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The cavalry of the Eastern

Slavs makes itself known
a
V. I. Gusev
a
Candidate of historical sciences and
senior lecturer on the history faculty , Taras
Shevchenko National University , Kiev, Ukraine
Published online: 18 Dec 2007.

To cite this article: V. I. Gusev (1997) The cavalry of the Eastern Slavs
makes itself known, The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 10:2, 75-84, DOI:
10.1080/13518049708430291

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 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

The Cavalry of the Eastern Slavs Makes

Itself Known
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V. I. GUSEV

In this article1 the author intends to discuss the cavalry of the Eastern Slavs,
who occupied the territory of present-day Ukraine and the European portion
of Russia, for the period from the tenth century until the end of the
fourteenth century. It was necessary to analyze a large number of Russian
chronicles, materials and memoirs of foreign researchers (mostly Greek, i.e.
Byzantine), and publications and general works by nineteenth and twentieth
century Russian/Soviet authors, so as to try, while not professing to make
all-encompassing conclusions, to give an objective picture of the formation
of the cavalry as a special combat arm among these people during the
indicated period.

First Reports
Since far back in their history the Eastern Slavs have been very familiar
with horses, which were used for various tasks in their economy. A cult
formed around the animal so that bowing in prayer to Svetovid, the god of
the sun and earth, the Slavs dedicated a white horse to him, believing that
the god would ride on it when he himself went into battle against their
enemies. With the help of a horse, a priest predicted the success or not of a
war.
Several stately and beautiful horses were kept in temples dedicated to
gods; according to the Slavs' understanding, these horses were fully worthy
of a god's saddle. These horses were either pure white or jet black. When a
Slav died, his relatives buried his favorite horse in his grave, along with his
weapons.
From early childhood a male Slav had to be able to ride a horse,
mounting him quickly to pursue an enemy and vanquish him with the help
of a lance or sword. Custom held that when a boy was four or five years old
he was put on a horse, and his hair was cut for the first time.2 Princess Olga
The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, Vol.10, No.2 (June 1997) pp.75-84
PUBLISHED BY FRANK CASS, LONDON
 76 THE JOURNAL OF SLAVIC MILITARY STUDIES

(flourished 945-69) did just this when in 946 she took her son, Sviatoslav,
with her on a military campaign. At the age of four, Sviatoslav had already
participated on horseback in a battle against his beloved mother's unruly
subjects.3
The first reports concerning the use of horses among the troops of the
Kiev princes date from the beginning of the tenth century. It is known for
certain that Oleg used them in his campaign against Tsar'grad ('he came on
horses and on ships') in 907, in the attack against Tabaristan in 912-913,
and during Igor's invasion of Byzantium in 941 ('he moved against the
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Greeks in boats and on horses').

It is impossible, however to confirm that during this period the Eastern
Slav cavalry was a separate combat arm used in military operations. Horses
were more likely used as a draught force to deliver military supplies
(including food) and for rapid redeployment of the prince's armed forces,
who fought as foot soldiers. Prokopii Kesariiskii shared his observations:
' ... Going into battle, they [the Slavs] move against the enemy, the majority
on foot, with small shields and lances in their hands. They wore no coats of
mail. Some had neither shirts nor coats, but went to fight the enemy in only
short pants.'4
Reports that in 964 the Russian cavalry, as a hired force for the Greeks
(?), fought in Sicily and then in the environs of Babylon are, therefore, very
doubtful.5

