!


 
 





Syamsuddin Arif

I. Introduction

I
n his classic essay published in 1951, Ignaz Goldziher made a strong case for
the negative attitude of orthodox Muslim scholars towards the so-called ancient

 
w

;), which include philosophy and logic, citing among
'
0R '

  1 Goldziher’s conclusion and the as-
sumptions upon which it is based have been called into question recently by Sonja
6' 8
 <'4&
2 It is argued that in fact one may refer to the twelfth,
'   &'  &'

F( ( 

)3

1
4D'F<& (' 

 E'%D&  + /

 -
schaften’, in (/
   @•  C (
  ‚ 
 ,
P'( (!!3:0
O

6' !!ˆ$"_ˆ'' 4D'F


  ˆ
B
!ˆ##"$V"3#_ˆ 4D'F9& 
E'%
*'   
   ,
'
)J=*'D
E% '!!$!32!3$
2
6' 8
FE'%)   
:*' J'
F5($ 
))& N')J&+<
&
''
  '  /'+

 N%'  O *('&&'
 ' =  
J%: +
-
& 'B
')  6' !ˆ!#<'!ˆ$!#""'' ##$>
< 4&
 F * (
/ +) (
/ 

    "



 7
? '(// ? 1† 4th/8thš + 3=  !$!ˆˆ#3>
 J5' @ 
 
 C
  
 2

* ššÂœšƒ¿
5'(!3$"_
3
<4&
F9B'(  K94 ( ':
)!
!"3 (

  \
)PP


 <<=& 22$
!#
2ˆ ?
 (

,'*
&' (
'  
 
 &'
   

legacy gained momentum, giving rise to a torrent of intellectual exchange and

&

  ''

  ('')&&_ (
*+' 

 

)0R
&
  ( (&'( '
B

*' (
''
 
(   
 '   
 
&( ('J&

'
 (
 * *


'
 

&) 0R 
*'+*
  

@/
!
" %
B

]
  
'   
@/

, offering a detailed conspectus of @/

" as well as analysis of its
  
 %&  ''&
' ' *0R
%
 &    
)  0<  0R5 *
 &  *
  0C
  w    w
 J&  J&0R09('' )

_
E 

<4&
F

 =''),' 4 ' '=(/'+

in F
 + 
  (
G
 })  ?
* (
/*
 

 G
 
 )56&' /'&'(
&&')
 9%
2"=  
!"$ˆˆ2
5
B'  ) 
&')   0R
     *'+ 
 (  
    *-
 (
&'
K0[ \ˆ_ˆƒ!2_$%
B
;)P='=D(!"$
2__!¥,/
'P
; / (/
B
;5'!"2ˆ$$>\ 0P*D
 ˆ3_ƒ!23ˆ$ ;
]
   
 B)' !3!$  ˆ!>   
ˆˆ3ƒ!2ˆ#$
2
? '




?   ) J j 0O*' 6'& !#_$  !ˆ!>
 7x)wˆˆƒ!2#$'P?
( /;)1@’6'&!ˆ3$ˆ33!>
 O+ ˆ!ƒ!22$‚

?
('? )w
#
6'&!#$ ,
2"_> /xˆ#ƒ!2$
=
@/)CJ@w wwR
'3

5'!##$# # "3_!>w0< 0,–#"2ƒ!""!$



 % (/
"

_
6'&„ …$!333ˆ>0<#_ƒ!"_$
?
 ('
!/
;)6wJw'  JB0' 2"
6'&!3$
"ˆ_ˆ#>0<
, 
‚

?

% 
(') B


‚

? ²ƒšœ²ž (U\U)w7w09&'6'&!$#_#ˆ>0w7'
#_ƒ!"_$

(/ 
),D( 2#
,' + &'J!$
 3ˆ> 0W   #ˆ_ƒ!"ˆ"$
‚% /‚

?  ) J 0C&8)' 2 

/
  !$ ¥ "/
,

 ˆ2!$ %% "__ˆ> 0U w  #ˆƒ!"ˆ#$
;
N  _
6'&!#$#"#3>980< 
0&+##!ƒ!"#${
/


'??

@/)JJ09  w0,J0C&*!
5'
!#!$"ˆ#>0
*##2ƒ!"#${
/

;??
, )w0P'
2 vols 6(!">''6'&!#$ #"> O'##_ƒ!"#2$
"?


