Book 1 Module 1

AERODYNAMICS &
FLIGHT CONTROLS

Licence By Post

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Licen c By Post © Copyright 131 11.1.1 ISSUE 1 81

AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for

study/training purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/ aircraft equipment you

MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer's handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the
regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your
company, national safety authorities and national governments.

NOTE

It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and
syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated
on a regular basis.

LBP
140 Narbeth Drive
Aylesbury
Bucks
HP20 1QA UK

Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871

Fax: (+ 44) 01296 330697
Email: www.info@licencebypost.com
Website: www.licencebypost.com
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With thanks to:

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
BRITISH AEROSPACE

for their permission to reproduce drawings.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Basic flying controls 1

Typical large aircraft 4
The regulations 6
Control surface theory 8
Rod/Cable systems 10
Control column 15
Rudder pedals 16
Detent struts 16
Stick shaker 18
Stick pusher 18
Control stops 19
Chains and sprockets 20
Push/pull rods 20
Cable support/Pulleys 22
Turnbuckles 23
Cable tension regulators 25
Pressure seals 27
Powered controls 29
Feel systems 29
Tabs 30
Mass balance 39
Aerodynamic balance 42
Ailerons 45
Tailplanes 50
Spoilers 53
Flaps 58
Slats 66
Vortex generators 70
Wing fence 70
Saw tooth leading edge 71
Stall wedge 71
Canard aircraft 72
Delta winged aircraft 72
Ruddervators 74
Gust locks 75
Position indicator systems 75
Control rigging 75
Rigging equipment 79
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

Specifically written for the B1 technician to level 3 standard. All the material
applies to the A line mechanic but to level 1 - at this standard the knowledge
required is an overall view of how the systems work and what effect their use as
on the aircraft.

For the technician he/she should be able to describe in detail the operation of
the systems, their effect on the aircraft, the setting up, and the fault finding
procedures.

This book should be read in conjunction with the book in this series entitled
Powered Flying Controls.
 FLYING CONTROLS

In order to allow the pilot to control his aircraft in the air flying control systems
are fitted. These consist of moveable surfaces fitted to the trailing edges of the
fin (rudder), tailplane (elevators), and mainpianes (ailerons). These are often
called Primary Flying Controls and are connected via a control system to the
pilots controls in the cockpit or flight deck. The controls must be instinctive and
work in the correct sense.

Other flying controls include: tabs; moveable tailplanes; spoilers, and rarely,
moveable outer wings similar to moveable tail planes.

Instinctive

The flying controls are said to be instinctive. This means that when the pilot pushes
the control column forward the aircraft dives or pitches nose down; when he pulls
the control column back the aircraft climbs or pitches nose up. When the pilot
moves the control column, or hand wheel left the aircraft rolls to the left; when he
moves the control column, or hand wheel right the aircraft rolls to the right. When
the pilot pushes his left foot forward on the rudder bar the aircraft turns to the left;
when he pushes his right foot forward the aircraft turns right.

Sense

The control surfaces should move in the correct relationship to the control
column or rudder bar. This is called correct SENSE. (see Table 1).

Elevators

Hinged to the trailing edge of the tailplane and connected to the control
column. Movement of the elevator gives longitudinal control about the lateral
axis. May be interconnected with the tailplane.

Rudder

Hinged to the trailing edge of the fin and connected to the rudder bar.
Movement of the rudder gives directional control about the vertical axis.

Ailerons

Hinged surfaces on the trailing edges of the mainplanes. Movement of the

ailerons gives lateral control about the longitudinal axis.

1
 On many civil aircraft are interconnected with the spoilers. May also be split
into inboard and outboard ailerons with the inboard only operating at high
speed.

CONTROL COLUMN

PIVOT

PIVOT
ELEVATOR

Fig. 1 A SIMPLE ELEVATOR CONTROL

SYSTEM SHOWING CORRECT SENSE

TABLE 1 CONTROL SURFACE MOVEMENT - CORRECT SENSE

COCKPIT CONTROL CONTROL SURFACE EFFECT

MOVEMENT MOVEMENT
Control Column Elevator moves up Airflow hits the control
pulled back surface and produces a
downward force, this is
transferred to the
tailplane causing the
tail to go down and the
nose to go up.
Control column pushed Elevator moves down Similar to the above but in
forward the opposite direction The
Control column or Ailerons. Left one up. up going aileron (on the
handwheel to the left Right one down. down going wing)
experiences a down
force which pushes the
wing down. The down
going aileron
experiences an upward
force therefore pushing
the right wing up
Control column or Ailerons. Right one up. Similar to the abo 've but
handwheel to the right Left one down. in the opposite
direction.
TABLE 1 continued.........

COCKPIT CONTROL CONTROL SURFACE EFFECT

MOVEMENT MOVEMENT
Rudder pedals. Right Rudder to the right. The air flow pushes on
foot forward. the rudder producing a
force to the left, this
pushes the tail to the left
and the nose of the
aircraft to the right.
Rudder pedals. Left foot Rudder to the left. Similar to the above but
forward. in the opposite
direction.

RUDDER BAR
CABLES

A RUDDER
PIVOT

Fig. 2 A SIMPLE RUDDER CONTROL

SYSTEM SHOWING CORRECT SENSE

CONTROL COLUMN

PUSH/PULL ROD

PIVOT

`- 4
.M.-

I PIVOT -- 1 o
CABLES *

Fig. 3 A SIMPLE AILERON CONTROL

SYSTEM SHOWING CORRECT SENSE

-3
A Typical Large Commercial Aircraft

The following is a brief description of the flying controls and lift

augmentation/ drag systems of a typical large aircraft. For more detailed
information you should refer to other sections within this book and refer to the
book in this series "PFCUs, Autopilots". Of course, for specific information on an
aircraft's control system you should refer to the aircraft's AMM.

Elevator

Hydraulically powered and controlled by a dual cable control system from the flight
deck. The system may have all or any of the following: artificial feel,
autopilot servo, stick shaker/ stick push, disconnect detents, and cable tension
regulators.

Tailplane

Usually trimable using a hydraulic or electric motor with standard trim and
mach trim inputs. May have elevator inputs.

Rudder

Hydraulically powered and controlled by a cable system from the flight deck.
Usually fitted with yaw dampers; artificial feel, cable tension regulators,
autopilot servos, and may have speed related range limiting devices.

Ailerons

May be organised to droop for take-off and landing (called flaperons on the 777) to
provide more lift, and are interconnected with the spoilers (asymmetric
operation) to provide better roll control. Are powered hydraulically and
operated by cables from the flight deck. Will usually have autopilot input,
artificial feel and cable tension regulators.

All the above controls will normally have automatic provision to give indication
on the flight deck of their position and warning systems in the event of major
component failure (PFCU etc).

4
Spoilers

Hydraulically powered to operate in the flight or ground mode. Designed to

create drag and dump lift when operated.

Slats

Fitted to the leading edge of the mainplanes, are usually hydraulically powered
and symmetrically operated to create lift and increase the stalling angle.

Leading Edge or Kruegar Flaps

Often used at locations inboard of the inboard engines and may be

pneumatically powered. Symmetrically operated to give the same affect as
slats.

Flaps

Usually of the Fowler variable area type. Are symmetrically operated to

increase lift (and increase drag).

STARBOARD AILERON

FLIGHT SPOILER
GROUND SPOILER
PORT
AILERON

LEADING EDGE
FLAPS

Fig 4 FLYING CONTROL SURFACES AND

HIGH LIFT DEVICES - TYPICAL AIRCRAFT

5
 THE REGULATIONS

This section might be more easily understood if you read (and

understand) the rest of this book first, and read the book "PFCUs
and Autopilots ". Even if you do read it now it is worth a second read
after completion of the two books.

All large aircraft must meet the regulations as laid down in JAR 25.

Control Surfaces

Must meet the airborne and ground gust loads specified for the airframe.
Must be fitted with control stops, and hinges must have a factor of safety of
6.67 of the ultimate bearing strength.

Control System

For the lateral, longitudinal, directional control of the aircraft, and for drag
control systems - the support structure must have a factor of safety of 1.25 of the
control surface maximum moment load.

The system must operate easily, smoothly and be positive in operation. Have
control stops fitted. Should be designed to prevent jamming by foreign objects.

It should be so designed as to minimise the possibility of incorrect assembly,

and must be capable of continued operation if:-

A single failure of a hydraulic, mechanical or structural

element occurs.
Dual electrical or hydraulic systems fail. A
jam occurs in the system.
The system experiences a run away flight control.

With the system operating at 80% specific limit load and on 100% powered
load there should be:-

(a) No jamming.
(b) No excessive deflection.
(c) No excessive friction.

Structural deflection should not affect the system adversely.

Minimum and maximum forces are specified for the pilots input, and minimum
forces specified when pilots are operating in opposition on dual control
systems.

-6
Rotary Control Joints

Must have a factor of safety of 3.3 with a push/pull rod system and a factor of
safety of 2.0 with a cable system.

Cable System

Cables used on aileron, elevator and rudder must not be smaller than 0.125"
(3.17mm) diameter.

Tensions must be kept reasonably constant.

Pulleys must be fitted with guards to prevent cable displacement or fouling.

A cable must not change direction more than 3° after passing through a
fairlead.

Specified parts of the cable system must have access for inspection.

Gust Locks

Must be fitted to a specification and provision made that they:-

(a) Cannot be engaged in flight.

(b) Cannot be engaged during take-off, and if they are,
that take-off is not possible.

Trim Systems

Must meet minimum input force standards with loadings specified for:-

(a) Trim tabs.

(b) Balance tabs.
(c) Servo tabs.

They must operate in the correct sense and be designed to prevent abrupt
changes of aircraft trim. Flight deck indications must be provided and the tab
must be irreversible unless it is a balance tab.

7
Stability Augmentation

(This is Active Stability as fitted to some systems of some of the newer aircraft).
Can be de-activated or over-ridden by the pilot without affecting safe control of
the aircraft. It must be provided with a failure warning system.

Configuration (Config.) Warning

An aural warning is provided if, during the take-off run, the aircraft is not
correctly configured. The configuration to include:-

(1) Flap position.