The Siege of Dorostolon

When, then, did the Eastern Slavs realize that they could not do without
a cavalry? What events convinced them to use a cavalry as a fighting
force? Above all, it was the constant raids by nomadic tribes (Pechenegs,
Polovetsians) against the southern borders of Kievan Rus in the tenth
century, and there were also the campaigns of the Russian princes against
Byzantium. At that time the Greeks had a large, excellently trained
and well-armed cavalry: horsemen rode against the enemy in chain mail
and helmets, with long lances. The infantry was powerless against their
attacks.
Prince Sviatoslav was convinced of this in his 968-971 campaigns against
Bulgaria, where he had occasion to measure the worth of his forces against
those of the experienced Byzantine commander John I Tzimiskes, who up to
that time had won a number of victories in Asia Minor. Slav soldiers fought
bravely in battles against the Greeks, exhibiting inventiveness and skill, and
creating problems for their enemy. It was, however, the Siege of Dorostolon
(Silistra) in 971, in which the Russian prince and his forces were shut up,
which decided the outcome of the campaign.
 THE CAVALRY OF THE EASTERN SLAVS 77
The siege of this lower Danube fortress, which lasted three months,
demonstrated that the enemy forces were, on the whole, equal to one
another. Neither the Russians nor the Greeks were able to tip the balance to
their advantage. Sviatoslav's soldiers went outside the fortress gates several
times in hopes of breaking out of the enemy encirclement, but the Greek
cavalry, promptly giving battle, dealt with them easily. Even the iron
phalanxes of the Varangians, who, with their shields and lances, were in the
service of the Kievan prince, could not withstand the onslaught of the
Greeks.
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It was only in the battle following the siege that a Russian cavalry
detachment, hastily formed by Sviatoslav, fought. This was a surprise to the
Greeks, because, as Lev Diiakon testifies, 'they [the Slavs] appeared for the
first time on horseback, having fought before on foot and having never used
horses in battle'.6 It turned out that these new horsemen were not even able to
climb into their saddles, controlled their horses with the help of bridles, and
used long lances; they were easily thrown to the ground. It was not by chance
that they fled after the first powerful enemy onslaught, after which they
succeeded in concealing themselves behind the dependable fortress walls.
Thus, the first Eastern Slav experience in the use of horsemen in combat
operations can be considered a completely negative one. Indeed, it was not
a cavalry which fought the Greeks in the Bulgarian campaign, rather an
infantry mounted on horses fighting bravely. Swift marches on horseback
by Sviatoslav's army and the use of this factor in other battles on this
occasion could not substitute for careful prior training of horsemen,
constant practice riding with long lances and swords, or the acquisition of
the ability to fight professionally on horseback.
In addition, at Dorostolon, having put forth only a small cavalry
detachment against the Greeks, Sviatoslav was unable to consolidate and
exploit his few successful steps or coordinate them with his infantry. The
Hungarians and Pechenegs, who were to comprise a large portion of his
cavalry, let him down. Having been caught unawares by the Greeks'
unexpected move across the Balkans, Sviatoslav could not concentrate his
army or join his mercenaries to it. After this he had to conclude a peace
agreement with Byzantium and relinquish Bulgaria, for which he received a
promise of freedom of movement to return home from the Greeks. He never
reached home, losing his life in 972 in a final battle with the perfidious
Pechenegs.

Taking into Account Sviatoslav's Negative Experience

Sviatoslav's experiment taught much to his successors; Vladimir the Great
(reigned 980-1015) dealt seriously with this combat arm. In 985 he
 78 THE JOURNAL OF SLAVIC MILITARY STUDIES

advanced against Bulgaria with his army in boats and on horseback, and
with the cavalry's help conquered the enemy.7 His sons were also concerned
with increasing the size of the cavalry in the princes' armed force
[druzhina], this at the expense of the Pecheneg mercenaries. Iaroslav the
Wise's successors turned out to be more visionary; in 1042, one of them
brought a cavalry consisting basically of his own soldiers to the campaign
against lam. Although they had to fight on foot, since many horses died of
an unknown disease, the Russian princes realized that they could not
manage in battle without horsemen.
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Events of 1068, during the Polovetsians' siege of Chernigov, attested

