PAL: Fired 2,600 regular employees
and rehired as contractual
- SM: 92% of workers are contractual
- 2010: Carried out by 10.4% of firms; 2/3
of Filipino firms carry out some form of
non-regular employment
- Often carried out with contracting
agencies or subcontractors
- Effects
- Lack of job security
- Lower wages compared to regular
workers, no overtime or vacation pay
- Generally excluded from Collective
Bargaining Agreements between
employers and unions
- Weakens unions, as contractual
employees are not allowed to join
Child Labor
- Causes
- Poverty
- Lack of meaningful alternatives such
as access to education
- Cultural beliefs such as character
building
- Growth of informal economies
- Facts and Figures
- Working children contribute as much
as 25% to 40% of household income
- 168 million child laborers worldwide,
most of which are aged 5 to 11
- More than half of all child labourers
(85 million) are engaged in hazardous
work, such as using heavy equipment
- Primarily engaged in agriculture and
the informal economy
- Examples
- Cocoa Production: BBC reported use
of child slaves in Ivory Coast
- Mining: 40% of all miners in Chinese
owned mining companies in Congo;
exposed to hazardous conditions
and substances such as mercury
- Bangladesh: In factories of H&M, Zara
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Minimum Wage
- How Computed (Philippines)
- Set by regional wage boards
following guidelines set by the
national wage board; hence varies
per region
- Highest: Php 444 in NCR
- Lowest: Php 250 in ARMM
- Determined after consultation with
employers and unions
- Basis: Cost of a “basket of goods”
that can feed a family
Case Study: US (Facts and Figures)
- Currently at $7.25/hour; lost about 8.1%
of purchasing power to inflation
- 3 million workers at or below minimum
wage (2.3% of all workers), 48% of
which are 16 to 24
- 89% of possible beneficiaries are 20
and older; 56% are women
- Food service industry biggest employer
of near-minimum wage workers
- Republicans claim that increasing
minimum wage can lead to 500 000
fewer jobs, or the increase of costs i.e.
restaurants increasing prices by 5%
- Research indicates minimum wages
have no discernible effect on
employment, as the cost is small
compared to operational costs and is
offset by higher productivity and lower
turnover
- Negligible impact on the economy: if
100% of the wage increases was spent,
would only amount to 1.25% of GDP
- But might nonetheless increase
spending power and stimulate
consumption
- Claim that minimum wage leads to
inflation, as it leads to corresponding
price increases
- But wage increases are marginal;
reduce profit margins but not enough
to increase prices
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Zero Hour Contracts Bargaining Increases Leads to
- Contracts where employers have the Power of bargaining monopolistic
Unions power domination
discretion of varying the employee’s
working hours Prevents Denies non
- Employee is on call but only receives discrimination union workers
against union equal
compensation for hours worked members opportunities
- Spread widely in the UK after the global for
employment
financial crisis; commonly used in
agriculture and food services Effect to Prevents non Interferes with
- 60% of people in zero hour contracts Workers union workers individual
from enjoying liberty
report being satisfied benefits
- However, of doubtful legality as they without sharing
obligations
compromise expectations for stable
income Enables labor Can be used
- Open to exploitation as may be denied orgs to better as extortion by
facilitate unscrupulous
work for any reason agreements; union leaders;
creates allows union to
UNIONS harmonious charge high
relations rates
Models/Shop Types
- Closed Shop: Employers only hire
people who are already union members Collective Bargaining Agreements
- Banned in most countries - Legally binding contract between
- Union Shop: Employers require new employer and union setting terms and
employees to join the union conditions for employment
- Note: In the Philippines, members of - Requires the union/bargaining agent to
the INC are exempted from this have the power to represent the
requirement as their religion forbids majority as a precondition
them from joining such unions
- In general, cannot go below minimum
- Agency Shop: Require non-union terms and conditions set by the law
employees to pay a fee to the union for
- In general, lead to better terms for
services in negotiating contracts union workers
- Open Shop: Does not require union - Countries such as Finland and
membership in employing or Sweden do not have minimum wage
keepingworkers laws, set wages with collective
bargaining instead
Union Security Agreement
- In US, weekly income for union
- Contractual agreements that determine workers was at $917 compared to
the extent to which the union may $717 for non union
compel employees to join, may collect
- However, annual union dues start at
fees, or may have the power to ask the $200 and go as high as several hundred
employer to dismiss employees dollars, partially offsetting benefits

Issue Advantage Disadvantage

Strikes
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- Temporary stoppage of work by Conceptual Frameworks
employees; distinguished from a Shareholder Stakeholder
lockout where it is the employer that
Also to other
refuses to allow employees to work stakeholders
Obligation of Solely to
such as
a Corporation maximize profit
Requirements for a Legal Strike communities,
- Grounds workers, etc.

- Collective bargaining deadlock Corporations

Corporations
- Unfair labor practice, such as union are agents of
share holders;
are also
busting or discrimination people buy
accountable to
other actors;
- Procedure shares for no
corporations
- Must be approved by a majority vote Rationale other purpose
than profit,
that manage
of the members of the Union hence the
relationships
have a greater
- Must be reported to the government obligation to
chance of
return on
7 days before the strike survival
investments
- Note: Strikes do not need to be last
Pressure to
resorts, as they do not necessarily meet goals Focuses on
require prior arbitration or a court means focus long term
Focus
decision on short-term decisions and
gains and risky investments
decisions
Unions and Politics
- Unions have considerable influence as
Industrial Democracy
lobbyists; have led to safer working
- Arrangement which involves workers
conditions and higher wages in the past
sharing responsibility and authority in
- In the US, political spending by
the workplace
unions totalled $4.4 billion from 2005
- Can take the form of decision making
to 2011, via campaign contributions
structures such as the formation of
- In the Philippines, regular fare hikes
committees and consultative bodies
attributed to transport unions
- But not always effective - Example: German Mitbestimmung
- Failed to recall Gov. Scott Walker of - By law, companies with over 2000
employees must have worker
Wisconsin, whose budget plan
representatives comprise half of their
limited collective bargaining for
supervisory boards of directors
government employees
- Supervisory board sets company’s
general agenda, and then elects a
Violence Against Labor Unions
management board for the day to
- 1996: Isidro Gil, a union leader, shot
day running of the company
dead at a Coca Cola bottling plant in
- Worker representative in the board of
Colombia
directors as HR representative; also
- 1928: The Banana Massacre, where as
has worker committees
many as 2,000 workers who went on
- Often high risk, high return: creates
strike were killed
higher forms of engagement, but prone
to biases
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE/ETHICS