(2) Slat position.
(3) Spoiler position.
(4) Wheel brake configuration.

The warning to be cancelled by either:-

(a) Changing incorrectly selected system.

(b) Abandoning take-off.
(c) Aircraft rotation.
(d) Pilot de-activation.

Wing Flaps and High Lift Devices

Minimum loads are specified with factors of safety for take-off, inflight, and
landing conditions.

Lift and drag devices must be selectable by the pilot at all times e::cept where
they are designed to be used on the ground where provision must be made to
prevent inadvertent flight operation.

Flight deck indication must be provided with warnings of asymmetrical

operation of a symmetrical system (e.g. flaps).

Wing flaps must have a synchronising system strong enough to prevent

asymmetric operation occurring with one side completely jammed and the
other side under full operating power.

PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

Control Surface Theory

The control surface is said to work by a combination two theories - the mean
camber line theory and the force theory.

8
(a) Mean Camber Line Theory

When the control surface moves it alters the Mean Camber Line of the
main surface to which it is attached. This alters the lift on that surface
and it is caused to raise or lower.

EXTRA
NEW MEAN "LIFT"
CAMBER LINE
FORCE

Fig. 5 MEAN CAMBER LINE THEORY

(b) Force Theory

When the surface moves into the airflow it experiences an aerodynamic

loading, if it is held in that position then a component of this load (the
vertical component) is transmitted to the main surface of the aircraft which
will move in that direction. The horizontal component is drag.

EFFECTIVE FORCE ON AIRCRAFT

TOTAL FORCE

Fig. 6 FORCE THEORY USING VECTORS

Movement of the pilots controls is transmitted to the control surfaces by a

system of rods or cables, or a combination of both. Chains over sprockets are also
used. The system must transmit the control surface loading back to the
pilot (on non powered system).

On some aircraft, such as the A320, transmission of control signals to the

(powered) control surfaces is via a computerised fly-by-wire system.

On some aircraft a fly-by-light system is used (also computerised).

9
These systems are covered in the book P.F.C.U.s and Autopilots.

There are two basic types of mechanical systems:

(a) Rod System

Light alloy push-pull rods, supported by idling links, bell cranks, roller
bearings or graphite impregnated bushes, form a simple rigid link which is
free from backlash. Changes in direction of the control run are
obtained by the use of bell crank levers or torque tubes. The rods
provide both a push and pull input. Not often used as a complete
system.

(b) Cable System

Non-corrodible extra flexible cables, tensioned to eliminate lag, form an

effective continuous loop over pulleys and quadrants so as to provide a
pull in both directions. Each length of cable has end fittings swaged in
position, some of which are drilled and tapped to accommodate the
turnbuckles used to tension the cable run.

On long straight runs tie rods may replace cables. The cables are
supported on pulleys and fair-leads and pulleys are used to change the
direction of the cable run. These pulleys and fair-leads must be kept
clean to reduce system static friction. The cable systems are usually
duplicated with 'port and starboard' systems interconnected via
'disconnect' rods that will disconnect should one side jam.

RUDDG P.P.c.U.

F.P.c.U. 0
AILERON IDLING TAILPLANE
RUDDER RAP LEVER PEEL UNIT AUTOSTARILI ERR
ACTUATOR

Fig. 7 EXAMPLE OF A PUSH/PULL ROD SYSTEM

(ENGLISH ELECTRIC LIGHTNING)

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Most aircraft have a combination system of push/pull rods and cables. The
push/pull rods are used for the shorter runs (under the flight deck, in the
tailplane etc) and cables are used for the longer runs down the fuselage, along
the wings etc.

Advantages of Cable Systems

The overall advantages of a cable system over a rod system are:

(a) Weight reduction.

(b) Cost reduction.

However, the structure of an aircraft is continually changing it's length due to

temperature changes, and since the expansion rate (steel a 23 x 10-6)of the
light alloy (a 15 x 10-6) in the structure is nearly twice that of the steel in the
cables, cable tensions vary considerably. (a
= coefficient of linear expansion)

QUESTION: Explain what would happen to the tension of a cable system

without any automatic adjustment when the aircraft increases
altitude? (10 mins)

ANSWER: As the aircraft climbs so the ambient temperature reduces (as low
as -56°C if we climb high enough). This will cause the fuselage
(and the rest of the structure) to contract in length quicker than
the cables with altitude, so the pulley hinge points get closer and
the cable tension reduces.

To overcome this problem requires either very high tensions at ground level
settings (as was used on some older aircraft) or the use of a tension regulator in
the cable system.

Most aircraft systems are now regulated by means of Cable Tension Regulators,
which give a relatively constant system tension irrespective of changes in
temperature resulting in much lower rigged tensions. (More of this later).

CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Flight deck controls usually consist of a control column or control wheel and
rudder pedals. Where there are twin controls (pilot and copilot) they are
interconnected with a spring link/detent or automatic disconnect link so that if one
side jams the other can be operated.

- 14-
On small aircraft disconnect/ spring links are not usually fitted.

On larger aircraft the control column is fitted with a "stick shaker". This is a
small electric motor driving an out of balance wheel. When the aircraft
approaches the stalling angle the motor is operated to cause the stick to shake
and warn the pilot (with aural warnings as well). The warning signal comes from
an angle of attack vane fitted on the side of the fuselage.

On some aircraft a stick nudger may be fitted to push the control column
forward when the aircraft approaches the stalling angle. The pilot can overcome
this if he/she wishes.

The rudder pedals are fitted with an adjustment mechanism to allow for
adjustment to suit the leg length of each individual pilot.

The handwheel may have controls fitted to it such as:

(a) Parking brake.

(b) Auto pilot switch.
(c) Intercom switch.
(d) Elevator/ tailplane trim switch.

AUTO PILOT CUT OUT

AND GO AROUND SUTTON

Fig. 11 CONTROL COLUMN

- 15-
Control Column

Usually fitted with a chain, sprocket, and cable system to transmit aileron
control inputs to the system, and is connected under the floor to the elevator
control system. May be fitted with a stick shaker, though this can be fitted
further on in the system.

On some aircraft (e.g. the A320) the control column has been replaced by a side
stick fitted to the left hand console (for the captain) and the right hand console for
the co-pilot. This is connected to the 'fly by wire' system.

Rudder Pedals

May be of the simple 'rudder bar' type or be supported on separate lever

mechanisms. The foot pedals are adjustable to cater for different leg lengths
and are usually fitted with wheel brake control foot motors.

RUDDER BAR ADJUSTER

CABLES TO RUDDER

Fig. 12 RUDDER BAR

Detent or Disconnect Strut (Torque Limiter on the L-1011)

Fitted on some aircraft where duplicate controls run from the flight deck to the
control surfaces. It is fitted between the pilot's and co-pilot's controls so that
should a jam occur on one system the other system can be operated normally
after the detent strut has "broken out". These break out struts vary in design
but the following description is typical of a modern airliner.

Figure 13 shows the detent strut from the BAe 146 aileron control system. It is
located under the flight deck floor and connects the pilots control column to the
co-pilots control column. Effectively it is a rigid link as the rollers are forced into
the detent grove by the action of the spring collate.
 SLIDER
INNER SHAFT ROLLERS SPRING
NUT

14

MICRO-SWITCH OUTER SHAFT

Fig. 13 DETENT STRUT

EXAMPLE - BAe 146

If one side of the control system becomes jammed and the other side is
operated then (at a break out load of 35 lb. force) the link "breaks out". This
allows one side of the system to be operated even though the other side is
jammed.

During this operation the inner shaft is allowed to slide in and out of the outer
shaft as the rollers have been forced out of their detent positions.

The break out of the strut operates a microswitch on the strut. that releases the
disconnect device on the aileron balance/ interconnecting cable circuit, allowing
movement of either aileron.
Stick Shaker

This may be initiated by a;

(a) Leading edge stall warning vane.

(b) Rotating angle of attack probe.
(c) Trailing angle of attack vane.

These may operate the stick shaker and stick pusher directly via a micro
switch (a) or via the DADC (Digital Air Data Computer) (b) and (c).

The stick shaker is an electric motor driving an out of balance wheel attached to
the control column, or close by on the system. When it is switched on, just
before the stalling angle (12° to 14°), the out of balance wheel causes the
control column to shake, warning the pilot of an impending stall.

Stick Pusher

If the pilot ignores the stick shaker and the angle of attack increases still
further then the stick pusher system is activated.

This system operates a jack, pneumatically on some aircraft, which is

connected to the elevator control system. This gives a positive push to the
control column and causes the aircraft to pitch nose down when the system is
activated. It can be overridden by the pilot, if necessary, by the operation of a
switch, which on the pneumatic system releases the pressure in the supply line to
the jack. Even if this fails the system is so arranged that the pilot can
manually overcome the force of the jack by pulling on the control column.
When not supplied with pressure the jack moves freely when the controls are
moved.

The pneumatic system is supplied with air pressure from a tapping on the jet
engine (typically 40 P.S.I.).

The system usually has the following inputs:

* Airspeed switch. Increases speed of operation with reduced

airspeed.
* Stick shaker relay, which receives the signal from the angle of
attack indicator probe.
* Flap and slat position. The deployment of these will affect the
stalling angle.
Figure 14 shows the stall warning system for the BAe 146. Note the following
inputs/outputs.

* Weight on wheels (squat).

* Flap position.
* Test.
* Power supplies.
* Airspeed.
* Fail.

DE-ICE

AIRFLOW
SENSOR
VANE

SQUAT
TEST
FLAP INPUT

IDENTIFICATION
AOA AIRFLOW SENSOR VANE POSH
SIGNAL VANE EXCITATION
(DENT -a SUMMING ADA SIGNAL
FAIL UNIT

AC POWER
DC POWER
RATE INHIBIT
-AIRSPEED TRANSDUCER
ONE CHANNEL SHOWN
TWO CHANNELS PER SYSTEM

AIRSPEED TRANSDUCER
-DC POWER
AC POWER
i
WArNING
AOA AIRFLOW SENSOR VANE POSN
SIGNAL VANE EXCITATION
WARN-- SUMMING
AOA SIGNAL
FAIL UNIT
A FLAP INPUT
TEST
SQUAT

Fig. 14 STALL WARNING CIRCUIT BAe 146

Control Stops

Usually adjustable, and fitted to the front and rear of each system. Will control
the range of movement of the system. Primary control stops are fitted to the
control surface end of the system while secondary control stops are fitted to the
cockpit or flight-deck end of the system. On some aircraft the range of movement is
progressively reduced as the speed of the aircraft is increased the BAe 146 for
example. This is achieved by automatic moveable control stops or limiters.