!?
!_
6'&ƒ@)!ˆˆ$ !__!> [’&3!ƒ!__$
{
/

'%?
  ) w 0w O  _ 
 B)' !#$  !!>  
C8'0w
? 32ƒ!__$G
%4 #
B)'!!2>''6rut,
!#!$!"_"3> 9(''#_ƒ!_#$
!=
]
!2
5'„ …$

   2#

09wˆ *
 '    33!ƒ!!3ˆ#   R 
 *    
'   
+ *    

  *<)'6+Ý'9&'+)8 At the
age fourteen, after having received his early education, he left his hometown for
6( ''
&)*& 'C  0J 3"ƒ!!#$9

 23> 0&)\  !!ƒ!33$ B

$

  ) J  0, ' 2 vols
5'!ˆ#$ 3_!>01&w)2#ƒ!32$
2 % 

)P0
C
 2
<
&
!_$"">9
+”'“Dˆƒ!3ˆ!$$

'


/$
?
)OO6+' w0/01'_
5'„ …$
!#!> 0w!ƒ!ˆ#$


2

/, 
5'!"3!$V!___3
@  ('
&
  &K < &' FR    7 ?8

 ,
,
*   =  !ˆ$> 6' 8
 FE'%)  !#""> C
  J w 0=\ 
0 F
% 
;
@
??
5'!$2#!3>J0J
FC)0R '& 
  (/
( % P
2% 
,

?
2%
%3
5'22$!32
ˆ
9
&'
' 
(' *'('''
 ( 0R

&'-
B
'

&
0,–0U w0&+ O'  [’&
'F09w
 '+)F09( B*')'&  &

in any case the surname refers to a certain Arab tribe, although it does not necessarily im-
ply that he was of Arab descent, as it could merely suggest that his ancestor was a client or
'‚(‚  '
'
*
 6' (
'' '-

 ' 9w'
 ' 9(0w 3ˆ2ƒ!!ˆˆ$

( /)w0@ U)ˆ
B)'!ˆ"$3# !"""ˆ>  
0'
G// % 
%/
( /"
5'!"3#$!## !"3
#
/('& 
 '  
 
 '+ * ' -
'
 '


 
 O+  0W **'0R

students, assign the year 551 AH
' 0RE'
+0[ \%,
!ˆ!$

 '33*'
0<?
, "ˆ_$
)
&
between 553 and 559 (
? ).

 E  R
 U? 0C*  ˆ2ˆƒ!22$ '=

" , 5 vols (Beirut,
1955), 3ˆ>0J?
($


% % 
'

(%, )JP48
2 '= !ˆ$!_>W 0< 06(

,<<' % (;

(
 

"')w068*"
5'!3_$ˆ
9
B
0,1x' ,)  J&\'01'* ' * (
-
ar of Iraq (J
%
',$' C 

?
B
/
) of the period,
and a teaching professor (
?$J'
0J– )) 6('-
 (0<*'
 & *
) 0< &0J&V 'J&
  J&?   ,)    J\' 01'*    0J  0C >  *
 '   
3ˆ#AH  ˆ_?
, 232> 0W 
‚%, 323"> @8
#3ƒ!""$2
? {
/

B
/
, 2_> 9(''
!=, 2_> 0
w

, 2_ˆ (0R
 *
& 
& ' 0J *

'C 8&'
 [&ˆ22ƒ!22"$
2 ?
 (


*
& ''   w8&'
 ,’ 33ƒ!!$! It was
&' (

) 
'
0R
 '
' 9&
'
from rigorous legal training, he managed to study philosophy and logic, alleg-
)& '
5'
  P*

'
 32ƒ!!ˆ
*''') &
&'*'0J?3#ƒ!!!$11 But a
)'' ) '5'*'*

  %* ))'

 
 0R
 '
'  ' )&

%  
' + *(6&
  
&

&


'& &' 
'

+)&  )&

of heresy (

'
%
) and intellectual corruption ( $
<
??
), of
upholding the doctrine of 
'<% (denying God’s attributes), and of subscribing to
' 
 
'
   
(
129)
(  
$
),
  (0R
  N &(*
 &)
'F &

'&&
 (& & 0R ' (
'
  C)' '

'((



?& * ('
K13
W 'UN!W 9 ?ࣙ  -01E(&
B!_
7 *) )& ( Þ And so have the
+&' (


 
$

  C 0R  

   
'   0J+ 0J x' '
3#ˆ!#ƒ!!!!22!$*'
& '*'*
 '
 % &')'
9(' '