- Ex: Voting for leadership positions
may create a huge bias against
external candidates
Case Study: Zappos
- Introduced a holocracy, or a structure
where each employee is his or her own
leader
- 14 percent of the company opted out
upon the shift to a holocracy
- Problems
- Procedures actually retain hierarchies;
company is organised into Circles
whose members have the power of
terminating members of Sub-Circles
- Lack of structure means workers often
operate under confusion
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Case Study 1: McDonald’s
- Established the Ronald McDonald
House Charities, whose primary
advocacy is children’s health
- Present in 57 countries; Houses act as a
place to stay for families with
hospitalized children
- At the same time, accused of
contributing to childhood obesity by
running ads targeting children
Case Study 2: Kizhakkambalam
- Nov 2015: Local body elections were
won by an organization called Twenty
20, sponsored by Kitex
- Goal is to make Kizhakkambalam a
model village by 2020; have installed
roads and drinking water projects
- Criticism that Kitex only started
programs after being caught red-
handed in pollution issues
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Case Study 3: Paris Climate Summit
- Survey of 10 sponsors, including L’Oreal
and Air France, revealed that most do
not publish data on CO2 emissions, half
do not track lifetime carbon footprint
and only one reducing emissions in line
with EU targets
- Sponsors included natural gas and coal
companies
- Average payment of 547, 000 per
sponsor
ADVERTISING
Brands
- Old conception was to put a face to
products to assure quality,
accountability
- Slowly gave rise to the idea of selling
lifestyles in response to economic crisis
in the 1980’s
- Ex: Nike and Pepsi targeting the youth
and associating themselves with what
the youth found to be “cool”
- Natural incentive to limit choices for the
public
- Through aggressive invasion of a
region (Starbucks)
- By controlling media, i.e. ABC News
under pressure not to air stories
critical of Disney, its parent company
- By threatening to pull products
contrary to its image, i.e. Wal Mart
not selling content that is not family
friendly
- 2004: American Psychological
Association pinpointed increase in
marketing towards kids as affecting how
kids forge their identities
 14
- Examples
Crime and Punishment - Defense of self, of relatives or of
GENERAL CONCEPTS strangers
Characteristics of a Crime - Avoidance of a greater evil
- An act or omission punishable by law - Fulfilment of duty
- Incurred by fault or by negligence - Obedience to a lawful order
- Offends the State but may or may not
offend a private party Exempting Circumstances
- There is a wrong, but no criminal
Crimes vs Torts liability because of a lack of
Crime Tort voluntariness
Affects the Only of private
- Examples
Against
public interest concerns - Insanity
Covers only Any kind of
- Minority
Scope acts punished fault or - Accident
by law negligence - Irresistible Force
Law merely - Uncontrollable Fear
Law punishes repairs the - Lawful Cause
Penalty or corrects the damages
act through
indemnification Insanity as a Defense
- Refers to insanity at the time the crime
CRIMINAL LIABILITY was committed
Requisites - Different from insanity at the time of the
- Evil Act trial, which merely suspends criminal
- Crime is committed proceedings
- Wrong done is the direct and logical - Question of whether the accused is
consequence of the crime insane rests on the judge/jury, but
- Evil Mind guided by the opinions of mental health
- Freedom: Voluntariness of the person professionals
in committing the act - Used in less than 1% of all criminal
- Intelligence: Capacity to know and cases in the US; of those, only
understand the consequences successful 25% of the time
- Intent: Purpose to use a particular - American Psychiatric Association:
means to achieve a result Accused spent as much time or more in
- Distinguished from motive, or the psychiatric institutions than they would
personal reasons behind have in prison had they been found
committing the crime guilty
- Note: In crimes involving culpa, - Mental health resources in prisons are
negligence replaces intent scarce
- Compromise is the Guilty But Mentally
Justifying Circumstances Ill verdict, where the accused is mentally
- No wrong, hence no liability ill but not enough to be relived of
- In general, the act must be a reasonable responsibility
and commensurate response to another - Accused serves sentence after
evil act, or made due to a lawful order undergoing treatment
 15
Minority as a Defense Aggravating Circumstances
- In general, accused under the age of - Increase the penalty for the offence
criminal responsibility is exempted - Can arise either from the moral
- Usually subjected to intervention attributes of the offender, his private
programs instead relations with the offended party, or the
- Countries such as UK and the circumstances in the execution of the
Philippines nonetheless allow minors to act
face full penalties if the minor is proven
to be incapable of the wrongfulness of Alternative Circumstances
his conduct - Can exempt, mitigate or aggravate the
- In the Philippines penalty depending on the circumstance
- 15 or Less: Exempted
- Above 15 to 18: Exempted, unless Mitigating Aggravating
acted with discernment
In property
In crimes
crimes;
Mitigating Circumstances Familial
exempting if
against
Relationship persons, e.g.
- There is a wrong but the penalty is theft or
parricide
swindling
decreased because of either a
diminution in the requisites for an evil Intoxication
Not a habitual Habitual
drinker drinker
mind, or respect for the law and/or
remorse and acceptance of punishment If degree of education has a
- Examples Education reasonable connection to the
offense
- Accused is under 18 or over 70
- No intention to commit so grave a
Extinction of Criminal Liability
wrong
- Sufficient provocation or threat - By death of the convict
- Crimes of passion - By service of the sentence
- Voluntary surrender - By amnesty
- Voluntary plea of guilty - By general pardon
- Plea to a lower offense - By prescription or statute of limitations
- In the case of rape, by the marriage of
offended with the offending party
Crimes of Passion
- Committed where the accused commits
Pardon
the act against someone because of a
- Can be by the offended party, or by the
strong impulse
chief executive
- Applies only when arose from lawful
- If by the offended party, only
sentiments, i.e. cannot be invoked for
extinguishes civil liability except in
an act of revenge or against the lover of
crimes against chastity (adultery, etc.)
an illegitimate wife
- In the Philippines: must have been - If by the President, extinguishes criminal
liability
provoked by a prior unlawful act within
- May be conditional or absolute
a reasonable length of time
- Opposed by many women’s groups for - Does not restore the right to vote of
hold office unless stated otherwise
being treated leniently, often in cases of
domestic abuse against women
Amnesty
 16
- Usually extended in behalf of certain - Also has a tendency of implicit bias,
classes of persons who are subject to hence disproportionately affecting
trial but not yet convicted minorities

Amnesty Pardon Signal Crime

- Theory contending that fear of crime
To classes of persons Includes any crime,
and people’s risk perceptions are linked
guilty of political exercised individually
offenses to certain crimes
May be exercised If person is already
- Differs according to the crime and
before trial convicted circumstances of the person
As if no crime Relieved from
- Ex: Women more likely to attach
committed consequences but higher signal values to sexual assault
rights not automatically
restored
Bystander Effect
- Refers to cases in which individuals do
Prescription/Statute of Limitations not offer any means of help to a victim
- Specifies the length of time within when other people are present
which to file a suit - Consequence of diffusion of
- Purpose: Accused may have lost responsibility: people less likely to help
evidence required to disprove claims, because they believe someone else will
and to encourage plaintiffs to pursue take responsibility
the cause of action with reasonable - But also dependent on ambiguity of the
dilligence situation, familiarity with the
- Begins on the day the crime was environment, and the relationship
committed, or if concealed, when the between the bystander and the person
offended party or the State learns of the in distress
commission of the crime
- Maximum: 20 years for heinous crimes Case Study: Kitty Genovese
- Genovese was on her way back to her
THEORIES ON CRIME/PUNISHMENT apartment from work at 3am when she
Broken Windows Theory was stabbed to death by a serial rapist
- Zero tolerance for minor crimes such as and murderer
littering and graffiti, because the - Attack lasted for half an hour during
tolerance of lesser offences encourages which time Genovese screamed for
more serious crimes help; attacker left after attracting the
- Why? Perception of a permissive attention of a neighbour but later
attitude towards crime, and increased returned and finished the assault
likelihood of honest people fleeing - According to newspapers, 38 people
areas witnessed the assault but failed to
- 2001: Rates for both serious and petty intervene or even contact the police
crimes decreased in New York after a - But recent reports suggest the police
zero tolerance policy were contacted at least once and that
- However, may also be due to other many of the bystanders could not
factors such as lower unemployment actually see the attack

CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
Goals
- Punishment/retribution of criminals
- Protection of society from further acts
- Deterrence of similar acts
- Rehabilitation of the criminal
How The Goals Interact
- In theory, are interrelated to each other
- Ex: Philippine criminal justice system
aims for rehabilitation for economic
crimes, and punishment for heinous
crimes; but not mutually exclusive
Penalties for Crimes
- General Rule: Imprisonment, with fines
depending on the crime
- Other Penalties
- Destierro: Exile for crimes of passion
between spouses; but more for the
protection of the offender from
reprisal by family of the offended
- Disqualification from Public Office:
Additional penalty imposed on public
officials for crimes relating to their
office
- Probation: Supervision over an
offender, ordered by a court instead
of serving prison
- However, faces the threat of being
sent back to prison if found to
violate conditions
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
Parties Involved
- Prosecution
- Private Offended Party
- Prosecutor: In criminal cases, a public
lawyer since crimes are offences
against the State
- Defense
- Accused
- Defense Lawyer: May be a private
lawyer, but public lawyers can also be
provided for the indigent
17
- Other Parties
- Judge
- Law Enforcement
Due Process
- In general, rules on “fair play”
- Applied against the government to be
protected against arbitrary intrusion into
privacy and other related rights
- Ensures the accused is put into a fair
trial with full freedom and awareness
- Note: General rule that doubts
should be settled in favour of the
accused, due to presumption of
innocence
Rights of the Accused
- To be presumed innocent
- To be informed of the nature and cause
of the accusation against him
- To be present and defend in person and
with counsel
- To confront any witness
- To have a speedy, impartial, public trial
- Against self incrimination
Miranda Rights
- The right to be advised of the right to
remain silent and to obtain an attorney
while in custodial investigation
- However, exception exists in cases of
public safety
- Ex: Interrogation of Dzhokhar
Tsarnaev, the Boston bomber
- Six Requirements
- Evidence must have been gathered
- Must be testimonial
- Obtained while the suspect was in
custody
- Must have been the product of
interrogation
- Conducted by state agents
- Evidence must be offered by the
State during a criminal prosecution

Case Study: Miranda vs Arizona
- Miranda was arrested for kidnapping
and rape of a young girl
- Signed confession after two hours of
interrogation
- Miranda claimed not to have been
made aware of his rights
- Aftermath: Miranda died because he
got stabbed in a bar; person who
stabbed him invoked Miranda Rights
and was acquitted
Search and Seizure
- Requires a warrant except for:
- Moving vehicles
- Plain view
- Waiver
- Search incidental to lawful arrest
- Hot pursuit
- Exigent circumstances
- Customs search
- Stop and Frisk
Stop and Frisk
- When police officer is suspicious of
individual and runs hands lightly over
the suspect’s garments
Case Study: New York
- Record of 680,000 stops in 2012
- 80% on blacks and/or Latinos
- About one in five have used some form
of physical violence, often at the
slightest hint of resistance
- Violence most occurs in impact zones,
i.e. pockets where police flood with
officers, often straight out of the
academy. Inexperienced officers further
add to tension and distrust
- 2002 - 2013: 87.6% did not convictions
- Increase in shootings by 5.5% after New
York stopped the practice
- NYPD: Stop and Frisk benefits
minorities, who are at risk of minority on
minority violence
18
Arrest
- Requires warrant, except when
- Offense is being committed
- Offense has just been committed
- Escape from detention or custody
Entrapment vs Instigation
Entrapment Instigation
The instigator
To trap and capture the
practically induces the
lawbreaker in the
accused to commit the
execution of his plan
offense
The means originate Law enforcer conceives
from the mind of the the crime and suggests
criminal it
Not a bar to conviction Leads to acquittal
Bail
- Recognized as a right, except in capital
offences where the evidence of guilty is
strong
- Exception for Enrile, who was granted
bail on the basis of his age and health
- Amount of bail set dependent on
factors such as income of the accused
and the nature of the offense
- Purpose: to honor the presumption of
innocence, and to enable the
preparation of a proper defense
Double Jeopardy
- Prohibits prosecution of crime of which
he has been previously acquitted or
convicted
- Must be exact same offences
- Bars appeal if the accused has been
acquitted
- Refers to acquittals, convictions or
dismissals made after arraignment
- Does not apply to re-trials, made in
cases of miscarriage of justice or when
evidence previously unobtainable is
acquired
- But re-trials only available before the
decision achieves finality