- 19-
 LES

I
STOPS

Fig. 15 CONTROL STOPS

Chains and Sprockets

Cables may go around a pulley or be connected to the pulley end fittings. The
cable may terminate at a chain fitting usually a turnbuckle and the chain
passed around a sprocket. This provides a positive drive to the sprocket.
Chains may be of the "non reversible type" which means that they are so
designed that they cannot be put on the sprocket the wrong way round.
(For more information on chains see the books in this series "Basic
Engineering").

PUSH/PULL ROD

CHAIN

TURNBUCKLES CONNECTED
TO CABLES

Fig. 16 SPROCKET & CHAIN DETAIL

Push/Pull Rod Support

Push/pull rods may be supported on idling links or various types of bearings.

Remember to keep the bearings clean and dry at all times. To change the
direction of the run a bell crank lever, torque tube or pulley is used.
ROLLER BEARINGS INSPECTION HOLE

GRAPHITE IMPREGNATED
BUSH ADJUSTABLE END FITTING

Fig. 17 PUSH /PULL RODS SUPPORTS & END FITTINGS

Fig. 18 BELL CRANK LEVER

Fig. 19 FAIRLEADS
Cable Support

Cables can be supported by pulleys and special quadrants where they can
change angular direction - without limit. Where little or no change in direction is
required various types of fairleads can be used. Fairleads are usually made of
composite material and must not be lubricated.

Pulleys

Made from fibre, plastic or metal and are used to give a more abrupt change of
direction of the cable run. Guards are usually fitted to retain the cable on the
pulley and often a cover to keep out unwanted small items which might foul their
operation.

GUARD PIN

Fig. 20 CABLE PULLEY & GUARD

QUADRANT

Fig. 21 CABLE QUADRANTS

 Fig. 22 CABLE SUPPORT PULLEY

Turnbuckles

These may vary in design and commonly may be of the Barrel Rod type or the
Tension Rod type. In general they all have a left hand thread at one end and a
right hand thread at the other. When the centre part is rotated holding the two
cable ends to prevent them rotating then the cable tension will either be
increased or decreased. It is important that, after adjustment and prior to wire
locking that the threads are in safety.

For the barrel type turnbuckle that means that all the threads must be buried in
the barrel.

For the tension rod type the threads must be screwed in deep enough into the
fork ends so that a piece of locking wire will not pass through the inspection
hole. The wire should be the same size as the inspection hole and not come out
the other side.

BARREL
LOCKING WIRE

Fig. 23 BARREL ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE

LOCKING WIRE TYPE
 TERMINAL

Fig. 24 BARREL ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE

LOCKING CLIP TYPE

INSPECTION HOLE R.H. THREAD

L.H. THREAD

Fig. 25 TENSION ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE

Cable Connectors

These are fitted to some cable systems at positions where the cables need to be
disconnected.

Each half of the connector is keyed in such a way that it can only be fitted back to
its mating half. The connectors allow for quick cable disconnect and re-
connect without the possibility of connecting two wrong cables together. They
usually do not provide for any cable tension adjustment.

Torque Tubes

Used to change linear motion into rotary motion.

Cable Tension Regulators

The majority of modern aircraft now use cable operated systems for their flying
controls. This is due, in a large part, to the development of efficient Cable
Tension Regulators.

Cable tension regulators are mechanical devices and can be made in many
configurations, for example, quadrants, bell crank levers, pulleys etc. For the
purpose of a brief description, we will consider the quadrant type.

PUSH/PULL ROD

4000

Fig. 26 QUADRANT TYPE CABLE TENSION REGULATOR

SCHEMATIC

This consists of a pair of spring loaded quadrants with a pointer scale for
recording the cable tensions. The cables are inserted through slots in the
recessed ends of the V grooved quadrants and the cable ends are secured at
the cable anchorage's.

When the cables are tightened equally (as with the fuselage getting longer as
the aircraft descends) the quadrants rotate about the centre shaft and the links
pull the cross-head freely along the locking shaft, compressing the springs and, in
effect tensioning the cables.

The springs react against the cross-head and, when the cables slacken (with an
increase in altitude), push the cross-head back along the shaft, thus tightening
the cables.
 TENSIONER TO CROSSHEAD
SPRINGS PCU

4w
CABLES SLACKEN EQUALLY CABLES TIGHTEN EQUALLY

FUSELAGE TEMPERATURE REDUCING FUSELAGE TEMPERATURE INCREASING

CABLE TENSION REGULATOR NO PILOT INPUT

CROSSHEAD MOVES FREELY WITH SPRINGS MAINTAINING TENSIONS

SHAFT

" CONTROL APPLIED

Cr.sshsod tilts and locks on shalt, locking quadrants.

CROSSHEAD LOCKED ON SHAFT UNIT BEHAVES AS A PULLEY

CABLE TENSION REGULATOR- PILOT INPUT

Fig. 27 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR OPERATION

- 26-
When a control load is applied by the pilot only one link will tend to move,
tilting the cross-head on its locking shaft (a very small amount) and locking it to
the shaft, preventing movement of one quadrant relative to the other with the
whole system now acting as a pulley. Both quadrants are, therefore, locked
together and operate as a solid pulley until the control load is released.

TEMPERATURE SCALE
(Should read to within 5° of actual
temperature. But check manual.)

CABLES

Fig. 28 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR

Each tension regulator incorporates a scale and pointer which provides a visual
tension indication at all times. When rigging a regulated cable system
therefore, a tensiometer is not required, the cables being tensioned until the
correct reading is obtained on the regulator scale. The correct reading depends on
the ambient temperature and must be obtained form a special graph
provided for each regulator in the aircraft.

Pressure Bulkheads

On pressurised aircraft the control run will have to pass out of the pressurised
area to the unpressurised side of the cabin.

- 27-
Thus control tubes and cables must pass through seals to prevent undue air
leakage. The pressure bulkhead seal must allow freedom of movement, be self
aligning, require little or no maintenance and provide a good air seal.

BULKHEAD

Fig. 29 BELLOWS TYPE SEAL

One such device consists of a rubber bellows which moves with the control.
This arrangement is used with control systems using twin cables (one up and
one down), as the cabin pressure acting on the bellows causes a load on the
control which must be balanced by an equal and opposite load on the other
cable.

RUBBER FRICTION SEAL

Fig. 30 GLAND TYPE SEAL

Alternative methods of permitting the control rods or cables to slide through

some form of gland are frequently utilised. Several types have been developed for
this purpose, all of which rely on packing rings or silicon rubber composite to
provide the air-tight joint. Remember, they should be kept clean and not
lubricated.

Improved sealing is effected if the movement through the bulkhead is rotary

rather than linear. The typical arrangement illustrated consists of a rubber
seal, clipped to and rotating with the control tube. Air pressure acting on the
splayed outer end of the rubber seal forms an airtight joint.

-28-
 BULKHEAD

Fig. 31 ROTATING SEAL

Powered Controls

The control surfaces of many modern aircraft are subjected to very heavy air
loads due to the airspeed and/or the size of the control surface. These loads
are often greater than the pilot can comfortably overcome and he/she must
therefore be assisted.

It is usual to power the control surfaces hydraulically, using a basically simple

hydraulic system, the control valve of which is moved by the pilot via the
control system.

However, to ensure that the surface moves only when, and as far as the pilot
wants it to, a feedback from the jack to the control valve must be incorporated.
(Negative feed back).

The basic jack and control valve are incorporated in one unit called a Powered
Flying Control Unit (PFCU or PCU), and may contain the autopilot servo.

The usual type of P.F.C.U. feeds off an aircraft hydraulic system, but there are
other types which are self contained hydraulic systems requiring only electrical
power to drive their pump motors. (See the book in this series P.F.C.U.s and
Autopilots).

Feel Systems

When a control system is powered in this way the pilot loses all sense of feel,
since the work is done hydraulically. Since feel is essential for the pilot to fly
the aircraft properly under adequate control, it must be provided artificially.
The simplest form, a spring box in the control run, supplies a constant feel
force irrespective of air load variations, and is therefore not completely
satisfactory but it is cheap.

Another system measures dynamic pressure (q) and therefore surface loading,
and varies the feel force accordingly. Feel force therefore increases as speed
increases and vice versa and decreases with altitude and vice versa. It is
known as a "Q Feel System". (Again, see the book in this series "P.F.C.U.s and
Autopilots").

TABS

These are ancillary surfaces attached to the rear of the primary flying control
surfaces. A control surface may have several tabs attached to it although
several functions may be built into one tab. Tabs can be fitted to non powered
systems, and tabs (balance & anti-balance) may be fitted to some powered flying
control systems.

Fixed Tab

This is adjustable only on the ground by maintenance engineers. It may be

fitted to non powered controls and is used to correct for inherent flying faults. It
may be an actual tab as shown or may be a metal strip attached to the
trailing edge of the control surface. The tab as shown is adjusted by removing
the fixing plate, repositioning the tab and refitting the plate. The metal strip type
tab is bent into a new position usually using a special bending tool.

Control Rod Pivot Tab

Main Surface

Fig. 32 FIXED TAB

The tab is moved in the opposite direction to that which we require the control
surface to move e.g. to correct for an inherent nose down attitude the elevator
needs to be raised which means the tab on the elevator is adjusted downwards.
Controllable Trim Tab

This is moved by the pilot during flight to allow the aircraft to be trimmed to fly
straight and level, although it is sometimes used to trim the aircraft into a
climb or a descent path.

The tab may be manually operated using cables, chains and screwjacks, or it
may be electrically operated with an electric actuator controlled from the flight
deck. Fitted to non powered controls.