& '0R
'*-
ance (=??
$ '(&'& *157 0J x'

0R*

& <
&
)0J+0J&wVV'ˆ!32_ƒ!2!2#$

!
B
P0< 0[
U) 0,’ ,’ '   w
' 
)/' (0R



& ' ,’ *
w
0=\ 06(ˆ2ƒ!2"!$
11
0W 
‚% /
‚

?, "_!
12
 O+ ‚

?
('? , 2"
 O+ ‚

?
('? , 2_>0
*{
/

'%?
, !"> 
13

O'
"?

!?
, !_!
!_
' (C
 0 – 
% 
;" 2$'
'(&-
) (
0
*0<&–ˆƒˆ$ 
2% , w0O0
<&8)6(!3_$2"2 23"
15
 /x
=
@/, #,' % *' =??

*
&

*
2
?2"ˆ

   2

* ' J'

0wDD))0R
''
  '& 
  *)'
'9 *'&' <
&
0J+
0
' 'ˆ2ˆ"_ƒ!22"#$*+') '0J+0J&wVV

 

&'  (

&)  ( +
) 
(1 (' '0R*



 '


   

&
 ''
 
 0R'

 9&
)'
) W 'ˆ"!ƒ1'!2""( () *
&'J& 
[
)   ' '<
&
!ˆ

,,U ? 
%# C8

 
 ‚

Although he was first and foremost a jurist, the voluminous and influential writ-
 (
0R 
')&  )
 )
&') ' 


*B*''D +
 *' ( 
&8
 '* 
()( 
)
& '& *' 
* )0
*'+
 
 )

  '

&'*'



'+ *  )) !#/ *

' 
'  
% 
( 
*'+


! /   ‚ (2

;
B
; %
B
)

9
 
     0R
 ') *'+
   :' 
) 

&

 (  '&
) )  '  &'
K %
B

     O'   C88
O $> % ',
(;
 0[ \ 9
+”'“D$>%

< (as in
6'+ $9+ ( &  0R '
'&-
' 
 &' (

8&'  N()  *'+

 'ˆ!2ƒ!2!39& ) 

*'+
''')

!ˆ
0W 
‚% /
‚

?, "_3
!#
 ,'  
   0R
 *'+

    7x)w 'P?
( /;  ˆ3!> 0
W 
‚% /
‚

?,  "_3_ˆ>9
+”'“D$

'
, !>
C88 O  O 5$ @

Ã  '
(%
@/ 
J  * 2 vols

 &!_!$!# #3>
w:
06(Š$

  %
2
? '

@

Ã  2

 &!_3$!"# "2#>06( \
??

'% *
(;
;
% 


% , 2 vols 
 & !3!33$  ##> w7'
@’O'=

;
% , 15 vols <
&
!ˆ!$!33>56'+ 
F 

/ G
2
= !"#_2$ 393, and its 88 ,
"
= !_"_$ˆ#>CJ0 w
% 
;
@
??
5-
'!$ˆ#!">J0JFC)0R (/
( % P
2% 

, 
?
2%
%)0J3
5'22$""_
2! ?
 (

 '  %'  0R  ' '

 '*'+
 

&
as the (/
(9C (  9)))#2ƒ!"2$

 

*'+ '?& )?& ( ' }  whilst criticizing and
refuting the 

and 

 in his 2
; 
'
'( 

!
!
Although it must have originally comprised several volumes, as mentioned by al-
[ \ C88O  ) '
& 
*'+'
% 
)
  (9
&' ( &
'*
 '
' 
'') 06' 6'&
 )6'+ 19 w|
0Jw $2 but
'*
':'  7 '
)='')4''5 J_26$
 )'& )
&)
*'+
  ''
'
 *'*'+
 0R

2 8  G  " ‚ (

!
" %
B

]
)

J      
 @/
; 
  ) *'+   (
)

 )

)
'
0R

  8, a clear

 )

') '&    
)
&'



)0R

& 

&
0[ \ 0W 6&C88O 
gives a different subtitle, namely % ',
(; 

(U 7 '& )

&'
 ) ' & ?& &
'
)'-
 (,&D( 
&' ('  *
 32ƒ!!ˆ *


' (  
w–='')J_"$ 
 &
B*' * (
'
''') <9'05ß' ),+“

7 '
)  +'*'
 *&
 ) &'&  &
*'
& Jˆ"! $2ˆˆ $_ˆ2_ $ _" V)), while
 &''