Plea Bargaining
- Accused pleads guilty to a particular
charge in return for a concession from
the prosecutor or from the judge
- Pros
- Shorter proceedings
- Concessions can benefit both parties,
i.e. shorter sentences, etc.
- Cons
- Pressure to plead guilty even if case is
weak, in return for a perceived benefit
- Disproportionately affects innocent
accused, who already perceive
system as unfair
- Dilemma for defense attorneys, who
have an interest in maintaining
friendly relations with prosecutors for
future clients
- Agency Problem
- Defendant will be paid more if the
trial goes on
- Prosecutor wants to maintain high
conviction rate even if it
compromises justice or deterrence
Discharge of Accused to be State
Witness
- In cases involving multiple accused,
where one or more of them is acquitted
to serve as a witness
- Requisites
- Absolute necessity
- No other direct evidence
- Can be corroborated in material
points
- Does not appear to be most guilty
- Not been convicted of a prior offense
involving moral turpitude
19
Exclusionary Rule/Fruit of the Poisoned
Tree
- Evidence illegally acquired cannot be
used
- Ex: Officers failed to read Miranda
Rights, searched without a warrant
- Exceptions
- Discovered in part as a result of an
untainted source
- Would have been discovered anyway
- Search warrant was executed in good
faith
Privileged Communication
- Allows the holder of the privilege to
refuse to provide evidence about a
certain subject or to bar such evidence
from being disclosed
- Often anchored along the lines of
professional ethics, and/or the need to
preserve special relationships
- Examples
- Between husband and wife
- Between an attorney and his client
- Between a doctor and his patient
- Between a priest and a person giving
confession
- For public officers if the public
interest may be compromised
Right Against Self - Incrimination
- Bars an accused from being a witness
against himself; can be made to take
the witness stand, but can refuse to
answer a question
- Includes any statement that tends to
increase the danger of prosecution,
even if true or if the person is innocent
- Only applies to testimonial evidence
- Rationale: To act as a check against the
possibility of torture or other forms of
coercion

CRIMINAL SENTENCING
General Trends
- In the Philippines: Sentencing as a
general rule is determinate, judges can
only increase or decrease the penalty
depending on mitigating/aggravating
circumstances
- In the US: General trend of removing
human discretion from sentencing
Three Strikes Laws
- Mandate courts to impose harsher
sentences on those convicted of an
offense if they have been previously
convicted of two prior offenses
- In general, call for life imprisonment
without possibility of release for at least
25 years after the third offense
- Responsible for 83% increase in life
imprisonment
- Studies show that arrest rates are 20%
lower for offenders convicted of two
strike eligible offenses compared to one
strike eligible offenses, showing
effectivity in deterrence
- However, studies also show that it also
pushes criminals to commit more
violent crimes, as they have little to lose
if felons will face the same sentences
either way
- May also lead to life imprisonment of
people despite not committing violent
crime
- Example: Leandro Andrade, who was
sentenced to life imprisonment for
three cases of shoplifting
Sex Offenders
- Megan’s Law: Requires information on
sex offenders to be made public
- Refers to both community notification
and sex offender registration
- In response to death of Megan Kanka, a
7 year old, by a sex offender with prior
convictions
20
- Criticisms
- Invites vigilante justice, as in the case
of William Elliot , who was murdered
by vigilantes. Elliot was required to
register because his girlfriend was
two weeks shy of 16th birthday while
he himself was a teenager
- Questionable effectiveness, as
register automatically includes
offenders without assessing
recidivism, and may in fact increase it
by causing instability and
unemployment
- May also constitute indefinite
punishment and adversely affect
family members of registrants
- Has led to creation of communities
of sex offenders
Life Imprisonment
- Generally handed for heinous crimes,
often with aggravating circumstances
- In the US: 1 in 2000 residents under life
imprisonment
- General Rule: Still eligible for parole
after a number of years
- But life imprisonments without parole
also possible
- Ex: Maurice Schick, who admitted to
murdering an eight year old due to
an “uncontrollable urge to kill”
- Struck down in countries such as Spain
and Portugal, but nonetheless seen as a
humane alternative to the death penalty
Death Penalty
- General trend of abolishing capital
punishment, especially in developing
countries
- 102 countries have abolished the
death penalty, while only 37 retain it
in law and in practice
- Most number of executions: China, with
1000+ executions every year

Case Study 1: Philippines
- Technically allowed, but currently on
moratorium
- Subject to automatic review by the
Supreme Court, i.e. all cases imposing
death penalty will automatically be
appealed to the Supreme Court
Case Study 2: US
- Over 75% of murder victims in cases
involving executions were white,
although nationally only 50% of murder
victims in general are white
- 55.3% of defendants executed are also
white, blacks comprising 34.7%
- Washington: Jurors three times as likely
to recommend execution to blacks than
whites
- Death row inmates are 43% white, 42%
black
- Since 1973: More than 150 people
exonerated from death row due to
innocence
- Questionable effect on deterrence: 80%
of executions are from the South, but
the South still retains the highest crime
rates
- Examples
- John Wayne Gacy: Murdered 33 at
least 33 teenage boys and young
men; insanity was an issue in the trial
as experts testified he suffered from
paranoid schizoprenia
- Ted Bundy: Confessed to 30 rapes
and homicides, mostly of young
women. Known to not have
expressed remorse for victims;
member of his own defense team
called him the definition of evil
- Timothy Evans: Accused of murdering
wife and daughter, blamed neighbor.
Three year after Evans’ execution, his
neighbor was found to be a serial
killler and was guilty of the murders
21
PRISON
Case Study 1: US
- Largest prison population in the world,
comprising 25% of the world’s 9.8M
prisoners
- Increase of 500% in number of prisoners
over the last forty years
- Why? Tough on crime laws fill prisons
with mostly non-violent offenders,
who become worse on release than
before incarceration
- 36% of inmates were unemployed
- 68% had not completed high school
- 70% convicted of non violent crimes
Prisons and Race
- African Americans constitute 1 million of
the total 2.3 million incarcerated
- Nearly six times the rate of whites
- Statistically, 1 in 3 black men can expect
to spend time in prison in his lifetime
- Contributing Factors
- Inner city crime prompted by social
and economic isolation
- Policies such as “get tough on crime”
and “war on drugs”
- Habitual offender policies and
mandatory sentencing laws
- Zero tolerance policies on school
violence having an adverse effect on
black children
- 35% of black children grades 7 to
12 have been suspended or
expelled from school, compared to
20% of Hispanics and 15% of
whites
Women in Prison
- Increasing at a rate 50% higher than
men since 1980
- 13,258 in 1980 to 106,232 in 2014
- Often have significant histories of
physical and sexual abuse, high rates of
HIV and substance abuse problems

Juveniles
- Youth committed to juvenile facilities
has been steadily declining, from 77
800 in 1999 to 35 200 in 2013
- Blacks comprise 26% of juvenile arrests
and 44% of youth who are detained
- In New York: Accounts for less than 4%
of arrests but more than 5,000 youths
admitted every year
- Cost for one youth in detention is
$200,000 every year; cost of education
is $11,844
- 92% are juvenile delinquents, i.e. not
serious felonies, and only 8% are
juvenile offenders, i.e. serious felonies
- As high as 46% readmitted to detention
in the same year
The War on Drugs
- At the federal level, people with drug
convictions are half of prisoners
- Most are not high level actors in the
drug trade, and have no prior criminal
record for violence offenses
- 41,000 in 1980 to 500,000 in 2014
- Five times as many whites use drugs as
blacks, but blacks are sent to prison for
drug offenses at ten times the rate
- Serve an average of 62 months in prison
Life During and After Prison
- 68% arrested for a new crime within
three years; 77% arrested within 5 yrs
- 75% have substance abuse problems
- African Americans comprise majority
- Contributing Factors
- Presence of gangs in jail, with leaders
making tactical decisions inside jail
- Difficulty in re-integration; often had a
poor work history and now have a
criminal record to deal with, must
adjust to normal life
- Lack of education; many prisoners do
not finish high school
- Racial barriers
22
Prison Conditions
- Higher rates of sickness and infections
in prisons; in Russia, almost half of all
prisoners are ill with a disease
- Incidence of TB is 10 to 100 times
higher than in the general population
- Why? Poor sanitary conditions,
inadequate lighting and ventilation,
insufficient personal hygiene supplies
- Also problems with overcrowding,
reaching as high as 316% of prison
capacity in the Philippines
- Can be so severe that prisoners sleep
in shifts or sleep while standing
- May lead to further neglect of some
sectors, such as women and children
- Use of solitary confinement
- Not always used only for violent
prisoners; has also been used for
those with mental illlnesses, or even
those still undergoing pre-trial as a
form of coercion
- Many subject prisoners under life
sentences under solitary confinement
for prolonged periods
- Can cause isolation syndrome,
affecting mental health
Private Prisons
- Usually result of a contractual
agreement between a party and a
government, with rates paid per
prisoner
- Resulted from a burgeoning prison
population
- 8.4% of US prisoners under private
prisons
- Intended to cope with problems in
operating prisons, but often
exacerbates problems
- Less wages and training for officers,
as well as less healthcare for prisoners
to cut costs and maximize profits

- Example 1: Escape of three murderers
from a private prison in Arizona due
to lax culture and inadequate patrols
- Held unconstitutional in Israel: erodes
right of liberty by allowing non-state
actors the right to use force
23
- Media as a matter of courtesy does not
disclose names of alleged rape victims,
although laws requiring such are
routinely struck down as
unconstitutional due to considerations
of publication of truthful information

Alternative Model: Norway

- Focuses on restorative justice, or
rehabilitation
- Ex: Halden Prison, a 75-acre facility
which aims to maintain normalcy;
hence fully equipped homes and
friendships between guards and
inmates
- Judges can only sentence criminals to a
maximum of 21 years, though five year
increments can be added if the system
determines the prisoner has not been
rehabilitated
- Anders Breivik, who killed 77 people
in a mass shooting, only received 21
years
- Incarceration rate of 75 per 100 000
people compared to 707 in the US
- One of the lowest recidivism rates in the
world at 20%