QUESTION: Why should the pilot wish to trim the aircraft into straight
and level flight during flight? (5 mins)

ANSWER: The trim of the aircraft might change due to fuel usage, one
engine (multi-engined aircraft) shut down, and to save
fatigue on the pilot the aircraft can be trimmed into an
attitude where the pilot has to put little or no input into the
system to keep his aircraft flying on the correct course and
altitude.

Fig. 33 CONTROLLABLE TRIM TAB

Balance Tab

This assists the pilot to move his controls on a non powered system, or relieve
the load on a powered system. It is automatic in operation.

The tab is fixed by a rod to the mainplane, tailplane or fin. When the control
surface is moved by the pilot the tab is caused to move in the opposite
direction. The airflow hitting the tab will cause a force to be created in the
direction that the control surface has moved.

This force (whilst small) is at some distance from the control surface hinge line
- thus a turning moment is created which assists the pilot to move his/her
controls.
 FIXED ROD ATTACHED TO MAIN SURFACE

Fig. 34 BALANCE TAB

QUESTION: Could the balance tab also be used to function as another

type of tab and if so what? (10 mins)

ANSWER: If the attachment red is adjustable on the ground then it

can be used as a fixed tab as well as a balance tab. If the
length of the attachment rod can be adjusted from the flight
deck in the air then the tab can perform the dual function of
a controllable trimming tab and balance tab.

Anti-Balance Tab

To make the controls more effective and to give the pilot more feel an
antibalance tab may be fitted.

It is similar to a balance tab except that the linkage is so connected that the
tab moves in the same direction as the control surface but further.

Fig. 35 SERVO TAB

It is interesting to note that the anti-balance tab fitted to the rudder of the
Canadian de Havilland Dash 8 has the same chord length as the rudder itself
- presumably making for very effective directional control.

- 32-
Servo Tab

This is similar to the balance tab in principle but it is operated directly by the
pilot. The control surface is not connected to the control system but is free to
move in any direction. Movement of the pilot's primary control moves the tab,
aerodynamic pressure on the tab will cause a turning moment on the control
surface, which will move in the opposite direction. Control, however, is still
instinctive. Fitted to non powered controls.

QUESTION: Which way would the tabs move on the ailerons to cause the
aircraft to roll to the right? (5 mins)
(Hint In your mind move the primary control surface first
the tabs move in the opposite direction).

ANSWER: The right hand tab will move down causing the right hand
aileron to move up and the right hand wing to move
down. The left hand tab will move up and every thing else is
vice versa.

This type of tab works very well at reasonably high speed (all the primary flight
controls on the Bristol Britannia are servo tabbed), but at low speed it has its
problems. When the tab moves into low airspeed it produces little force and
consequently poor control surface response. To overcome this problem Spring
Tabs were invented.

PIVOT LINK

SPRING
PILOTS INPUT

Fig. 36 SPRING TAB

Spring Tab

This is similar to the servo tab but it only operates at the higher airspeeds. At
the lower airspeeds the pilot operates the control surfaces as normal.

The control linkage is connected directly to the tab with a connection to the
control surface via a torsion bar (shown as a spring in the drawing).
At low airspeeds the loading on the control surface is insufficient to overcome the
pressure of the spring/ torsion bar, and the movement of the control system moves
the control surface directly through the spring/torsion bar. At high
airspeeds the aerodynamic loading on the control surface is sufficient to
overcome the pressure of the spring/torsion bar. Movement of the link
compresses or extends the spring/torsion bar and moves the tab. The tab in turn
moves the control surface acting as a servo tab.

CONTROLLABLE TRIMMING TAB SYSTEM

These are operated by the pilot independently of the main controls and are not
fitted to powered flying controls. They are used to trim the aircraft to a
particular flight attitude, e.g. to trim it to fly straight and level, allowing for
changes in C of G position due to say changing fuel load.

They may be operated from the flight deck by a mechanical system of cables
and pulleys or they may be operated electrically.

The cockpit controls are designed so their operation is "instinctive" i.e.

handwheel forward nose trimmed down.

The tab may be combined with say a balance tab and may be fitted to the
rudder, elevator and, usually, one of the ailerons.

SPROCKET

FAIRLEAD Z j/ Z TRIM TAB

SCREW JACK

PUSH/PULL ROD

Fig. 37 ELEVATOR TRIM TAB SYSTEM MECHANICAL

Direction of Movement

The control run of the controllable trimming tabs is usually complicated, and
because of the screw jack or other similar device, their operation may not be
readily understood. Therefore, it is advisable to re-check that the movement of the
cockpit control does result in the correct movement of the tab.

Elevator Trimming Tab

These are usually operated by a hand wheel mounted in the vertical plane fore and
aft, so that when the top of the handwheel is moved forward, that is, wheel wound
forward, the nose of the aircraft goes down, and vice versa. Markings on or near
the handwheel, such as "Nose up" and "Nose down" indicate the
direction in which to turn the handwheel. (Note the mechanical trim wheel on
the centre pedestal of the Airbus A320).

TABLE 2 ELEVATOR TAB MOVEMENT

Aircraft Flying Pilot's Tab Subsequent

Fault Action Movement Primary Control
Surface
Movement
NOSE HEAVY CONTROL
WHEEL DOWN UP
REARWARD,
TAIL HEAVY CONTROL
WHEEL UP DOWN
FORWARD

MOVEMENT OF TAB

EFFECT IN FLIGHT

Fig. 38 MOVEMENT OF ELEVATOR TRIM TAB

- 35-
Aileron Trimming Tab

This is usually operated by a handwheel mounted vertically on a fore and aft

spindle. As the ailerons are interconnected, a controllable trimming tab may be
fitted to one aileron only. Markings on or near the handwheel, such as, "To
correct for port wing low" and "To correct for starboard wing low" indicate the
direction in which to turn the handwheel.

TABLE 3 AILERON TAB MOVEMENT

Aircraft Flying Pilot's Action (RIGHT AILERON) Subsequent

Fault Tab Movement Primary Control
Surface
Movement
LEFT WING LOW WHEEL TO THE RIGHT UP
RIGHT DOWN LEFT DOWN
RIGHT WING WHEEL TO THE RIGHT DOWN
LOW LEFT UP LEFT UP

HAND WHEEL MOVEMENT

Fig. 39 MOVEMENT OF AILERON TRIM TAB

(FITTED TO THE LEFT WING)

Rudder Trimming Tab

These are usually operated by a handwheel mounted horizontally, though some

aircraft may have the handwheel mounted vertically on a fore and aft spindle.
Markings on or near the handwheel, such as "Correct for yaw to port" and
"Correct for yaw to starboard" indicate the direction in which to turn the
handwheel.

- 36-
TABLE 4 RUDDER TAB MOVEMENT

Aircraft Flying Pilot's Action Tab Movement Subsequent

Fault Primary Control
Surface
Movement
YAWS LEFT WHEEL LEFT RIGHT
CLOCKWISE
YAWS RIGHT WHEEL ANTI- RIGHT LEFT
CLOCKWISE

MOVEMENT OF TAB
HAND WHEEL MOVEMENT

�Qv
EFFECT IN FLIGHT

Fig. 40 MOVEMENT OF RUDDER TRIM TAB

Electrically Operated Trim Tabs

Most of the electric trim systems are an extension of the manual system with
provision to allow for manual trimming in the event of electric supply failure or
electric actuator failure. The actuator is usually reversible and incorporates an
overload clutch that will slip in an emergency.

Cockpit control is usually through "thumb" switches that return to the centre off
position when finger pressure is released. Pushing the switch one way will
cause the tab to move, say, down, while pushing it the other way wi ll cause the tab
to move up. Again the system is instinctive.

Operation of the switch will cause a d.c. voltage to be supplied to the motor. The
motor will operate a reduction gearing or a screw jack to move the tab direct.
On smaller aircraft the d.c. motor is of the permanent magnet type with
reversal being achieved by reversing the current in the armature. On larger
aircraft the motor is a split field motor.

Fig. 41 AILERON TRIM SYSTEM OF THE BAe 146

BALANCING OF CONTROL SURFACES

Control surfaces are usually mass balanced and aerodynamically balanced.

Mass balance is used to reduce the possibility of flutter and aerodynamic
balance is used to assist the pilot to move the controls.

QUESTION: Can you explain what is meant by the term "flutter"?

(10 mins).
ANSWER: Like all things aeronautical, "flutter" is a complex subject
and it comes in many forms. In general, however, it can be
considered as a form of vibration which is induced by
aerodynamic forces and is a function of the "stiffness" of the
structure and the control system and surfaces. In its mildest
form it may not be noticed, or may show up as increased wear
in control surface bearings. In its more severe form it can cause
the aircraft to disintegrate in flight with explosive force.

Mass Balance

Flutter can be reduced, or even prevented, by the mass balancing of the control
surfaces.

During the design stage the centre of gravity of the control surface is calculated
to be within certain limits.

This is usually achieved by the addition of carefully calculated weights (to be

technically correct masses) placed forward of the hinge line. This is done on
control surfaces whether they are powered or not, and the C of G must be
within a certain range in plan view and in end elevation, i.e. in two planes.

• = HINGE LINE

Fig. 42 MASS BALANCE WEIGHT

X X = C of G RANGE

Fig. 43 C of G RANGE IN PLAN VIEW

The range of the C of G in end elevation may be such as to make the control
surface nose heavy, tail heavy or either depending on the actual C of G
position.

Fig. 44 C of G RANGE NOSE HEAVY CONTROL SURFACE

Fig. 45 C of G RANGE NOSE OR TAIL HEAVY

Fig. 46 C of G RANGE TAIL HEAVY

Of course the designer will decide where the C of G is to be and a range is given to
allow for minor repairs and paint finishes to be carried out without the need to
continuously adjust the mass balance weights.

The mass balance and total weight of the control surface will be checked in
accordance with the aircraft manual where the equipment will be specified and
the calculations to be used will be shown.

QUESTION: Can you specify 2 or 3 occasions when control surfaces

should be weighed/mass balance checked? (10 rains)
ANSWER: 1. As laid down in the maintenance schedule.
2. On fitment of a new or replacement surface.
3. After repair or modification to the control surface.
4. After reported flutter.
5. After aircraft/ control surface respray.