 (9% ' 

 ' )&

  
)
& 'B
') '0
 7 '
)
 ,' + &'
'5 2!$

*'+*
+ (
 (''*

" P    2  (@



%)

As indicated by its subtitle, 


, 


/%, this is a refuta-
    ,+' 0<  0@D
 '  ')      

, 

!
 9)))2
; 
'
'( 

!
* )J@!!
@)
!#"$@ ' 
0R
*'+
'
  %#!#2$
19
56'+ F 

/ G
,  393, and 88 , ˆ#
2
w|
0Jw FOD– 0+&&0–'))K   –
0+D 6'))
0O&'' 6)' 
=



=
'
',%<
&
$3!232ˆ$!"""3

   211


/%  *
 

  ' ˆ!#ƒ!22 &' ( 0R


8&'  C
 ' ( 7x)w0R

*'+'&' C0J x' 9?0< <

' 


*'+
)'  
'
 '
'


 '
  
*
'  
&)
'
' 6'

='')=  JE'23"$
*
 
+6' J:
:' $3ˆ¥ 3_ *'
5(&$

_ J"    C 8   ((/

( % P

2% )

E 0R
*'+

 
'

+ *  
 '-
?& )
))'
'

&
 9))) 0|8*

 5'
 ˆ!2ƒ!2!3''0R
'&')'
<&*'  ' &  & %'
&&*'+
has survived in its entirety, copies of which are found and preserved in many
''
 '%“) )J#_#$ O”'““J#_$''
 

 & 6' J:' !""¥ !#_! *'
5(&$
@ 
  ,+'0< 0@D


</
'?
, the (/
+ 
of 


' )  &
  &

)J&0J(/
( % P
2% 
,

?
2%
% 5'22$

3 F
   (8
      @

 (F?


 % ',

@
)

9
 & 
'O'
 '(  (/

(
 ) ' (  
 *'+
 
) 


&*'+&

 *' ')&' (0R
 &' 
wDD))J'
 <
&

* ˆ!#ƒ!22 ˆ2ˆƒ!229
 )
&' () 
' *'+
'
' :
='')
J!ˆ_$ 
 && *C
 Jw0=\ 

 
 5'!#!$

ˆ +
  

</
'?
 (



</
'?
)

=+ 
 @


%    '' 0R
 




</
'?
* 

') 


' &  ,+'0< 
0@D 0R'*
 'D
0@D
(

 '(&-
ments as found in

</
'?
 9&N ?&')$'

 
212 ?
 (

8U ' (C

 Jw0=\ '
 ) '
'
 ,)D&='')J!!!$ 
 &
*
 Jw0J+\\5'
J"9*$*
 *'*' ()( (/
(

# +
  7
   ‚  C8
 
 (

/% % 
$ (X
B
; 



 )

9

 ')  '
' )& '
 &

)
'
 (
 '
&

 ' 
&
   
@/

B6+ <  

$ +9*'+*
')*'  
C
 'ˆ!#ƒ!22
 &''

'&'
'
' 
'''

&
‡'))J!$ 
<
&
 
  &

'
 ' )'
K
as part of the collection G
  88 4 

/, edited by
w0'0w
6(!3>2  5'!$>( )
-
'6'&!#$> ')C
 Jw0=\ 0 w5'!"$


&') *0R
% *'+
'  &' (
 
   *
''

' '(!

", 8&
+(/
(, is a particularly rich treasure trove of philosophical
thought spanning a vast range of issues in logic, epistemology, natural philosophy,
 )

1'

 '&

 + '
 

 0R
% *'+
& 
(    
&'
 *
are unpublished in any form, as well as the complex relationship between them,
such as that between the extant 8   his
!
" and the 2
;

B
;
  ')' *'  &'&

&

 ( (

 0R
thought,21 it was only recently
that scholars began to pay attention to his philo
*' (
22

21
64/

F0R 6

 &') 5

&
 7
?  ,

+
 C   !?4% " = !#ˆ$"_23ˆ>/

FR 6-


 &') P&'
E   (
/
 ,
   \   
 N )
2 '(
/?