RAPE SHIELD LAWS

- Limit ability to introduce evidence; also
prohibit the publication of the identity
of an alleged rape victim
- Based on the premise that a victim’s
consent to intercourse with one man
does not imply consent with another
- Nonetheless, in some states the
following factors can be considered as
relevant evidence if decided by the
court
- Sweetheart Defense: Past behavior/
sexual history if it relates to conduct
with the defendant
- Victim’s manner of dress
- Reasonable belief of the accused that
the victim consented

Culture
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Defining Culture
- Way of life, especially the general
customs and beliefs, of a particular
group of people at a particular time
- In a general sense, the ability to
represent experiences with symbols and
to act imaginatively and creatively
The Purposes of Culture
- Provides humans with the feeling of
being individuals of value
- Provides a sense of identity and
belongingness
- Reference point for common
experiences, e.g. language
- Provides a practical purpose depending
on the cultural artifact
- Artifacts rarely made purely for
cultural identity, but also have an
intrinsic purpose, e.g. houses or old
commercial buildings as heritage sites
Characteristics of Culture
- Learned
- Shared
- Based on symbols
- Integrated
- Dynamics
CULTURAL IDENTITY FRAMEWORKS
General Concepts
- Identity/feeling of belonging to a group
- Related to nationality, ethnicity, religion,
etc; hence both characteristic of the
individual and of the group
- Overlaps with identity politics
- Criticism: Cultural identity, being based
upon differences, is a divisive force in
society
24
Cosmopolitanism
- The ideology that all human beings
belong in a single community
- Identity transcends borders, as humans
are interdependent and thus one
- Made possible by shifts in
demographics, i.e. diasporas, and
emergence of globalization
- Criticisms
- Impossible Project: Cannot unite
differences and equality
- Elitist Social Representations:
Disguised attempt at Americanism or
of serving transnational capital
Post - Colonialism
- Analyzes the cultural legacies left
behind by colonialism and
neocolonialism
- Neocolonialism: Using business and
culture to influence a country, instead
of military or politics
- Establishes spaces for non-Westerns
whose native cultures were often
suppressed by Western value systems
Orientalism
- Traditionally refers to depiction of
aspects in Eastern cultures
- But has also been used to refer to a
patronizing Western attitude towards
Eastern cultures
- Analysis of the East being static and
undeveloped, hence the West being
better
- Focuses on boundaries/differences
between the East and the West,
hence reinforcing an Us vs Other
mentality
- Ex: In the 1990s, Arabs being
portrayed as villains in movies
influencing stereotypes
 25
Hybridity - But Redskins refers to act of killing
- Dissolution of rigid cultural boundaries, Native Americans and scalping their
hence the intermixture of different heads or genitalia (hence red skin) to
identities prove their kill
- Hence, dissolution of identities - Hence, violent oppression is
themselves trivialized and swept under the rug
- Creates complex identities and - Example 2: Businesses Based on Native
interrelated, if not overlapping, cultural American Spirituality
spaces - New Age industry flooded with white
- Ex: Different dialects merging into a female entrepreneurs
national language, sometimes - But Native American women, form
leading to the dialects losing their whose culture most of such practices
uniqueness and identity, hence being come from, often live in poverty due
used less to federal control/mismanagement of
their land and resources
Cultural Colonialism
- Creation and maintenance of unequal Case Study 2: African Americans
relationships favoring more powerful - Example 1: Yelp reviews in search of
countries, form the lens of culture authentic Mexican restaurants not in
- Closely related to the process of sketchy neighborhoods, which
neocolonialism corresponds to communities with higher
people of color
CULTURAL APPROPRIATION - Hence, cultural appropriation allows
Definition appreciation of culture while
- In general, the adoption or use of the remaining prejudiced against people
elements of one culture by another - Example 2: Professionalism standards
culture bar black women from having cornrows
or dreadlocks, which are natural ways to
Members of a dominant keep hair, but media hypes Kylie
culture take elements Jenner’s dreadlocks and cornrows
Cultural from a culture of people - Example 3: Rock and Roll
Appropriation systematically
oppressed by the - Largely shaped by black artists as a
dominant group derivative of blues music
Marginalized adopt - Media has rewritten history and
Assimilation dominant culture to regarded Elvis as inventing rock,
improve conditions hence whitewashing blues music
Equal exchange, no
Hybridity and 

Cultural Exchange
power dynamic Case Study 3: Asians
between cultures
- Example 1: Katy Perry performing as a
geish in 2013 American Music awards,
Case Study 1: Native Americans but in doing so played to stereotypes of
- Example 1: Washington Redskins Asian women being sexually submissive
- NFL team, have been using the term and passive
to “honor Indians” and for “tradition”

Does the Backlash Go Too Far?
- Argument that it encourages cultural
segregation, as people cannot engage
in other cultures without causing
offense (hence, “cultural purity”)
- Can also lead to cultures being stagnant
and isolated
- Example 1: University of Ottawa, where
students sought to ban yoga for cultural
misappropriation
- Once banned in India as part of the
racist and orientalized narrative that
stereotypes Indians as heathens
LANGUAGE
General Concepts
- Verbal expression of culture and values
- Also provides categories for expressing
and structuring thoughts; hence, culture
and thought influence language and
vice versa
- Ex: Only one English word for snow,
while Eskimos have many, reflecting
how Eskimos perceive snow in more
ways than an English person
Case Study 1: Filipino
- Created with Tagalog as basis, due to
its wide reach, lack of daughter
languages, rich literary tradition and use
in Manila
- Referred to as “formalized Tagalog”
- Does not use grammatical elements
or lexicon from other major Filipino
languages, contrary to the intention
of the national language being
enriched by other Philippine
languages i.e. Bisaya, Bicol,
Hiligaynon
- Chosen by a National Language
Institute, and officially declared the
national language by law
- Current role of NLI: Official regulating
body of Filipino, but task often falls to
universities instead
26
Case Study 2: Bengali
- Bengali Language Movement: Political
movement in East Bengal, now
Bangladesh, advocating Bengali as an
official language in Pakistan
- Context: East Bengal province in
Pakistan had a mainly Bengali
population; Pakistan ordained Urdu as
sole national language
- Led to protests and rallies climaxing in
death of activists in Feb 21 1952
- Forerunner to Bengali nationalist
movements, culminating in formation of
Bangladesh
- However, also led to cultural animosity
between the two wings of Pakistan
Language Policy
- Historically used to promote one official
language at the expense of others,
though many countries now also have
policies to promote regional languages
- Determines how languages can be
used, cultivates language skills needed
to meet national priorities and
establishes the rights of individuals to
use and maintain languages
- Ex: Setting a mode of instruction in
classrooms, appointing languages
that can be used for government
documents, funding efforts to
preserve languages, etc.
Language Death
- Occurs when a language lost its last
native speaker
- Commonly occurs when a community
becomes bilingual and gradually shifts
allegiance to the second language
- Often a product of assimiliation and/
or government efforts
- But languages can also be revitalized
- Ex: Revival of Hebrew in Israel after it
became only a liturgical language

MUSEUMS AND HERITAGE SITES
Museums
- Traditionally evolved from royal
collections, e.g. the Louvre
- Often placed in national capitals to
reinforce national image as champions
of culture, e.g. the Smithsonian
- Across Europe and North America,
museum attendance averages no more
than 22% of the population
- Skewed towards those with higher
income and education
Museums and Colonisation
- Often used to promote national
identification and symbolize national
might
- Museums in Britain and France
represented excavations/raids on
treasures of ancient Greece, Assyria and
Egypt, or treasures that were sold in the
aftermath of tragic events
- Example 1: Elgin Marbles,
questionably removed from Athens
and sold to the British museum
- Example 2: Purchase of Rembrandt
painting from the Dutch after prices
depreciated due to World War II
Sponsorships
- Note: See Art and Funding under Art
- Almost $700 million given by
corporations for culture and the arts
- Earliest funders: tobacco and oil
- General trend of corporate sources
favoring “blockbuster” exhibitions, such
as Treasures of Tutankhamen that aim at
broad appeal and middle class tastes
- Often also sponsored by governments
to cultivate a particular image
- Example 1: Marcos museums in Ilocos
Norte depicting the life of Marcos
- Example 2: International exhibits to
improve image and as a form of
cultural diplomacy
27
Conservation of Heritage Sites
- A form of ethical stewardship
- Involves protection and restoration
using any methods to keep a cultural
property as close to its original
condition as possible
- In general, three guidelines
- Minimal intervention
- Full documentation
- Appropriate materials and reversible
methods, to reduce problems with
future treatment
Paradigms on Conservation
- Historic Preservation: Preservation and
protection of historically significant
properties
- Demolition: Tearing down of buildings
and other structures; usually made to
make way for new buildings or as a
result of crises
- Example 1: Buddhas of Bamiyan, an
Afghan site destroyed by the Taliban
- Example 2: Admiral Hotel in Manila,
demolished to be redeveloped into a
new hotel
- Adaptive Reuse: Process of reusing an
old building for a purpose other than
which it was made for
- Hence compromise between
preservation and demolition
- Example: Massachusetts Museum of
Contemporary Art, adapted from old
factories
World Heritage Sites
- Designated by UNESCO as having
outstanding cultural or natural
importance to the common heritage of
humanity
- Sites remain legal property of the
countries where they belong, though
UNESCO considers it in the interest of
the international community to preserve
each site