convincingly to this. The chronicles relate the following:
Sviatoslav gathered a small force and set off against them at Snovsk.
When the Polovetsians saw that the army was approaching, they
prepared to meet it. Sviatoslav saw that they were a large force and
addressed his force: 'Let us go against them, since there is no place
else for us to go.' And Sviatoslav, with his three thousand, jumped on
his horse and was victorious; and there were 12,000 Polovetsians.
Some were killed, others drowned in the Snova River, and the princes
captured them by hand. This was 1 November. And Sviatoslav
returned victorious to his city.
After some time, Prince David Igorevich also demonstrated that a small
number of cavalrymen could successfully attack an enemy. In 1099 his small
mounted force, 400 horsemen in all, not only defeated a large Magyar
detachment, but also pursued it for two days. Magyar King Kaloman himself
barely escaped death, having lost around 40,000 soldiers and many barons
and bodyguards. Perhaps these numbers are exaggerated, but this country's
chronicle states that the loss was 'exorbitant' and sadness 'limitless'.8
The Eastern Slav cavalry gradually developed different procedures for
conducting combat operations. The tactics of rapid strike and the
unexpected, stunning strike received approbation. This happened in 1096,
on the Trubezh River near Pereiaslav, where the Polovetsian khan stood
with his horde against Vladimir Monomakh's regiments, who had racked
their brains for ways to defeat the enemy. All was decided in an instant. The
Russian cavalry, tired from inactivity, descended on the enemy. They
crushed him, drove him beyond the river, pursued him, and finally routed
him. Discipline, of course, was violated, but, as the saying goes, the victor
is not judged.
More and more horses were needed for military campaigns. Where were
the Eastern Slavs to get them? The tarpan, a wild horse, lived in the steppes
of what is today Ukraine. It was small, barely 1.5 meters, and had a large
head, a short and thick neck, and a broad chest. Grey in color, with a dark
 THE CAVALRY OF THE EASTERN SLAVS 79
or black band along its back, it had a black mane and tail. These horses lived
in large herds of about 50 or 60, and were extremely cautious.
A prestigious activity among Kievan princes, boyars, and military forces
was hunting these swift and obstinate animals which could not be broken. It
was considered a special achievement to catch up to, capture, and tie them
up without dismounting from one's own horse. Vladimir Monomakh
(1053—1125) shared with children these impressions from his participation
in such adventures: 'With my own hands I tied up several wild horses in the
dense forests ...'.'
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But it was rare for someone to manage to tame a tarpan, much less
saddle and use one. Thus, the Eastern Slavs basically bought horses from
nomadic tribes, Pechenegs, Polovetsians, and afterwards from the Mongols,
who were renowned for their cattle breeding in general, and particularly for
the speed and endurance of their Asiatic horses. In addition to this source,
many horses - sometimes entire herds - were taken from the enemy during
a war. Sviatopolk and Vladimir did so from the Polovetsians in 1095, as
well as in the subsequent campaigns of 1103, 1135, and 1185.10
The forces of the Kievan princes replenished their cavalry with horses
from peasant farmers. Thus, in 1103, while preparing for the campaign
against the Polovetsians, the Russian princes decided to take from the
peasants the quantity of horses that they still needed. In answer to some
boyar protests that this action would make it impossible to do their field
work on time, Vladimir Monomakh answered:
This is strange for me to hear, my army, that you are begrudged horses
which the peasants are using for plowing, and that for some reason
you are not thinking about him. The peasant will begin to plow, the
Polovetsians will come, attack him with arrows, and take away his
horse, go to the village, and seize his wife, children, and all his
property. He begrudges you his horse, but does not begrudge himself
to you."
In 1147, Iziaslav Mstislavovich, who had gathered the Kievans, from the
small to the tall, near the Cathedral of Sofia, and announced the next
nomadic invasion, called on all of them - 'those who have a horse, and
those who do not have a horse, to use a boat' - not to delay a single minute,
but to hasten to form the ranks of a militia to repel the enemy.12
There are individual recollections that horse breeding was an activity in
Kievan Rus'. During the struggle between Iziaslav Mstislavovich and Igor'
Ol'govich, a Russian chronicle reports that 'Igor and Sviatoslav won 3,000
mares and 1,000 horses in a battle in the forest near Rakhny.'" It is clear that
the princes had taken up horse breeding; otherwise there would have been
no reason for them to have such a quantity of horses.
 80 THE JOURNAL OF SLAVIC MILITARY STUDIES