The check may be done on the aircraft but the surface may have to be removed
and the check carried out on a bench.

The check may involve balancing the surface on it's hinge line by adding test
weights to the leading or trailing edge. Calculations are then carried out, using
this information on how much weight has to be added or removed to the mass
balance weight. The mass balance weight is adjusted and the control surface
retested, and the test weights removed.

After adjustment, the new balance information (together with the total weight of
the surface) is recorded in the aircraft log book. There may also be a record plate
on the control surface which will need amending. The control surface may also
be balanced in the spanwise plane check the manual.

QUESTION: What are the mass balance weights made of and how can
they be adjusted? (15 mins)

ANSWER: Mass balance weights may be made of-

• Steel (density = 7800 kg/m3). *

Lead (density = 11300 kg/m3).
* Depleted uranium (DU) (density= 19000 kg/m3). Most of it
phaseu out now because of health concern.
* Tungsten (density= 19300 kg/m3). Replacing DU.
Expensive.

Note. In general the more dense a material the less space it

requires in the structure for a given amount of weight.

Adjustments will be carried out in accordance with the

AMM, but may involve the use of the following:

* Addition/ removal of steel washers/bolts.

* Addition/ removal of mass balance weights. *
Addition/ removal of steel shims.
* Re-location of mass balance weights - fore and aft. *
Changing weights for different sizes.
* Machining of weights - only if allowed in the manual,
and remember DO NOT cut or damage depleted uranium.
Aerodynamic Balance

The force which is needed to move a flying control system in flight depends on:
air density; aircraft velocity; control surface size, and angle of deflection.

F ac 1/2 pV2S

where F = force in Newtons

p = air density in kg per m3
V = velocity in m/s2
S = area in m2

(NOTE. The symbol "oc", this means "is proportional to")

On large/fast aircraft this force may become too much for the pilot to overcome so
the controls may be powered and/or aerodynamically balanced.

Aerodynamic balance can be achieved by:

(a) Balance tabs.

(b) Servo tabs.
(c) Spring tabs.
(d) Pressure balance.
(e) Horn balance.
(f) Inset hinges.
(g) Balance panels.

Having already dealt with the tabs-let us now have a look at the rest.

Pressure Balance - With this system part of the control surface, in the form of a
beak, extends forward of the hinge line into an enclosed area within the main
structure. When the pilot moves the control surface, say up, the air pressure
increases above the surface and decreases below it. This differential pressure is
felt across the beak thus assisting the pilot to move his/her controls.

Sometimes the gap between the beak and the aircraft structure is sealed by a
lfexible apron (Westland/Irving Type) or hinged flap (balance panel system).
 Shroud
Pressure Control surface movement

Small gap
Beak
Fig. 47 PRESSURE BALANCE CONTROL

Horn Balance - This is where part of the control surface extends forward of the
hinge line. When the surface is moved in one direction the horn moves in the
other direction, but out into the airflow, thus it experiences an
aerodynamic force which helps the pilot to move his controls. The horn may also
house the mass balance weights.

Fig. 48 HORN BALANCE

Inset Hinge - On this control surface the complete leading edge extends
forward of the hinge line and the effect is similar to that of the horn balance.
Again this area houses the mass balance weights.
 HINGE LINE i--�

Fig. 49 INSET HINGE

Balance Panel - The balance panel is housed in a balance bay forward of the ...�
control surface. When the control surface is moved a pressure difference is felt
either side of the control surface which is allowed to pass through the vent gap and
act on the balance panel. This action assists control surface movement.
Figure 50 shows the elevator balance panel of the Boeing 737-400.

STABILIZER ELEVATOR
NOSE

ELEVATOR TAB
ADJUST WEIGHTS
(INSTALLED IN ELEVATOR
BALANCE NOSE IN BALANCE SAY NO. 2 AS
BALANCE WEIGHT REQUIREq)
HINGE PANEL
SEAL

Fig. 50 BALANCE PANEL EXAMPLE 737-400

AILERONS

Most control surfaces work with little or no adverse aerodynamic affect but
the ailerons can be different. They can suffer from adverse yaw.

-44-
When the ailerons are moved the down going aileron tends to produce more drag
than the up going one. In a turn the down going aileron is on the up going
wing. This wing is on the outside of the turn. If the down going aileron
produces too much drag then it may tend to turn the aircraft in the wrong
direction. To counteract this problem the aircraft may be fitted with:

* Frise Ailerons

* Differential Ailerons

* Aileron Upfloat.

Frise Ailerons

These are designed so that the up going aileron (on the inner wing of the turn)
produces more drag than the down going one, thus the aircraft is helped to turn in
the correct direction. The aileron has a low set hinge so that when it is moved up
the leading edge of the aileron protrudes into the airflow and creates drag. When
the aileron is moved down it produces less drag.

HINGE LINE

DRAG CAUSED BY AILERON NOSE

Fig. 51 FRISE AILERONS

Differential Ailerons

The aileron control system is designed so that the up going aileron moves
through a greater range of movement than the down going one. Thus the
aileron on the inside of the turn produces as much if not more drag than the
one on the outside of the turn - thus preventing adverse yaw.
 450 UP AND DOWN ANGULAR
RANGE OF MOVEMENT

CABLES
UP ACTUAL LINEAR
DOWN MOVEMENT

PUSH/PULL ROD
TO AILERON

Fig. 52 DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS

With reference to figure 52 and assuming a 45° angular range of movement of

the pulley. It can be seen that the linear range of the push/pull rod is greater
when it moves up than when it moves down. Thus the up going aileron (lower
wing) moves through a greater range and produces more drag than the down
going one.

Aileron Upfloat

On some smaller aircraft the ailerons may be rigged into their "neutral"
position with a certain amount of "upfloat". In other words the neutral position of
both ailerons is set above the trailing edge of the wing (refer to the aircraft
maintenance manual). This will mean that the up going aileron will move even
higher into the airflow with an increase in drag, and the down going aileron will
not move so far into the airflow producing little drag.

QUESTION: This last method is an inexpensive way of counteracting

adverse yaw, but it does have one disadvantage. Can you
think what it is? (2 mins).

ANSWER: You might have thought of several disadvantages, but one

that springs to mind is the continuous drag penalty. When
flying straight and level both ailerons are high in the airflow
and creating drag not a good idea. Another disadvantage is
that they are both creating "negative lift".
 Enhanced Roll Control

On many larger aircraft the aileron system is interconnected with the spoilers to
give better roll control. The spoilers are operated asymmetrically in
conjunction with the up going ailerons to increase drag (and reduce lift) on the
down going wing. The operation of the spoilers may be related to speed and/or
range of aileron movement.

SPOILER CONTROL
MODULE (6 PLACES)
INPUT RVDT
CHARACTERISTICS
VOLTAGE

POS I'

SPOILER
PANEL

SPOILER CONTROL
COMMAND RVDT c�u� is
UNIT (2 PLACES)
A 0

FEEDBACK LVDT
CHARACTERISTICS

Fig. 53 ASYMMETRIC SPOILER CONTROL EXAMPLE

In some aircraft the operation of the asymmetric spoilers is by a direct link

between the aileron system and the spoiler selectors/actuators. In other
systems the spoilers are operated via a control module/computer (Figure 56).

With reference to figure 53 - note the inputs to the control module roll -
speedbrake lever - feedback signal.

WARNING

1. Spoilers operate quickly and can cause serious injury.

2. They also have a fail safe system which means that they will close
automatically if either hydraulic pressure or electrical power is removed. (On
some aircraft they will float upwards in flight if selected and the
hydraulic power has failed. This is caused by the reduced pressure above
the wing.)

3. With the hydraulic system pressurised and the aircraft on the ground
the spoilers will operate automatically if reverse thrust is selected.

Enhanced Lift Facility

On some of the larger modern aircraft both ailerons will automatically set into
the "droop " position for take-off and landing. This enhances the lift
characteristics for that part of the wing because (in effect) the ailerons are acting
similar to flaps whilst still allowing the pilot roll control via the
ailerons.

Figure 54 shows the location of a typical droop actuator it also shows the
spring feel unit and the electrically operated trim system. As with most
powered controls the trimming of the system is usually achieved by setting the
system to a "new neutral" - except with many elevator systems where the
tailplane is trimmed.

Elevons

Some aircraft such as delta wing aircraft (Concorde) are fitted with a set of
control surfaces at the trailing edge of the wing. Having no tailplane these
surfaces must do the job of elevators and ailerons hence the term elevons.

When the control column.is pulled back all control surfaces rise (and vice
versa).
1
When the control column is moved to the left the left hand elevons rise and
the right ones fall (and vice versa).

When the pilot puts both roll and pitch inputs in simultaneously the system
"mixes the two signals" to give a combination of both:

e.g. Aircraft climbing and banking to the left.

Control column back and to the left.
All elevons up but those on the left up further than
those on the right.

Flaperons

Combine the function of a flap and an aileron. Fitted to the Boeing 777
(inboard aileron). Similar to droop ailerons.

-48-
 Wt
N
M
b�A

-49-
 TAILPLANES

Tailplanes may be:-

Fixed - with elevators. On small aircraft.

* Variable Incidence (V.I.). Also fitted with elevators. The

tailplane may be powered (electric or hydraulic) on some
aircraft or manually operated (screw jacks) on small aircraft.

* All Flying or Slab. Is used as the primary flying control

surface and therefore has no elevators. Used in place of
elevators and often used in place of ailerons on fighter
aircraft (Tailerons). Will act together as elevators and
differentially as ailerons - or a combination of both.
-le

Variable Incidence Tailplane

Contollable trim tabs become less effective at higher speeds, and totally
ineffective on fully power operated systems. A variable incidence tailplane
overcomes these problems. The complete tailplane pivots about a main hinge and
is usually moved by an electric or hydraulic actuator.

An instinctive switch in the flight deck enables the pilot to increase or decrease the
tailplane incidence. The V.I. tailplane is more effective than a trim tab and
produces less drag.