- Legally protected in times of war
pursuant to the Geneva Convention and
other protocols
- Can be placed in a List of World
Heritage Sites in Danger, with the
possibility of being delisted
- Cultural Criteria
- Masterpiece of human creative genius
and cultural significance
- Exhibits an important interchange of
human values
- Unique or exceptional testimony to a
cultural tradition or to a civilization
- Outstanding example of a type of
ensemble or landscape which
illustrates a significant stage in history
- Directly associated with events or
living traditions, with ideas, with
beliefs, or with works of outstanding
universal significance
TOURISM
Classic Community Tourism Cycle
- Communities build/renovate small
houses and hotels for tourism, earning
revenue for locals
- Land values increase; infrastructure is
developed, but outsiders begin
establishing their own operations at a
larger scale than locals
- Construction begins at faster rates,
planning regulations are ignored, and
building proceeds haphazardly.
Environment starts to degrade but
locals benefit as employees
- Most owners are from outside the
community; money starts to flow out.
Large constructions implemented
without observing regulations.
International tourism means profits stay
in countries of origin; tourists contribute
small amounts of money by buying
souvenirs. Water supplies and
environment become endangered.
Local resentment against tourists begins
28
- Degradation of environment also leads
to decrease in tourism. Control has now
been taken over by outside developers,
who may choose to move elsewhere.
Cost of living may have also increased,
making life more difficult for locals.
Case Study 1: Cordillera Rice Terraces
- Preserved Ifugao culture without
influence of colonial cultures
- Named a World Heritage Site in 1995
- Placed in the List of Sites in Danger due
to deforestation, unregulated
development, weak management and
lack of focus in tourism
- Removed from list after proper reform
Case Study 2: Vigan
- Used Heritage Site status to attract
tourism and generate revenue
- Went from being a second class
municipality to being a city due to
revenue
Case Study 3: Boracay
- Breached 1.9 million in 2015
- Originally home to the Ati tribe;
increasing commercial development led
to their dispersement
- Awarded 2.1 hectares of ancestral
land but still gunned down
Case Study 4: Rhinos in Nepal
- Tourists viewing rhinos caused stress to
the rhinos, changing their behaviour
- Tourists going beyond a minimum
distance made rhinos abandon good
posters and take shelter in less
nourishing vegetation
- May end up influencing genetic
makeup, favoring rhinos with timid
personalities

POPULAR CULTURE
Awards
- Case Study 1: Oscars
- Voted upon by Academy of Motion
Pictures Arts and Sciences, composed
of members of the movie industry
- 94% of voters are Caucasian; 77% are
men and 86% are over 50
- Only one female has won Best
Director in history: Kathryn Bigelow
for The Hurt Locker
- Only one African American has won
Best Actress: Halle Berry
- Only 31 black Academy Award
winners in history
- Film companies often spend several
million dollars on marketing to
campaign for movies among the
voters, though the Academy enforces
regulations
- Ex: Hurt Locker producer
disqualified due to excessive
campaigning among associates
- Criticisms of favoring “Oscar bait”
over audience favorites; 47% of all
winners for Best Picture are dramas
- Case Study 2: Metro Manila Filmfest
- Film festival in which foreign films are
not allowed to be shown
- Entries included classics such as Jose
Rizal, Himala, and Muro Ami
- Jurors include masses, e.g. students,
teachers, drivers, etc.
- From 2006 to 2010, used commercial
viability as a criterion in awarding
Best Picture
- Yet in 1986, did not award Best
Picture due to concerns that the
films were being commercialized
Bechdel Test
- A movie passes the test if two or more
named female characters talk to each
other about something other than a
man
29
- Only half of all films pass the test
- But films that passed the test earned
$4.2 billion in the US, while those that
failed only earned $2.66 billion
- Incorporated by the European cinema
fund Eurimages and a Scandinavian
cable television channel into their
ratings
- Criticism: Does not actually filter sexist
content, and may not consider context
Gender and Race in Hollywood
- Of 100 most commercially successful
movies in 2012, only 1/6 of the writers
were women
- Relative to their actual numbers in the
US population, minorities are
underrepresented by 3 to 1 in leading
roles; women, by 2 to 1
- General hesitation to fund movies with
minority leads due to fear of not doing
well overseas; however, 12 Years A
Slave had 70% of its sales from overseas
countries
- More diverse casts tend to be more
profitable: for TV shows, casts featuring
41-50% nonwhite characters had
highest ratings, and for movies, those
with 21-30% had most revenue
- 51% of moviegoers are people of color
- General trend of roles written for/
requiring minority members going to
whites and/or males
- Example 1: Eddie Redmayne playing
a transsexual in the Danish Girl,
inspiring controversy due to the
underrepresentation and lack of
opportunities for transsexual actors in
Hollywood. However, Redmayne
garnered wide critical acclaim for his
performance
- Example 2: Casting in The Last
Airbender movie, where Caucasians
were given roles on the Asian and
Inuit-influenced Avatar universe

Gender and Race in Comic Books
- Nearly half of all comic book readers are
female
- However, only about 10% of creators
and 30% of characters in DC and Marvel
are women
- Example : Gail Simone, writer of Bat
Girl and Wonder Woman
- Historically, trend of minorities and
women being represented using
stereotypes
- Example 1: Wonder Woman as the
only female superhero to have a
regular title, the rest being derivatives
of male heroes e.g. Spider-Woman
- Example 2: Ebony White, sidekick of
The Spirit, who with pronounced lips
and a thick accent reinforced
stereotypes
- Example 3: Cover of Spider-Woman
which depicted her in an unrealistic
sexually provoking pose
- Nonetheless, trend of race/gender
swapping established superheroes,
often against the wishes of long-time
readers
- Example 1: Female Thor
- Example 2: African - American
Captain America
- However, swapping superheroes is not a
new trend; in fact, repeatedly replacing
the identities of heroes is a common
practice
- Example 1: The Flash, of which there
has been at least four incarnations
- Example 2: Robin, who was killed off
in 1988 due to reader votes in a poll
Gender and Race in Video Games
- Trend of more games featuring female
leads, e.g. Tomb Raider, Mirror’s Edge
- Assassin’s Creed Unity did not have a
female lead due to technical difficulty,
sparking controversy, although the
next game featured one
30
- In a sample of 81 teen rated games,
women were likely to be sexualized,
i.e. exposed cleavage and breasts
- Characters are predominantly white
males; enemies often depicted as
foreigners or savages
- Example: Resident Evil 5, whose
trailer depicted a white man
shooting black enemies in an
African village; however, the game
had an anti-colonial theme and
featured a black female co-lead
- Gamergate: Controversy that erupted
after a game journalist wrote a
scathing blog post about his game
developer ex-girlfriend, raising
accusations that her having a
relationship in exchange for positive
coverage
- Caused discussion on misogyny
within gaming culture, as she was
threatened with rape and violence
- Raised discussions on changes of
the gamer identity given increasing
number of females playing games
Violence in Video Games
- Columbine Massacre (1999): Perpetrator
named his gun Arlene, after a character
from the game Doom
- American Psychological Association
released a study findings links between
video games and aggression
- However, findings were criticized by
over 200 academics in an open letter
arguing public pressure to make the
said conclusion and methodology
flaws
- Example 1: Hatred, which was
controversial due to violent content and
a serial killer being its protagonist
- Example 2: Call of Duty series, which is
violent but has earned praise for a
realistic portrayal of the horrors of war
even including PTSD

Historical Depictions in Pop Culture
- Trend of movies, often commercially
and critically successful, being based
from historical events
- 1977 Study: Even if people know that
the truth, knowledge can be distorted
by stories that contain lies or are
factually wrong
- Can also be used to propagandize
and/or frame filmmakers’ view of
events as the truth
- Why? Can often be difficult to
separate sources of information,
hence also difficult to separate fiction
from reality
Case Study 1: Schindler’s List
- About businessman Oskar Schindler
who saved thousands of Jews during
the Holocaust by employing them in a
factory
- Praised for accuracy in portraying the
Holocaust
- Historian Annette Insdorf: Related
how her mother, a Holocaust survivor,
felt gratitude that the Holocaust story
was being told in a major film
- General support from the Jewish
community
- However, also faced criticism
- Lack of exploring some themes such
as the link between violence and
sexuality
- Critics pointed out that the film’s
dichotomy between good and evil
glosses over the fact that the majority
of Holocaust perpetrators were
ordinary people
- Accusations of exploiting Schindler’s
story for commercial purpose, given
his wife in Argentina still suffering
poverty
- However, it was proven that
Spielberg, director of the film, did
in fact financially support her
31
Case Study 2: Zero Dark Thirty
- Dramatized the hunt for Osama Bin
Laden after 9/11
- Former Assistant Secretary for Defense
declared that the film was inaccurate
- Overstating the role of torture
- Understating the role of the Obama
administration
- Portraying efforts as one agent
against the CIA system
Case Study 3: Argo
- American thriller film on the escape of
American hostages during the Iranian
hostage crisis
- Criticized for the following inaccuracies
- Minimizing the role of the Canadian
embassy in the rescue
- Making it appear as if the embassies
of Britain and New Zealand turned
the hostages away, when they in fact
played a significant role in the rescue
- Portrayal of the Iranians being based
on stereotypes, when many cabinet
members objected to the taking of
hostages in the first place
Case Study 4: Kingdom of Heaven
- Depicted the Crusades, particularly the
takeover of Jerusalem by Saladin
- Criticized for a portrayal of the events
seemingly favoring the Arab
perspective, as Christian leaders were
depicted to be incompetent and
fanatical
- One journalist reported that filmgoers
in Beirut stood in applause after a
scene where Saladdin returns a fallen
cross to a table
Case Study 5: Movies as Propaganda
- Birth of a Nation, which portrayed the
actions of the Ku Klux Klan against
blacks as justified