The laws of Iaroslav the Wise (reigned 1036-54) strictly forbade the
selling of sick or deformed horses. Whether it was a prince, a boyar, a
merchant, or an orphan, he was equally enjoined from duping the people; if
this happened, then the money had to be returned to the buyer. Whoever
killed a horse had to pay a large fine - 60 griven' - according to one of the
articles of Pravda Russkaia.H This code of laws also stated that 'a horse
thief betrayed the prince and was deprived of all civil rights: liberty and
property'." In this way, the legislation not only safeguarded property, but
also protected horse breeding, since the size of the cavalry depended on the
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latter.
Care of horses was the principal occupation for certain groups of people
in Rus'. This was so in Galicia, where the inhabitants of many villages had
been looking after the princes' herds for many years. In general, the post of
stableman was honored, especially that of head stableman. This had already
occurred during the time of Oleg, and in the twelfth century, Vladimir
Monomakh in his Sermon to His Children stressed that he himself was
concerned about them and attached great importance to their work.
Sometimes these specialists were allowed certain liberties. The above-
mentioned Galician horse breeders counterfeited an official document from
the prince which freed them from other household responsibilities.
On the whole, it was not necessary to convince anyone that there were
great prospects for the Eastern Slav cavalry as a special combat arm. The
cavalry itself was able to demonstrate this by successfully coping with its
assigned duties in numerous engagements. In 1103 it defeated the forward
Polovetsian patrols; in 1146 it reconnoitered the situation in the vicinity of
Novgorod during the campaign of Vladimir, Iziaslav Davidovich, and
Mstislav Iziaslavovich against this city; in 1149, during the Battle of
Pereiaslav, it attacked the Polovetsians for two days; and in 1224, Danilo
Galitskii, with a small cavalry detachment, surveyed the Tartar horde before
the battle on the Kalka River.

During the Apanage Period

During the subsequent period, where the Kievan State, powerful as never
before, continued to transform itself into a conglomerate of small
principalities, the cavalry was used actively in the uninterrupted wars
between the princes themselves and against foreign enemies. Each prince
considered it necessary to have a large stable complete with a large number
of horses, needed both for himself and his family, as well as for his forces.
An entire staff of men was employed to supervise the horses.
The boyars in service to the princes did not lag behind in this, and
maintained fewer horses than the suzerain, but still a sufficient quantity
 THE CAVALRY OF THE EASTERN SLAVS 81
which could be, figuratively speaking, called to arms. Thus, when Danilo
Galitskii, having decided to quell Sudislav's rebel boyars in 1229, stormed
his courtyard, he found to his surprise 'wine, vegetables, food, horses, and
arrows' in more than sufficient quantities.16
Who comprised the cavalry? Who was recruited for it during this
period? Mostly it was made up of officials and persons from the prince's
court, and children of boyars and landowners who had sufficient means and
opportunity to serve on horseback. Equipment for a horseman was
expensive, consisting of an iron helmet with noseguard and mail netting
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dropping over the face, neck, and shoulders, and a coat of mail (with
sleeves) that went to the knees. Cavalry weapons were varied: lances, bows,
arrows, crossbows, swords, sabers, axes, javelins, halibards, bludgeons, and
daggers.
Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility comprised the
cavalry, its relationship to the infantry was completely different than that in
the West. Whereas in the West warfare on foot was held in contempt and
played a rather meager role in battle, the cavalry and infantry of the Eastern
Slavs went hand in hand. In 1185, during Igor's campaign against the
Polovetsians, when it was necessary to withdraw it was decided that the
cavalry would dismount to defend the 'black men' - the infantry. The
chronicler notes that 'Igor and his mounted forces assumed that if they
remained on horseback they might be tempted to flee, and, saving
themselves, would thus leave the infantry to the mercy of fate, which would
be a sin in God's eyes.'
The Russian cavalry learned from its own experience gradually, and its
princely leaders did not scorn to copy from the nomads, including the
Mongol Tartars who had come to Rus'.
Forces were already fighting almost exclusively on horseback, firing
from bows, in open or dispersed formation, now attacking, now
withdrawing, or using close-combat weapons in a deep closed
formation, attempting to win by numerical superiority, stratagem,
covertness of actions, and reciprocity of attack, more than by skill,
keeping themselves in the vicinity of towns rather than in the open
field, and most often resorting to reinforcing its disposition and
actions by terrain and artificial obstacles.17
The cavalry executed precisely assigned missions. It was to conduct
reconnaissance on the way to, and at the locations of, engagements, protect
the army while it was on the move, and establish an advance guard to
protect the druzhina from an unexpected enemy attack. The cavalry was to
acquire information about the enemy and deliver prisoners or informants to
its command. Its duties included securing night halts and rest periods for the
 82 THE JOURNAL OF SLAVIC MILITARY STUDIES