On small aircraft the tailplane is moved manually.

Fig. 55 VARIABLE INCIDENCE TAILPLANE

All Flying or Slab Tailplane

This is similar to the V.I. tailplane except that it does not have an elevator. The
tailplane is operated directly by the fore and aft movement of the control
column and on large aircraft it is fully powered. (Manually operated on small
aircraft and may be fitted with a trim tab). Trimming of this system is by
setting the tailplane to a new neutral similar to powered control systems.

Advantages of this tailplane are:

(a) Less drag for the same control effect.

(b) More rigid and less liable to flutter.
(c) Simpler than an elevator and tab system.
(d) More effective control.

PIVOT

ACTUATING MECHANISM
(Manually operated on
small A/C. Powered on
larger A/C)
Fig. 56 ALL FLYING TAILPLANE

QUESTION: As a general knowledge question, can you think why

tailerons are not usually fitted to civil airliners?
(5 mins).

ANSWER: The twisting force would be too high on the fuselage because
of:-

(a) Its length.

(b) The high moment of inertia due to the engines being
placed out on the wings (for most civil airliners).
 E
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- 52-
 SPOILERS

These may not be considered as primary flying controls but on some aircraft
they are connected to the aileron system. They are normally situated on top of the
mainplanes forward of the flaps. They may carry out more than one
function but are generally classified as: Symmetrical; Differential; Ground Effect;
and Gust Alleviation. When extended they dump lift and create drag.

An aircraft may have 6 or 7 spoilers per wing and they may have collective and
individual functions. They are power operated.

Symmetrical Spoilers

Operated symmetrically in flight to reduce the lift/drag ratio. This will increase
the rate of descent and reduce the speed. Sometimes used on automatic
landing approach runs.

Differential Spoilers

Used in conjunction with the ailerons to give improved lateral control. When
the up going aileron is moved: (a) passed a certain angle, and/or (b) the
aircraft is flying within a certain speed range the spoilers extend on that wing.
This creates drag and dumps lift, hence increasing the desired turning effect.

Figure 59 shows the spoiler arrangement of the BAe 146. The spoiler push/pull
rod operating system is connected to the aileron cable control system at the first
quadrant in the mainplane (cable quadrant). The push/pull rod connects the cable
quadrant to the Spoiler Cam Box. From the spoiler cam box the
pilot's input is feed to the servo valve of the spoiler hydraulic actuator via a
spring strut.

During downward movement of the aileron the cam follower in the cam box
moves in the non effective portion of the cam track, and the spoiler is not
selected.

After the first (approximately) 50 of cockpit handwheel movement to raise the

aileron the spoiler is selected to give a non-linear movement in relation to
aileron movement.

Ground Effect Spoilers

These extend automatically on landing to dump lift and increase drag.

- 53-
They operate when the aircraft is configured for landing with the weight switch*
operated on the landing gear; the throttles are in their correct (usually idle)
position; the spoiler selector in the "arm" position; and the wheels are rotating
(picked up by the anti skid transducer).

*NOTE: The weight switch may be called (amongst other things):

* Weight on wheels switch (WOW) - Airbus.
* Ground/Air sensor - Boeing.
* Squat switch.
* Weight switch.

SLATS

FLAPS

OUTBOARD AILERONS

SPOILERS

I SLATS

FLAPS

Fig. 58 CONTROL SURFACES LOCATION

- 54-
 I

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-55-
Example - A300 Ground Effect Spoilers

Speed brakes and roll spoilers are used when landing as ground effect
spoilers. Deflection angles being 50° for all surfaces.

They automatically extend when:

* they are selected.
* the aircraft is on the ground.

The ground effect spoilers are selected when the two following conditions are
fulfilled:
* speed brake control lever pulled upwards (when it is in RET position) or
thrust reverser selected on one engine,
and
* both throttle levers in the idle position.

The "aircraft on ground signal" is sit when the following conditions are
fulfilled:
* two main landing gear aft landing wheels speed is greater than 70 kt. *
or (for landing):
boogie beam rotation
shock absorber compressed (signal sent 3 seconds after touchdown)
radio altitude lower than 5 ft (1.5m).

Automatic extension is achieved for an aborted take-off only when two main
landing gear aft wheels speed is higher than 70 kt.

Ground effect spoilers will remain extended during bounces due to the
ground conditions logic and as long as both throttles are in the idle position
and preselection order fulfilled.

Ground effect spoiler retraction is achieved:

* either by pressing the SPEED BRAKE control lever down
(preselection cancelled).
* or by pulling one throttle lever out of the idle position.

QUESTION With reference to figure 60. Can you work through

the logic gates to check that the above text confirms
the wiring diagram logic. Remember an AND gate
must have ALL the inputs positive for there to be an
output. An OR gate will give an output if ANY ONE
input is positive.

ANSWER If you have problems contact your tutor.

-56-
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Gust Alleviation Spoilers

These are fitted to the A320 and operate automatically to relieve inflight gust
loads. They give a more stable and comfortable flight and reduce structure
fatigue.

When the aircraft is disturbed about the longitudinal axis, gyros sense the
movement and send a signal to a computer. If the pilot has not commanded
this movement the computer will know this (all pilot's control inputs being sent to
one or more computers on the A320).

The computer will send a signal to a hydraulic control valve to extent the
spoilers on the up going wing thus dumping lift lowering the wing, and
helping to keep the aircraft level.

This is really a form of Active Stability as it relies on the use of computers and
gyros, and not on the aerodynamic design of the aircraft.

HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Strictly these are not classed as flying controls but are included in this section
because they are moveable surfaces attached to the leading and trailing edges of
the mainplane. When extended they increase lift and drag. Trailing edge devices
are called flaps and leading edge devices are usually called slats, slots, and
sometimes, leading edge flaps.

FLAPS

When extended they increase the camber of the mean camber line of the
aerofoil. Thus they increase the amount of lift produced at any given airspeed.
Many flaps also extend rearward when they are lowered which also increases the
effective wing chord length and effective wing area.

Any protrusion into the airflow causes drag and flaps are no exception. In
most cases it is an unwanted by-product of their use, but on some occasions
the drag produced can be useful in slowing the speed of the aircraft.

It is important that port and starboard flaps operate together (symmetrically). To

this end they are connected together mechanically on most aircraft, though on a
few they may be inter-connected hydraulically.

QUESTION: What would happen if the flaps moved asymmetrically in

lfight? (10 mins)
ANSWER: If one flap was to move into the airflow more that the other
there would be more lift created on that wing than on the
other. This would cause the aircraft to roll. The roll might be
significant enough (depending on the amount of flap
asymmetry) to be uncorrectable by the pilot unless he/she
can get both flaps up before total aircraft control loss.

The flaps are operated:-

(a) Manually. Being connected by rods and levers to a handle

in the cockpit, similar to a car hand brake (light aircraft).
(b) By electric actuators.
(c) By a hydraulic jack or jacks (split and plain flaps usually).
(d) By hydraulic motors - the Fowler type flap.

A simple hydraulic jack or actuator connected to a split or plain flap will be

capable of lowering or raising the flap, with the port and starboard flaps being
connected together by a mechanical linkage to prevent asymmetric operation.

Where Fowler type flaps are used (most large aircraft) the range of movement is
such as to require the use of a large jack arrangement, this would be too
heavy. In these cases it is common to operate the flaps using a drive shaft
system driven by an hydraulic motor. The motor might be in the centre of the
aircraft (or there might be more than one motor) with a drive shaft running along
the rear of the port and starboard mainplane rear spars. At each flap location the
lateral drive is converted into a longitudinal drive by a gear box arrangement. The
flaps are moved by a rotating screw jack arrangement (ball screw jack) which
moves them back and down along guide tracks which are covered by fairings when
the flaps are retracted.

Should asymmetry occur then detectors will operate a warning on the flight
deck and automatically stop the operation of the flaps.

Figure 61 shows the flap operating system for the BAe 146.

For more detailed information on the operating systems you should refer to the
book in this series entitled Hydraulics.
 v
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FLAP OPERATION - GENERAL

Take-off

A "flap-less" take-off may be used on some aircraft such as the A300. This is
employed when the runway length exceeds 2000m (allowing for certain weight
and weather restrictions).

On some aircraft there is a "long runway" flap position and a "short runway"
lfap position.

Landing

There may be 2 positions one for approach and one for landing.

Flight Deck Selector

On older aircraft this is marked in degrees. On newer aircraft it is marked

LANDING APPROACH, FINAL APPROACH, etc.

Flight Deck Indication

Flap position will be indicated either on a "clockwork" gauge Dessyn system,

moving coil, synchro system etc. or shown on a CRT screen.

Asymmetric Protection

Any flap asymmetry (leading edge or trailing edge) will induce a violent roll
the cause of several fatal accidents (with the aircraft impacting the ground).
Asymmetry is prevented, by having the port and starboard flaps (leading edge or
trailing edge) mechanically connected (cables, push/ pull rods, drive shafts etc).
On some older systems they may be hydraulically interconnected. This means
that both port and starboard flaps will move together.

Should this system suffer a mechanical breakdown then a safeguard device is

fitted to warn the pilot and stop the flaps moving.

Asymmetric detectors are usually fitted to the outboard ends of the drive
system (one port, one starboard) and monitor the revolutions/ rate of
movement of that side of the system. Their signals are sent to a comparator
unit.

- 61-
Should this show a discrepancy between the port and starboard flaps (outside a
specified tolerance) then the operating system is shut down and the pilot
warned. (Refer to the book in this series entitled Hydraulics).

Flap Load Relief

Should the flaps be lowered at excessive airspeeds then structural damage will
almost certainly result. The flaps will be damaged, the mechanism may also
suffer, and any resulting debris may hit the fuselage, tailplane, and may be
ingested into any rear-mounted engines.

Also the aircraft may suffer from lateral asymmetry as well as loss of flaps for
landing. This will result in a high-speed landing. Altogether a most unhappy
state of affairs.

With a simple hydraulic jack operated hinged type flap provision for "blow
back" can be incorporated into the hydraulic system. This is in the form of a
pressure relief valve in the flap down line called a "blow-back" valve. This will
allow the flaps to be blown back by the airflow (aerodynamic pressure) if left
down after take-off. If the flaps are lowered during flight (at speed) then the relief
system will prevent the flaps from going down too far and sustaining damage.