Development
NEO - LIBERALISM
General Concepts
- Advocates extensive economic
liberalisation and therefore a minimal
role for state intervention
- Supported by the IMF and the World
Bank
- Five main points:
- Total freedom for the movement of
capital and goods for trickle down
economics
- Cutting public expenditures for social
services
- Deregulation
- Privatization of utilities and services
for greater efficiency
- Prioritizing individual responsibility
over the public or community good
Assumptions/Implications
- A perfect market
- Trickle down economics as a driver of
growth
- The rule of law, to prevent abuses by
the state or a tyranny of the majority
- State failure or ineffectiveness in
regulating or providing services due to
bureaucracy, lack of incentives,
corruption, etc.
- Competition being valuable in
improving efficiency and innovation
Implications
- Less focus on externalities, i.e.
consequences of policies to the
environment, to vulnerable sectors, etc.
- Less focus on providing welfare, as
more emphasis is given on trickle down
economics and the need for individual
responsibility
- Assumes equal access to opportunities
- May lead to corporatism
- No support for infant industries
32
Case Study 1: Chile
- Privatized by selling many state owned
companies; government role mainly
limited to regulation
- Export of raw materials such as copper
and other natural resources led to an
export boom, with income increasing as
much as 88%
- Mines allowed to operate tax-free
- However, copper industry in Chile
largely handled by a government
corporation
- Foreign direct investment treated the
same as Chilean investments
- Welfare also privatized; pensions
managed by private companies
- Signed free trade agreements, including
TPP, and lowered tariffs across the
board
- As a result, leads Latin American nations
in competitiveness, income per capita,
and low perception of corruption
- Why? Strong foreign trade and
foreign investments
- But suffers from high inequality, e.g.
wages not increasing along with
economic gains, and efforts to break
down unions
Case Study 2: Mexico
- Received a loan from IMF conditional
on structural reforms including
privatization and liberalization
- Implementation saw wages fall by 40%
to 50% while per capita income fell by
5%; public services fell and crime
increased
- Banks taken over by foreign investors,
lending to businesses dropped from
10% of GDP to 0.3%
- Led to US capital dominating Mexican
export economy
- Jobs lost as they were outsourced
- Private monopolies increased prices
of commodities as high as 738%

STATE SIDE ECONOMICS
General Concepts
- No theory directly opposite
neoliberalism, although many opposed
to particular aspects
- In general, advocate for greater state
intervention and protectionism
- May manifest as:
- Restricted freedom of capital/goods
- Public expenditures for social services
- Regulation
- Nationalisation
Assumptions
- Possibility of an imperfect market/
market failure
- Unequal power relations between states
within an economic relationship
- The need for an equitable distribution
of wealth
- The need for a check against
corporatism
Implications
- Focus on externalities
- Focus on the public good
- Support for infant industries through
protectionism and subsidies
- Decreased competition, which possibly
leads to less quality and innovation
- Protectionism might invite retaliation
from countries
- Risk of rent seeking, i.e. corruption
Case Study 1: East Asia
- Japan, Korea and Taiwan maintained
trade barriers such as tariffs and bans on
imports during periods of rapid growth
- Promoted exports by granting
subsidies, credits, etc. to exporters
- Targeted support for infant industries
likely to succeed, typically by
supporting large-scale enterprises and
granting them temporary monopolies
33
- However, Korea had to write off
billions of loans by bankrupt
companies; conversely, Japan refused
to fund Honda
Case Study 2: Latin America
- Pursued protectionist policies, led by
import substitution industrialisation (ISI)
- ISI: Replacing foreign imports with
domestic production
- Borrowed money to fund infrastructure
and other services
- However, loans ceased due to an
inability to pay given contractions in
world trade
- Heavily affected Latin America
because its greatest exports were raw
materials/primary resources
- Had to agree to structural reforms by
IMF which led to austerity measures and
free market capitalism
- IMF measures increased poverty,
worsened social costs and slowed the
growth rate
THEORIES ON MODERNIZATION
Modernization Theory
- Theory suggests that modernization
occurs as a result of technology and the
adoption of Western practices
Dependency Theory
- Maintains that underdevelopment
occurs not because of a failure to adopt
processes but because “core” countries
develop by exploiting “periphery”
countries in the international system
- Occurs through colonialism,
imperialism and unfair terms of trade
- More traditional countries lose out
because developed countries exploit
their raw materials, natural resources
and labor

Neomarxism
- Focuses on how capitalism concentrates
power on the hands of the elite
- Theory suggests that while business
earn, they decrease costs especially
wages to maximize profit
- Hence causes a contradiction in that
the poor becomes less capable of
participating in the economy,
eventually harming businesses
- While individual incentives are rational,
structure/system as a whole is not
Institutionalism
- Focuses on the role of institutions, or
rules/laws, in development
- Extractive institutions favor the elite by
removing incentives for innovation,
keeping the status quo and
consolidating political power
- Inclusive institutions, guided by the rule
of law, allow the population to innovate,
have their private and property rights
protected, and participate politically
Case Study 1: Korea
- Homogenous by the end of World War
II; in fact, North was slightly more
industrialized
- South Korea had a market economy
with property rights, and channeled
subsidies and credit to firms
- Succeeded due to policies
encouraging investment and
industrialization
- North Korea had a command economy
outlawing private property
- Hence stifled innovation and
concentrated economic and political
power to a few
34
PRIVATIZATION
Case Study 1: UK
- Before privatization, state industries
were poorly managed because of
political considerations interfering with
business decisions
- Ex: British Gas acceded to public
pressure and artificially held prices
down, leading to gas shortages amid
more people switching to gas from
coal. Government was not able to
indefinitely sustain such changes
- Privatized core services in the wake of a
recession in the early 1980’s
- 1979: Losses by state industries at
about 3 billion a year
- 1990: Privatized companies fattened
government purse by 2 billion
- Sales of industries generated 34 billion
- General increase in efficiency for
industries that get privatised; for
example, British Gas increased
productivity by 20%
- However, tends to create private
monopolies especially in the case of
utilities such as water and electricity
- Can often also lead to worse services at
higher costs
- Fares on privatized buses in the UK
are the highest in Europe
- Hospitals run for profit often suffer
from inadequate hygiene standards
and patient neglect
- Studies also show that privatised
companies tend to lay off qualified
personnel and replacing them with zero
hour contract employees
- Quality suffers because cutting costs
means more crammed schedules
despite lower pay

DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES
Entitlements Approach
- Deals with entitlements, which are all
the goods and services one can legally
acquire through his assets/resources
- Assets and resources become useful
when converted through transactions
- Also deals with questions of whether
people have access to resources and/or
the means to convert them into
entitlements
- Example: Famines
- Food output actually increased during
famines in Bengal, Ethiopia and
Bangladesh
- However, famine occurred because
wages were tied to the agricultural
sector, which collapsed, leading to
the economy failing
Capabilities Approach
- Focuses on the freedom to achieve
well-being
- Poverty is the deprivation of
capabilities, or the option to achieve
outcomes that they value
- Hence does not focus on GDP, but in
other indices such as GDI, etc.
Social Exclusion
- Focuses on how individuals or groups
are systematically blocked from rights,
opportunities and resources normally
available to members of a different
group
- May be passive or active
- Example: PWDs/Differently-Abled
- In general, excluded by employers
from employment opportunities
- Face lack of access in terms of
infrastructure, i.e. ramps
- Exclusion perpetuates because PWDs
cannot improve their skills and
resumes, compounding problems
35
Social Risk Management
- Extends the traditional framework of
social protection to include prevention,
mitigation and coping strategies
- Focuses on the poor, who are most
vulnerable to risks, so that they can
invest in riskier but higher-return
activities as a way out of poverty
- Example: Financially Poor
- Often suffer sudden decreases in
income, e.g. deaths or illnesses
- Often cannot access safety nets such
as bank loans or welfare benefits
- Hence, cope by borrowing from loan
sharks, which have exploitative rates
Sustainable Livelihoods
- Integrates the different approaches in
the context of capital
- Five forms of capital:
- Human Capital (skills and knowledge)
- Natural Capital (environment)
- Social Capital (social inclusion)
- Financial Capital (income)
- Physical Capital (infrastructure)
DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS
Development Aid: Facts and Figures
- Rooted in the context of post-World
War II and the Cold War
- Marshall Plan: Reconstruction
financed by the West to contain the
influence of the USSR
- Top Donors: EU ($ 86.66 billion), US 

($ 31.55 billion), UK ($ 7.88 billion)
- Top Donor by percentage of GNI:
Norway (1.07%)
- Top Aid Recipients: Afghanistan 

($ 6.725 billion), Israel ($ 6.18 billion),
Vietnam ($ 4.115 billion)
- Increasing aid for Asia and middle
income countries, which often have
large populations in extreme poverty,
i.e. Brazil, India, Mexico, Pakistan, China