troops, setting up patrols, and even pursuing a withdrawing enemy.

The chroniclers cannot help but focus attention on the increase in the
role of the cavalry. Terrifying descriptions of battles with the participation
of cavalry began to appear on the pages of their narratives. The chronicle
describes the 1174 Battle of Vyzhgorod between the Slavs and Polovetsians
as follows: 'And there was a great commotion, unbelievable cries and
moans, and terrible voices; it could be heard how lances broke and weapons
resounded, and one could not make out either horseman or infantryman
behind the clouds of dust.' In the narrative of Iaroslav's 1245 engagement,
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it states that Andrei 'clashed strongly against Rostislav's regiment, lances

broke, and there was a crash as if from thunder, and many from both sides
fell with their horses and died, others were seriously wounded from the
blows of lances'.18
For a while - during the Tartar-Mongol invasion of Rus' - the
development of the cavalry came to a halt. The stables of rich princes and
boyars emptied, and there was a lack of horses in peasant households. Good
horses became such a rarity that princes bequeathed them on a par with
other valuables. Thus, Great Prince Simeon Suzdal left his wife 50 riding
horses. Documents from Great Princes Ivan Ioanovich and Vasilii
Dmitrievich refer to small herds left to successors.

Kulikovo Field: The Birth of the Russian Cavalry and Its Defeat of
the Tartars
As the Tartar yoke weakened, the Russian cavalry came into being. Once
again the princes set up stables, acquired horses by various means, re-
established horse breeding, and formed combat militias consisting basically
of their subjects. Events in Autumn 1380 - the historic Battle of Kulikovo
- convincingly attest that this was appropriate for the conditions of the time.
Much is written about what preceded, about the preparation, and about the
battle on 8 September. We are interested in the cavalry's participation.
On this September day, Prince Dmitrii Ivanovich (subsequently
nicknamed 'Donskoi') placed 150,000 horsemen, whose horses were
'strong and fast', on Kulikovo Field. The horses consisted of 70,000 of his
own and 80,000 brought by his allies - the Novgorodians and sons of
Lithuanian Prince Ol'gerd. Taking into account the fact that the Tartars
resolved never to go into battle without a considerable numerical superiority
in forces, then it can be assumed that Khan Mamai had at least as many
cavalrymen. Thus, as many as 300,000 men on both sides took part in the
battle." This was, in terms of number of cavalry, one of the largest
encounters of the medieval epoch.
Dmitrii Donskoi succeeded in using his cavalry against Mamai's hordes
 THE CAVALRY OF THE EASTERN SLAVS 83
by using it to its fullest capability. The forward detachments sent to the
steppe for reconnaissance informed him that the Tartar khan, with an
enormous force, was three days' march from the Don. The horsemen
reported that the Khan expected the army of Prince Jagailo of the Great
Lithuanian Principality to join up with him. They managed to capture a
prisoner, who reported that Oleg of Riazan had taken the enemy's side. New
reconnaissance made it known that Mamai was already nearby. And Tartar
patrols which had appeared were pursuing the scouts from the Russians'
outpost regiment.
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Finally, the reserve cavalry regiment, located in ambush in a grove,