With screw jack operated flaps (Fowler type) the aerodynamic loads on the flap
are not transmitted to the flap operating motors so the above solution will not
work.

For screw jack operated flap systems the airspeed is sensed by the aircraft's
Pitot system. This data is sent to the Digital Air Data Computer (DADC). it
may also be sent to a flap load relief unit (airspeed unit).

If the flaps are selected down and the airspeed is high then an electric load
relief actuator is signalled to operate from a computer with air data sent to it
from the DADC. (The signal may come from an airspeed unit dedicated to the
flap load relief system refer figure 62). This will change the geometry of the
linkage between the flight-deck selector handle and the flap selector valve. This
will cause the flap selector valve to move to the retract position.

The flaps will retract (not necessarily fully up), and the pilot will get a warning.
The flight-deck selector handle usually stays in the position selected.
FLAP SELECTOR

PILOTS WARNING

Fig. 62 FLAP LOAD RELIEF SYSTEM

 FLAP MAIN TROLLEY
WING
FLAP FULLY UP

MAIN TROLLEY TRACK

FLAP TRACK FAIRING

SCREWJACK

FORWARD TROLLEY TRACK

TAKE-OFF POSITION
LONG RUNWAYS

TAKE-OFF POSITION
SHORTER RUNWAYS

LANDING APPROACH
POSITION

LANDING POSITION

Fig. 63 FOWLER TYPE FLAP POSITIONS

TYPES OF FLAP

Plain Flan 50% increase in lift. The complete rear section of the wing moves
down.

Fig. 64 PLAIN FLAP

Split Flap - 60% increase in lift. The lower rear section of the wing moves
down.

10�
Fig. 65 SPLIT FLAP

Slotted Flan - 65% increase in lift. The flap moves down and forms a slot
between it and the wing. This allows some air through the slot from the bottom of
the wing to the tdp of the flap keeping the top side clean from eddy currents and
making the flap more efficient.

Fig. 66 SLOTTED FLAP

Fowler Flan - 90% increase in lift. The flap moves down and back to
effectively increase the wing area while producing a more cambered mean
camber line.

Fig. 67 FOWLER FLAP

- 65-
Double Slotted Fowler Flap - 100% increase in lift with an increase of stalling
angle to 200. The double slot allows air from under the flap to sweep the top
surface clean of any turbulence.

Fig. 68 DOUBLE SLOTTED FOWLER FLAP

Hinged Fowler Flap - 100% increase in lift.

Fig. 69 HINGED FOWLER FLAP

Krueger Leading Edge Flap - A leading edge flap which when hinged forward
increases lift by 50% and stalling angle to 25°.

Fig. 70 KRUEGER FLAP

SLATES/SLOTS

On some aircraft they are held in a fixed position on the leading edge of the
aerofoil. On most aircraft they are moveable. The moveable slats are
interconnected to prevent asymmetric operation of the port and starboard
sections. If asymmetric operation was to occur in flight then a violent roll
would ensue - as would happen if the flaps were to operate asymmetrically.
Detectors are fitted to stop the system if this were to happen.
TYPES OF SLATS/SLOTS

Slotted Wing - A fixed slot in the wing. At high angles of attack air from
under the wing rushes through the slot and sweeps the top of the wing clear of
any turbulent airflow. Increases lift by 40% and increases stalling angle
to 20°.

Fig. 71 SLOTTED WING

Fixed Slat - Is similar in operation to the slotted wing, and fitted to some
small aircraft. Lift increases by 50% and stalling angle increased to 20°.

I.

Fig. 72 FIND SLAT

Moveable Slat - This may be automatic in operation or operated manually

from the cockpit, or operated electrically, or hydraulically. In automatic
operation the slat is spring loaded in the closed position. At high angles of
attack the negative pressure being felt by the slat causes it to pull out on a
system of levers from the wing. The slat then directs the airflow over the top of
the wing to sweep it clean of any turbulence.

When the angle of attack is decreased the negative pressure on the slat is
insufficient to hold it out and the springs will pull it back flush fitting to the
wing. When operated the increase in lift will be about 60% with an increase in
angle of attack to about 22°.

Fig. 73 MOVEABLE SLAT

On large aircraft the leading edge slats are selected out for take-off and landing
along with the flaps.

They may be wound out using hydraulic motors and are fitted with asymmetric
detectors that stop the movement immediately should asymmetric operation be
detected.

The flaps and slats are usually operated together to increase lift (for that part of
the wing) by up to 120% and increase the stalling angle to around 30 0.

.-- Idler

Drive Programme
Link

Iding Nose

Folding Nose
Rod \ M _/l RETRACT POSITION

Fig. 74 KRUEGER LEADING EDGE FLAP

WV
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 VARIATIONS IN AERODYNAMIC DESIGN

Vortex Generators

These are small flat metal plates fitted to some aircraft to mix high energy air
into the (sluggish) boundary layer. They are usually arranged on the top
surface of the wing at a small angle to the relative airflow. Usually they are all
angled at the same angle but some aircraft may have each alternate plates
angled in the opposite direction.

They stick up higher than the boundary layer (about 2in [50mm]) and cause the
high energy free stream airflow to become turbulent and mix with the low energy
boundary layer thus giving it energy and making it become more
effective. They create form drag but reduce skin friction drag. They also tend to
weaken shock waves and hence reduce shock drag.

Fig. 76 VORTEX GENERATORS

Wing Fence

These are flat metal plates (up to 12in [300mm] high) and fitted parallel to the
free stream flow. They are fitted to help prevent spanwise movement of the air on
swept wing aircraft, and may be found in front of control surfaces to
increase their effectiveness.

Fig. 77 WING FENCE

-70-
Saw Tooth Leading Edge

Fitted to the leading edge of some swept wing aircraft. Sometimes called a Dog
Tooth. It brings the centre of pressure forward on the outer part of the wing so
helping to prevent the tip of the lower wing "digging in" during a turn. It also
encourages the boundary layer to move in the direction of the free stream flow. It
also helps prevent airflow separation at the tip which is always a problem with
highly swept wings.

Fig. 78 SAW TOOTH OR DOG TOOTH

LEADING EDGE
FIXED SPOILERS

Fig. 79 STALL WEDGE OR FIXED SPOILER

Stall Wedge or Fixed Spoiler

During the stall it the outer part of the wing stalled at the same time as (or
sooner than) the rest of the wing then there would be turbulent air over the
ailerons and the pilot would loose lateral control. During a stall this can be
dangerous as a spin might result.

To prevent the outer part of the wing from stalling first, fixed spoilers are fitted to
the inboard leading edges of the wing to cause that part to stall before the
outer part of the wing thus the pilot will still have some lateral control even
though the aircraft is in a stall.

Canard Aircraft

Sometimes called tail-first aircraft as the tailplane (stabilizer) is fitted in front of

the mainplane. The first powered flight by man was a canard aircraft and some
modern high performance fighters are built this way as well.

The foreplane (as it is called) acts similar to a conventional tailplane in

providing longitudinal stability and control if trimmable or fitted with control
surfaces.

It has many disadvantages including poor aerodynamic stability, but one

advantage is that it may make the aircraft difficult to stall as the foreplane
stalls before the mainplane, automatically putting the nose of the aircraft down
before total lose of control occurs.

Delta Winged Aircraft

These may be divided into two categories (1) those with tailplanes and (2) those
without.

Those with tailplanes have conventional controls like other aircraft flaps,
ailerons, elevators, rudder etc. Those without a tailplane are different.

Concorde is typical of a delta winged aircraft without a tailplane. It has one set of
control surfaces at the rear of the mainplane that do the job of both the
elevators and ailerons. They are called elevons.

When the pilot pulls the control column back both elevons move up and the
aircraft climbs (and vice-versa). When he/she moves the hand-wheel to the right
the right-hand elevon moves up and the left one moves down and the aircraft
rolls right (and vice-versa).

- 72-
If he/she pulls the control column back and moves the control wheel to the
right then both elevons move up but the right-hand one moves up further that
the left-hand one the aircraft will climb and roll to the right.

The pitch and roll controls are put through a mixing unit which sums
(mechanically) the two inputs to give the required control surface response. On a
fly-by-wire/fly-by-light aircraft this function would be performed by a
computer. Figure 80 shows the principle of how the mixing unit works.

LEFT ELEVON RIGHT ELEVON

Fig. 80 SUMMING LINK ELEVON SYSTEM

When the pilot puts in a roll command input, bell crank A rotates about pivot X1
and causes bell crank B to pivot about X2. This will cause Al to move down or up
with A2 moving in the opposite direction moving one elevon in one
direction and the other in the opposite direction. The summing links pivoting
about B 1 and B2 respectively.

When a pitch push/pull command is put in, the torque shaft is cause to rotate
and move both BI and B2 push/pull rods in the same direction. (Each
push/ pull rod connection to the torque shaft is my means of a lever).

This movement will cause both elevons to move up or down together, with the
summing links pivoting about Al and A2 respectively.

If the pilot moves both the pitch and roll controls together then both inputs will
be summed by the linkage to produce the required control surface movements.
Butterfly or Vee Tailplane

Some (usually smaller)' aircraft are designed with a tailplane/ stabiliser with a very
high dihedral angle (close to 45°). This means that it can double as a
tailplane and as a fin for stability purposes and the control surfaces can double as
an elevator and a rudder (ruddervator).

RUDDERVATORS

Fig. 81 BUTTERFLY TAILPLANE

Figure 81 shows the butterfly tailplane of the French built Robin. When the
ruddervators are both moved up (or down) together then they act as an
elevator. When one moves up and the other one moves down then the effect is
similar to a rudder.

Symmetrical movement of the ruddervators (for pitch control) is caused by fore

and aft movement of the control column. Asymmetric operation (for yaw
control) is by movement of the rudder bar.

When the pilots puts a pitch and yaw command in (control column and rudder
bar), then summing links similar to those already described will ensure that
both ruddervators will be displaced in the same direction but one will move
further than the other producing both a yaw and pitch change of the aircraft.