- Aid in middle income countries often in
the form of soft loans, which are loans
with terms favorable to the borrower
- In contrast, decreasing aid for low
income countries particularly in Africa
When Ineffective (Examples)
- In general, can increase corruption,
postpone reforms or lead to the Dutch
Disease
- Dutch Disease: Influx of money
strengthens currencies, which makes
exports more expensive and imports
cheaper
- Example 1: Aid as Political Support
- West funded dictator Mobuto Sese
Soko, but stopped after Cold War
ended; At the time of death,
Mobutu’s personal fortune was
enough to pay off the entire debt of
Zaire
- Example 2: Aid and Corruption
- Money obtained can be badly spent
- World Bank funded oil production
project but funds were diverted to the
military, which was notorious for
abuse and was not even able to
defend the population during the
Darfur conflict
- Example 3: Tied or Conditional Aid
- May reduce the value of aid by as
much as 30%, as recipients often
forced to procure from donors or
spend more to meet target criteria
- In Uganda, only 18% of the contract
value of World Bank projects went to
local firms; moreover, UK suspended
aid for not democratizing sufficiently
despite consistent economic growth
- Example 4: Misused Aid
- Aid may not be sensitive or targetive
of needs, hence being used for other
purposes
- Mosquito nets in Africa being sold as
fishing nets instead
36
- Donations of used clothing led to
decline of apparel industry
employment
When Effective (Examples)
- Example 1: CARE, an Australian aid
organization, since 1987 has assisted 10
million children to go to school,
improved the health of 35 million and
assisted 11 million get clean water
- Example 2: 51% drop in malaria deaths
of children after UN instituted the mass
free distribution of bed nets
- Example 3: Aid and Economic Growth
- Aid made up between 25 to 75% of
government budgets of Korea and
Malaysia in the late 60’s and 70’s
- Example 4: Tied or Conditional Aid
- Millennium Challenge Corporation
(MCC) dispenses with aid on merit;
screen countries based on 20 criteria
and must not be too corrupt
- Incentives encourage governments to
reform
- Initial $ 15m given by MCC allowed
Liberia to improve quickly, helping
more than 2,700 girls with their
education thus far
Humanitarian Aid
- May prolong conflict if not protected
- Nigeria Biafra war (1960): Rebel
leader Odumegwu Ojukwu stole aid
to feed soldiers
- Often carried out by crime syndicates/
rogue groups
- 1995 Kobe earthquake: Yakuza
mobilized distribution of relief goods
while Japanese government was still
coordinating actions
- Hamas spends 90 percent of its
annual $ 70m budget on charitable
projects and building infrastructure

Aid Workers
- Susceptible to rape/violence
- Kayla Mueller: Aid worker captured
by ISIS. Was raped and tortured
before dying
- Megan Nobert: Raped by a fellow aid
worker in South Sudan
- But also responsible for rape, violence
and other problems
- Haiti: 229 women found to have
engaged in transactional sex with
peacekeepers for food
- Haiti: Cholera outbreak that left 9,544
dead due to UN peacekeepers from
Nepal dumping waste on a river from
which locals drew drinking water
NGOs/Charities
- Account for as much as 30% of all
development aid
- Often focus on one key aspect of an
overarching problem in society; hence
more likely to have a bottom up or
grassroots approach
- Criticized for exaggerating or
misrepresenting nature of problems
they seek to deal with
- Niger: NGOs portrayed food security
problems as acute and urgent when it
was a product of rises in food prices
and other factors
- KONY 2012: Praised for mobilising
support for hunting down Joseph
Kony but criticized for supporting
Ugandan military intervention when
Kony was in fact in the C.A.R; was
also jeered in Uganda for neglecting
the conflict’s victims and being “more
about whites than Ugandans”
- Also criticized for inefficient use of
resources
- American Red Cross distributed
donated money to New Yorkers after
9/11, sometimes did so even to those
belonging to rich neighbourhoods
37
Case Study 1: Red Cross Response to
Hurricane Sandy
- Served 17 million meals, provided
millions of supplies and housed tens of
thousands of people in shelters
- But internal documents reveal the
following problems
- Assets diverted for public relations;
40% of trucks used as backdrop for
press conferences
- Produced 200, 000 additional meals
one day to drive up numbers, but
most went to waste
- One area for sex offenders, but they
were not there and were in fact
playing with children
Case Study 2: Faith - Based
Organizations
- May be part of a central tenet of
religion, such as tithing for Christians or
zakat for Muslims
- US: Gifts to religious causes reached
$88.3 billion in 2013
- Often have better networks in poorer
communities
- Can be instruments for social change
- Liberation theology in Latin America,
rooted in Christianity and led to
changes by mobilising communities
- But can also be coercive and
exclusionary
- Iraq: Christian organisations use aid
to proselytize Yazidi refugees,
promising better chances for US visas
- Has also helped fuel violence
against Christians in Iraq
Microfinance
- Financial services to poor people,
mostly women, who often lack access to
banking
- Does not require collateral, often repaid
within six months to a year

- Can be group-based, where nobody in
the group will be allowed to borrow
unless everybody has paid off loans
- Often linked to harms to the
community, including suicide
- Andhra Paresh: 80 suicides due to
defaulting payments
- Average debt of $660 and average
income of $1060; hence, 60% of
income is spent paying off loans
- Pressure comes from debt trap of
securing loans to pay off other
loans combined with public
pressure because of group-based
co-guaranteeing
- Often at high interest rates; global
average is 37% but can be high as 70%
- More than 1/3 of borrowers in Ghana
struggled to repay; often resorted to
reducing food or taking children out
of school
- Why? High transactional costs, such
as borrowers being unable to pay and
overhead costs for staff and/or offices
- Women comprise 75% of all microcredit
transactions worldwide
- Why? Have higher repayment rates
and tend to accept lower loan rates
than men
- Sri Lanka: Return on capital for men is
11%, 0% or negative for women
- However, no evidence of empowering
women although goal is to give
women financial inclusion
- Bangladesh
- Women act as mere collection
agents for bigger loans and lose
control
- Increased dowries and microcredit
used to pay them off
- In some cases, suffered domestic
violence for not securing loans
- Often use loans for traditional
women’s work like livestock
38
Conditional Cash Transfers
- Often aim to reduce poverty by making
money contingent on criteria such as
enrolling children in public schools or
receiving vaccinations
- On average, only cost 0.5% of GDP;
80% of benefits goes to 40% of the
poorest families
- Survey on Bolsa Familia (Brazil) suggests
money is spent, in order, on food,
school supplies, clothing and shoes
- Generally regarded as effective
- Bangladesh, Pakistan, Turkey: Closed
gender gap in school enrolment rates
- Contributed to reduction of poverty
in Brazil, which fell 27.7% during the
Lula administration, as well as a 20%
decrease in inequality
- However, conditionality can exclude
people from communities with no
access to clinics or schools, as they are
unable to fulfill conditions
Universal Basic Income
- Guaranteed and unconditional sum of
money given to all citizens or residents
- Different from welfare because it does
not have any requirements, and is in
money
- Often seen as an alternative to welfare
programs, which yield marginal gains
despite spending $20 trillion since 1964
- May exist in the form of a basic income
guaranteed to all, or a negative income
tax where only people paying income
taxes are included, or a wage subsidy
- To be implemented in Finland as an
experiment given economic downtorun,
increasing the need for public spending
- But also expensive; would cost nearly
$4.4 trillion in the US, or four times the
current welfare expenditure
- Alaska’s Permanent Fund, a universal
basic income, makes contributions
larger than allocated budget

OTHER DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
Gentrification
- Trend in urban neighbourhoods that
result in increase in property values due
to increased interest in an environment
- Tends to grow in phases, often
beginning from influx of people in the
creative class e.g. artists and bohemians
- Criticized for leading to the
displacement of original residents which
tend to come from marginalized groups
- Consequence of higher property
values
- Studies show that residents of
intensely gentrified groups are more
likely to move out but only by 4%
- Tends to divide cities into advantaged
and disadvantaged groups
- Residents of gentrified
neighborhoods have 11% higher
credit scores than non-residents,
mostly because already more affluent
to begin with
- 2000 to 2013: Income increased by
42% in residents, decreased by 20%
in non-residents
- People who move out of gentrified
neighborhoods become vulnerable
- 21% moved to a poorer area
- Credit scores declined by 15%
Indigenous Land Rights
- Ancestral Domain: gives land rights to
indigenous people based on ancestry
- The term “domain” indicates a
relationship that is not only material
but also spiritual and cultural aspects
- Created in response to trend of
indigenous peoples being displaced
only to become laborers, due to
inability to access legal means for
acquiring ownership of property
- Gives right to control land and mineral
resources
39
Case Study 1: Canada
- First Nations: 634 recognized
indigenous peoples of Canada
- Living conditions more comparable to
those in developing nations due to
structural and historical issue, such as
apathy by the federal government
- Court ruling recognized indigenous land
rights, affecting all land in Canada that
is “unceded”, or not subject of treaty or
war
- Led to eviction of railway companies
and a lawsuit against a tar sands
pipeline + energy plants
- Totem pole erected over a land that
copper and gold miner Taseko has
been attempting to establish
- Government response was a
Comprehensive Land Claims policy that
demands First Nations trade away their
claims to 95% of the land, in return for
some money and piece of land but as
private instead of collective property
- Also requires First Nations to prove
claims, making them amass $700 m in
debt
Case Study 2: Australia
- Grant of land rights followed political
mobilization of Aborigines
- Often urbanized, but 22% live in
reserves located on old church missions
- Title given to communities, with some
restrictions particularly on selling
- In the last decade, 200 claims covering
18% of the continent have been
approved