distinguished itself. Up to this time it had not entered into battle, awaiting
the necessary order. This was given when the Tartars, exhausted by
prolonged fighting against the Russians, could be surprised by the
appearance of fresh enemy forces. By a sudden and aggressive onslaught,
the Russian reserve aroused panic and horror among the Tartars and set
them fleeing, thereby deciding the outcome of the operation in favor of
Dmitrii Donskoi's forces. Afterwards the enemy was pursued for 40 versts,
at the cost of many thousands of Mamai's soldiers.
The Russian cavalry did, indeed, perform exceptionally on Kulikovo
Field. But there were also some evident shortcomings. As has already been
mentioned, the cavalry consisted of Novgorod and Lithuanian horsemen
who, similar to Western knights, preferred to fight on larger, more clumsy
horses, and carried heavy weapons. They fought in large groups or in an
irregular formation, which reduced the effect of their opposition to the
mobile Tartar horsemen. Only the ambush regiment used actions involving
the strike or the raid. In general, the bloody battle against Mamai answered
many questions, but there was still room for a further look into the place for
the cavalry in the Russian Army.

Some Conclusions
Thus, the facts cited in this article confirm that for an almost five-century
period (tenth to fourteenth centuries) the Eastern Slav cavalry had a glorious
history, beginning with its service to the dismounted druzhina. Then it acted
as a principal combat arm in the campaigns of the Kievan princes against
Byzantium, its first unsuccessful participation as a combat unit in the Battle
of Dorostolon, and its use of Varangian and other mercenaries to replenish
its ranks, to the creation of cavalry subunits consisting of Slav soldiers.
Gradually the Russian cavalry accumulated experience, both in
intestinal strife among the princes and in battles against foreign enemies.
This experience ranged from the acquisition of men, equipment, and food to
clearly defined missions to develop the horseman's expertise in controlling
 84 THE JOURNAL OF SLAVIC MILITARY STUDIES

his horse, mastering weapons and developing skills to use them in combat
operations, conducting reconnaissance, supplying necessary information
about the enemy, attacking his positions suddenly, and pursuing him. All
this was demonstrated brilliantly in the Battle of Kulikovo.

NOTES

1. Konnitsa vostochnykh slavian zaiavliaet o sebe. Translated by Dr Harold S. Orenstein,

Strategic Affairs Group, SHAPE, Belgium.
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2. Translator's note: the custom was called the 'postrig', which is the same term used to refer
to a monk or nun taking religious vows (which entailed cutting the hair as well).
3. V. Borisov, Drevne russkie voennye povestiia [Ancient Russian military tales] (St Petersburg
1908) pp.8-9.
4. Istoriia ukrainskogo voiska (ot kniazheskikh vremen do 20-kh godov XX st.) [History of the
Ukrainian Army from the time of the princes to the 1920s] (Lvov 1992) p.6.
5. S.A. Grinev, Byla li konnitsa u drevnikh russov? [Did ancient Rus have a cavalry?] (Kiev
1895) p.20.
6. Ibid. p.7.
7. Letopis' Nesterova po drevneishemu spisku monakhu Lavrentiia [Nestor's chronicle
according to the most ancient manuscript by the monk Lavrentii] (Moscow 1824) p.52.
8. Grinev (note 5) p.23.
9. Letopis' russkii [Russian chronicle] (Kiev 1990) p.461.
10. Istoriia ukrainskogo voiska p.32.
11. Ibid. p.36.
12. Ibid. p.43.
13. Grinev (note 5) p.29.
14. Pravda Russkaia (Leningrad 1947) p.185. (Translator's note: Pravda Russkaia was the
Russian code of laws at this time).
15. Markov, Istoriia konnitsy [History of the cavalry]. Part 2 (Tver' 1886) p.162.
16. Istoriia ukrainskogo voiska, p. 44.
17. Prince Golitsin, Russkaia voennaia istoriia [Russian military History] (St Petersburg 1880)
p.36.
18. Istoriia ukrainskogo voiska, p.61.
19. Translator's note: The original text reads '30,000 men', but this is obviously a typographical
error.