It's advantage is that there is less profile drag (there is no fin) and production
costs are reduced for the same reason.

Of course, the aerodynamic efficiency in terms of stability and control is not as

good as a conventional tailplane and fin assembly but you can't have it both
ways.
 INTEGRAL GUST LOCKS

Some aircraft are fitted with a flying control locking system so that the controls
can be locked for parking/picketing/mooring the aircraft.

Usually operated by a handle fitted in the flight deck and connected to

moveable locking pins by a cable system. When operated the pins are pushed
into the locked position by passing through holes in pulleys/ quadrants which
lock the control system and prevents it's movement due to wind loads.

The system is so designed that take-off is impossible (by regulation) with the
locks still in sometimes by fitting the handle in such a position that the
throttles cannot be moved forward unless it is released.

CONTROL POSITION INDICATING SYSTEMS

On large aircraft the position of the control surfaces are indicated to the pilot by an
indicator gauge or a display on a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). The
transducers can be a variable resistor (potentiometer) connected to the flying
control surface. As the surface moves the transducer sends a dc voltage to the
gauging system dependant on the surface position. This voltage can be used to
move a moving coil instrument or a dc ratiometer type instrument, or it can be
sent to a computer where it is converted to a digital signal and sent to a symbol
generator to show a position display on the CRT.

For more information on instrumentation you are advised to read the book in
this series entitled Instruments.

FLYING CONTROL RIGGING

The flying control systems have to be rigged from time to time, ie set up and
checked so that they carry out their function correctly.

QUESTION: When would the controls be rigged? Try and think of at

least 4 occasions. (5 mins)

ANSWER: 1. At manufacture.
2. When stated in the maintenance schedule.
3. When a component in the system is changed.
4. After a heavy landing/ flight through turbulent air.
5. When any adjustment is carried out to the system.

- 75-
The actual process of control system rigging will vary from aircraft to aircraft. It
will vary on whether the controls are manual or powered. It will also vary on
whether the system is operated by cables, push pull rods, or fly by wire.

It is most important therefore to refer to the AMM for the actual procedure to be
carried out.

The following paragraphs give a general outline concentrating on a manually

operated cable system. Some variations are included but most systems rigging
would be similar. The process is not too dissimilar to that used on trimming
systems.

The general procedure is:

1. Refer to the AMM.

2. Set the control system to neutral.
3. Check cable tensions.
4. Carry out sense check.
5. Carry out freedom of movement check.
6. Carry out range of movement check.
7. Carry out any special checks.
8. Carry out a duplicate inspection.

Do relate this process to your own aircraft.

The following paragraphs are notes expanding on the main headings above,
and are a general approach.

1. Refer to the Aircraft Maintenance Manual - With some tasks this may
not be the first thing to do - with control rigging it almost certainly
should come first. It may specify the aircraft to be jacked and in rigging
position it may not.

For powered controls it will specify hydraulic and electric power to be on

and certain systems to be on - such as Air Data Computer, Flight
Management Computer etc. Pitot static systems might have to be
pressurised. It will list the equipment to be used.

Check flying control systems and associated systems for completeness

and serviceability.

On large aircraft place warning notices that controls are being moved
and check that servicing personnel are not working on or close to control
systems.

-76-
2. Set the Control System to Neutral - This may mean slackening the
control cables, and usually requires mechanical locks/pins/devices to
be placed:

(a) On the pilot's control.

(b) At the control surface end.
(c) At intermediate links/pulleys in the system.

Check that the whole system is in neutral:

(a) PFCUs and artificial feel (if fitted).

(b) Flight deck indicators (if fitted).
(c) Trimming systems.
(d) Tabs and indicators.
(e) Chains and cables are equally placed around sprocket
wheels/pulleys.
(f) Control surfaces align with trailing edge.

NOTE: On some aircraft there may be upfloat or downfloat specified

check the manual.

3. Check Cable Tensions - This may be carried out using a tensiometer

(see following paragraphs) and adjusting the turnbuckles in the system.
An alternative method is to read the tensions from the cable tension
regulator while adjusting the turnbuckles. In this case reference must be
made to the ambient temperature and a graph relating temperature to
cable tension regulator reading.

Visually inspect the lay of all cables that they are correct and not fouling
anything. Check that all turnbuckles/ adjusters are in safety. Remove all
neutral setting pins/devices and re-check tensions and neutral
settings.

NOTE: Item 3 would not apply to a push/pull rod system but push rod
lengths may be adjusted.

4. Carry Out Sense Check - This will require electrical and hydraulic
power on a powered system. The flight deck controls are moved and a
check is carried out at the control surface end to check that they move in
the correct sense. Check flight deck indicators at the same time.

Remember on some large aircraft the spoilers may move asymmetrically

when the ailerons are moved. On other aircraft the tailplane may move in
response to elevator movement. So when checking primary flying control
movement do check related systems operation. Check correct sense under
autopilot command (if fitted).

-77-
5. Carry out Freedom of Movement Check - In general this requires the
control system to be pulled through its complete range of movement
using, say, a spring balance attached to the control column/rudder
pedals. The force required to operate the controls should not exceed
that value laid down in the manual. If it does the system must be given a
complete visual examination and the cause ascertained and rectified.

If manual reversion is provided on a powered system, check the system in

manual as well as in power. Check the manual on spring balance
readings related to artificial feel inputs.

6. Carry Out Range of Movement Check - In general the pilot's controls

are moved and the range of movement of the control surface is
measured. It may be measured linearly using a rule or angularly using a
inclinometer. If measurements are incorrect then range of movement may
be altered using (usually) the primary control stops.

If appropriate, check controls in power and manual and in autopilot

mode.

Check correct indications on the flight deck.

Lock all system points where previous adjustments have been carried
out.

7. Special Checks - The manual will specify the checks to be carried out
on all the equipment fitted to the controls. The aircraft may have to be
configured so as to assimilate certain conditions, but checks are carried
out on the following:

* Stick shaker.
* Stick push.
* Detent/disconnect systems.
* Artificial feel.
* Autopilot servo and system operation.
* Tab systems, trim, and Mach trim.
* Yaw dampers.
* Alternative power supplies/ alternative operation.
* System computer/ s operation.
* Flight deck indications/warnings.

8. Carry Out a Duplicate Inspection - All the parts of a flying control

system are generally classed as VITAL POINTS (as defined in BCARs
section A A5-3) and if disturbed will. require a duplicate inspection.
Duplicate inspections are required by BCARs section A A6-2 which
defines the following:

-78-
 (a) Control System A system by which the flight path, attitude, or
propulsive force of an aircraft is changed, including the flight,
engine and propeller controls, the related systems controls and the
associated operating mechanisms.

(b) Duplicate Inspection - An inspection first made and certified by

one qualified person and subsequently made and certified by a
second qualified person.

NOTES

1. A duplicate inspection may be limited to that part of the system

which has been disturbed.
2. A duplicate inspection must be carried out as soon as possible
after the first and before the aircraft flies.
3. If the system is disturbed during or after the duplicate inspection
then the part disturbed shall be subject to another duplicate set of
inspections.
4. All the work done must be recorded together with part
numbers/ serial numbers of components replaced.
A CRS must be signed and entered/ attached to the aircraft log
book.

EQUIPMENT

TENSIOMETERS

These are used for checking the tensions of cables in aircraft control systems,
including engine controls. They are normally used on unregulated systems only.

SME Type Tensiometer

The SME Tensiometer is supplied in various marks to suit different sizes of

cable. Each tensiometer will take two sizes of cable, the size being marked on
the scale.

NOTE: It is important that the correct mark of tensiometer is used

otherwise inaccuracies will result.
 Fig. 82 SME TYPE TENSIOMETER

Instructions for Use

(a) Fit the instrument where there _is a clear run of cable.
(b) Pull the pointer over to it's stop.
(c) Pass the cable under the right hand fixed pulley, then over the centre
pulley then under the left hand pulley.
(d) Ensure that the tensiometer hangs freely.
(e) Run the tensiometer along the cable a few inches and tap the cable until
the reading settles down. The tension is indicated in lb on the
appropriate scale.

Check for Accuracy

Before use, the position of the spring anchorage pin should be checked to see
that it has not moved outside its engraved circle. If movement has occurred the
pin should be restored to its original position. The tensiometer should be
checked at regular intervals by the manufacturer or at an approved standards
room.

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The Pacific T5 Type Tensiometer

This tensiometer is suitable for various sizes of cables.

POOR

Fig. 83 FITTING A T5 TENSIOMETER TO A CABLE

Instructions for Use

(a) From the chart supplied find the correct riser to use for the size of cable.
Fit the riser.

(b) Check that brake is off. Move trigger away from case - this lowers the
riser.

(c) Place the cable under the sectors and over the riser.

(d) Close the trigger - this raises the riser.

(e) Note the reading on the gauge. (If the reading is to be held operate the
brake lever).

(f) Open the trigger and remove the tensiometer.

(g) Convert the dial reading to lb tension by reference to a calibration

chart.

NOTE: Each tensiometer has its own calibration chart. Make sure the
calibration chart bears the same serial number as the tensiometer.

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INCLINOMETER

Can be calibrated to read to an accuracy of 1 minute (60 minutes = 1 degree)

and used to measure the angular movement of the controls/ surfaces.

It measures the angular movement in relation to the horizontal and therefor

has a spirit level incorporated in the moveable head.

For more information on the "clino" refer to the book in this series Basic
Engineering.

CONTROL SURFACE RIGGING BOARDS

These are supplied by some aircraft manufacturers and fit onto the
mainplane/tailplane/structure and, using a scale, will indicate the range of
movement of the control surface/control component.

May be fitted with red warning flags to ensure their removal after use.

RIGGING JIGS

Often supplied to fit onto the controls in the cockpit to rig them into neutral.
The jig is attached to the control column and the rudder pedals and a part of
the cockpit structure.

RIGGING PINS

Supplied by the manufacturer to be fitted into components such as quadrants,

pulleys, and idling links to lock them into the neutral position. Fitted with
warning flags to ensure their removal after use.