Economics
FISCAL POLICIES
Fiscal Policy in General
- Use of government spending and
taxation to influence the economy
- In general, legislated
- Main Stances
- Contractionary: Spending is lower
than tax revenue to pay down
government debt
- Expansionary: Spending is higher
than tax revenue to increase demand
and stimulate the economy
- Neutral: Spending is equal to tax
revenue
Austerity
- Higher taxes but lower spending
- Could lead to lower or negative
aggregate demand, and hence growth
- But reduction in demand can also
stabilize prices when inflation is too
high
- Why lessen deficits?
- When economy operates near
capacity, and when government
spends more because they borrow
from the private sector, the latter has
less to spend and invest, reducing
growth
- Generally also leads to lesser jobs in the
public and/or private sector, while tax
increases also reduce spending and
consumption
- When Effective: Canada
- Canadians responded to inflation by
indexed wage contracts and investing
in housing, increasing borrowing and
debt
- Large budget deficits meant high
public debt, hence making investors
nervous about holding Canadian
government bonds, hence increasing
interest
40
- Responded to a mid - 1990s
recession by cutting deficits and
slowing down public sector debt,
hence eliminating risk premiums in
debt interest rates
- When Ineffective: Europe
- Great Depression: Germany did not
increase spending, because they
were afraid that a high spending
policy would lead to hyper inflation;
unemployment reached 30% and
radicalism rose, leading to Nazism
- UK: Slashed budgets of departments
by up to 30% in 2010 to cut budget
deficit; but deficit remains high and
UK was in a double dip recession
Stimulus Spending
- Higher spending, potentially leading to
higher government deficit
- Could lead to higher aggregate
demand
- But can also lead to inflation because
of higher demand
- Why spend despite deficits?
- In recession, offsets rise in private
sector saving and injects money into
flow
- When Effective: American Recovery
and Reinvestment Act
- Saved and created 2.5 million, helped
economy grow by 3.8% and kept
unemployment from reaching 12%
- Protected most vulnerable: increased
spending on welfare, rent subsidies
and emergency housing
- Jump started industries and
infrastructure: Extended broadband
to rural communities, revived clean
energy projects
- When Ineffective: Japan
- Economic stimulus has led to deficit
spending since 1991
- Little effect on the economy though
debt is now at 240% of its GDP

MONETARY POLICIES
Monetary Policy in General
- Process of monetary authority, i.e.
central bank or reserve, of a country
controlling the supply of money
- Main Stances
- Contractionary: Money supply shrinks
or expands more slowly than usual to
slow inflation
- Expansionary: Money supply
increases more rapidly than usual to
entice expansion
Monetary Tools/Approaches
- Money Supply
- Mainly involves buying and selling of
government bonds
- Alters amount of money in the
economy while affecting the price
and yield of short term government
bonds
- Change in amount of money affects
interbank interest rates
- Interbank Iending for banks to
comply with reserve requirements
and manage potential bank runs
- Money Demand
- Mainly involves setting lending or
interest rates
- Banking Risk
- Mainly involves setting banking
reserves, or amount of money that
banks are required to have, to control
inflations
- But can lend out money more than
actual reserve
- Money lent out by banks increases
money supply, which may lead to
inflation
Fixed Exchange Rates
- Currency’s value is fixed against either
the value of another currency, to a
basket of other currencies, or to another
measure of value such as gold
41
- Usually used in order to stabilize the
value of a currency by directly pegging
it to a more stable or more prevalent
currency; hence, exchange rate does
not change based on market conditions
unlike in floating currencies
- Makes external trade and investments
between the currency areas easier
and more predictable
- Can also control behaviour by a
currency as in limiting inflation
- However, currency rises and falls in
relation to its pegged currency; ex:
The Great Depression which spread
due to countries all using the gold
standard
- Also prevents governments from
using monetary policy domestically
- Case Study: China
- Yuan maintains close relationship with
US dollar
- Devalues currency to keep export
prices at a competitive level
- Leads to jobs from other countries
being outsourced to China
- But limits purchasing power of
consumers particularly the middle
class
- However, current policy is to
strengthen the Yuan for political
reasons and to keep capital from
leaving China
- Depreciation may be used to keep
appreciation gradual as the dollar
rockets upwards
- Hence why it joined IMF’s reserve
currency
TRADE POLICIES
See Development

CASE STUDIES
The Great Depression
- Causes
- Increased money supply and low
interest rates during the Roaring 20’s
caused rapid expansion, setting up a
market bubble
- 1929 Crash: Federal Reserve cut
money supply by nearly a third,
causing liquidity problems
- Why? Refused to bail out careless
banks fearing future irresponsibility
- Protectionist policies: US instituted
tariffs, which led to other nations
retaliating with their own tariffs and
leading to the cutting off of
international trade
- Effects
- Stock market burst and investors
dumped shares en masse, making
millions of shares worthless
- Downturn in spending and
investment led to unemployment,
lower wages, and lower buying power
- Adherence to gold standard in a fixed
change helped spread Depression to
the world, especially Europe
- Farmers could not afford to harvest
crops, hence left them in the fields
while people starved
- Bank runs as investors who lost
confidence demanded cash deposits
- Recovery
- New Deal policies focusing on relief
for the poor, government spending
on infrastructure and agricultural
subsidies
- Pro labor policies to raise consumer
purchasing power and employment
- Trade liberalization
- Massive war spending in WWII
doubled economic growth rates, also
stimulating the economies of Europe
- Growth in money supply due to huge
international gold inflows
42
1997 Asian Financial Crisis
- Causes
- Wealth created by export led growth
helped fuel an investment boom
- However, most of the boom was
financed with borrowed money, often
by governments and in US dollars
due to lower interest rates
- Investments in infrastructure and real
estate were sucking in foreign goods;
imports were also expanding
- Catalysts
- Speculative overbuilding led Thai
property developers to default
- Financial institutions also failed to
pay its own loans due to property
developers failing to pay
- Banks borrowed from creditors in
US dollars and loaned in Baht
- Speculative attacks of traders
selling Baht short to profit from
future declines in the value of the
Baht against the dollar
- Thai government used foreign
exchange reserves to purchase
baht, but did not have enough to
defend the dollar peg
- Thai government allowed baht to
float freely, causing devaluation
and doubling the amount of baht
required to serve dollar debts
- Effects
- Thailand turned to IMF, which
imposed austerity measures and
tax increases; government laid
off 16,000 people and deepened
recession
- Speculation hit other Asian
countries
- Recovery
- Nationalization of failing banks
and guaranteeing of deposits
prevented bank runs
- IMF bailout restructured and
wrote off bad bank debts

2008 Financial Crisis
- Causes
- Federal Reserve lowered Federal
funds rate to make economy more
liquid, encouraging home loans
- Home loans led to appreciation in
home prices, encouraging
investments in subprime mortgages
- Loans were distributed via
collateralized debt obligations (CDO),
a secondary market on securities for
collecting loans
- Catalysts
- Interest rates started rising and home
ownership saturated
- High interest rates meant more
borrowers defaulted on loans; banks
lost due to bad loans and toxic assets
- Northern Rock, a medium-sized
British bank, requested security from
Bank of England, causing investor
panic and a bank run
- Effects
- Bank run on money market funds
interrupted ability of corporations to
replace their short-term debt
- Household wealth dropped $14
trillion, due to drops in housing
prices, savings/retirement assets, etc.
- Since CDOs and other securities were
purchased by investors globally, crisis
spread into a global economic shock
- Recovery
- Central banks worldwide purchased
government debt and troubled
private assets from banks to inject
liquidity to the credit market
- US response: bail out financial firms
to provide stability, lowered key
federal funds rate to provide
additional liquidity, provided direct
lines of credit
- EU response: Bailouts transferred
debts to countries, leading to a
sovereign debt crisis in Europe
43
European Debt Crisis
- Causes
- Partly influenced by causes of the
2008 financial crisis, weak growth and
competitiveness, large debt to GDP
ratios and liquidation of banks
- EU member states failing to stay
within confines of Maastricht Treaty,
under which countries pledged to
limit deficit spending and debt levels
- Countries securitized future
government revenues to reduce
debts
- Securitization: Pooling debts
selling related cash flows to third
party investors as securities
- Inherent complexity allows masking
of risk
- Catalysts
- Greek newly elected government
stopped masking indebtedness,
causing fears of sovereign defaults
- International news media covered
crisis, exacerbating confidence
issue
- Lenders demanded higher interest
rates from countries with high debt
levels, making it difficult for some
Eurozone governments to repay
- Effects
- Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece had
to be bailed out by the IMF and the
European Commission with the
European Central Bank
- Social unrest due to governments
raising taxes and lowering
expenditures
- Investors flocked to safer but near
zero interest rate federal
government bonds as in Germany
- IMF austerity measures brought
down Greece’s deficit but also
worsened recession
- Resistance to the Troika’s terms
plummeted stock prices

Education
THEORIES OF LEARNING
Behaviorism
- Learning consists of a change in
behaviour due to associations between
stimuli and observable responses
- Uses reward/punishment systems and
drill and practice programs
Cognitive Psychology
- Learning is the acquisition of
knowledge, which involves the learner
absorbing information and stocking it
into memory as a passive recipient of
knowledge
- Uses lecturing and reading textbooks as
methods of instruction
Constructivism
- Learning involves the active
construction of knowledge in interaction
with the environment, hence not just
acquiring knowledge but also
interpreting it
- Uses a learner centered approach,
where the teacher is a guide of learning
and not just a knowledge transmitter
Social Learning
- Learning is within a social context,
facilitated by concepts such as
observational learning and imitation
- Argues that children learn from
observing others as well as from model
behavior
Socio-Constructivism
- Learning is not independent of
contexts, but an interaction between
the individual and a situation
- Approaches learning as participation
and social negotiation
44
Experiential Learning
- Learning is about meaningful
experiences that lead to a change in an
individual’s knowledge and behavior
- Suggests self initiated learning for the
following reasons
- We cannot teach another person
directly
- Learners become more rigid under
threat
- Significant learning occurs in an
environment where threats are
reduced to a minimum
- Learning occurs in an environment
where threat to the learner is reduced
to a minimum
Situated Learning Theory
- Learning occurs most effectively within
communities
- Covers other communities such as
workplaces and organizations
21st Century Learning
- Learning must meet demands of the
21st century, which are driven by
knowledge and technology
- Focuses on group learning and
collaborative work