,?
  ) 9 &   '
5' !#$  !!!!ˆ>
/

F9:') @  5


=(9')
N%& )) 
0< 0R 
,

, 3!_$#!>/

 
  F# G
)
,
 N8    ‚   
?
2%
% =+5)!2$
22
4N '

F<'  B' &+& =(+/'+

)  0
R G   ) 2
 
 

/    
  

)<:'' 7@&= 23$!!#_3(' &:' 

sor
B<' ''* ()  
'

   213

,,,U 0(!
"#
 0@/
;#

1' 
  '
') '


  
&' 

' *'+ 

*' )E   )
&'
 


 0R
*'
 '(&&
 (

*'+

probably composed during the last period of his life, following his untimely retire-
  *'
  (2 !r$0R'
' 
 * & 
 * 
&*'+K
   &  '* &  „ ()   
'
…   % 
  
secrets, enjoying it in seclusion and conversing with it all the time, until I became
*  '„
*'…(&' ))&
 ( *) 
(  „)…'&'' & 


both to elucidate my findings and to suppress it, owing to the time constraint, ab-

  


 
  ' 
 „&…'  '

„

/



; … ' „
& … 
 %

  
 +    &

   
' 
& 

*
  ( '
 
*
 („
&)
…23

E&''
 
&') 
!
" is based on the extant portions of the
%''
' & ?& &
')
 *

-
' (  
w–='')J_"$ 
 &)
:' 

',&D(  !3*'&

  

 2!
' ( &
'*
'
&) )'32ƒ!!ˆ
 
#2_ 
     
'(*'  & D
%
)
It is obvious from the troubled state of the text that the copyist was not familiar
*' & ' %J''' ) & 

source frequently to be difficult, if not impossible, to read because it was itself a
&

 ' )() &' *'

  &
'')
 ))

(&'

  * &   '  9&

-
though his own hand is reasonably clear, he did not or could not provide a sound
%*'+ ' ' ' ) 

&
 

')
9
*'+

 '




8 & (+ 
 + *(*&'    
' 
& ''
 '& 

 '(&0R


''?&
 
 
+ *(


*  '
*
'
)
(


'

??
) such as politics and ethics, the purpose of which it is to pro-
duce good citizens, as well as theoretical philosophy (



X
??
), which
 &
)


 
  &'
 :'

23
0R
!
"*  2r¥ "!"! 
 $
2!_ ?
 (

+ *(
&()'
  

 ('
& 
'
+ *(9'
 
''
  ' '
&  ?&'
''
&)'&
 +'
 ''
 
' '&2_0R &''%

 
+ ((

  '  ?&')
/
$
%) and
theoretical investigation in order to ascertain the truth and extract the core details
('?

;$ '' 
 4'+
(
 
'0
metaphysicians (

$
;
V  ??% 




??% ),
 ( ?&

& 
*'  '
&
25
9+


  8'

=4;), each being further divided
into parts (

), chapters (
), subchapters ('
) and sections (
$
9'  + *
%)'' 

-
 
 
 

     '

  '   )       @/

;, ) (0)


0
0)

 9 '    
order occurs, if at all, in the internal arrangement of each one of these sciences
  '  
'

&8'9 * (
( '
&  *'+K

=(
", fols 1r_v)
! '& ¥7
 (

, 
!!$
2E N% ')9'


, 
!2$
":'B' 


, 
!2K
1 ( 
 !$
2 ( 
 !"$$
_E ,'
 '(&  

IV, 
U !K
1, '
 1
(
 !ˆ$'
 2 ( 
 !3$
2 ( 
 !2$
 
 !$$¥:''
Analytics
3E <
' 

V, 
 !22$¥:
'' )

ˆE <


v, 
!!$¥9
#E 



)
E @'

, 
!"$
E :


, 
!2$

1&' 
 
_!r3_v)
!:)


, 
!"$
2E J  @


, 
1 ( 
 !!$$

2_
0R
!
"* fols 1v2r¥2" 
 $
25
0R
!
" 2r¥" 
 $

   215

"E :


, 
2 ( 
 !2$$
_E 9

, 
3)
3E J( &

, 
_ 
 !2$$
ˆE   )

, 
5 ( 
 !3$$
#E <' 

, 
ˆ$
E B
 7 '


, 
#'
 1 (
 !"$
'
 2 ( 
 !_$$¥<5<J& 
E 5 (96 :

 (*)

, 
 
 !ˆ$$¥<
4 ' 5''& 
!E 
 :




, 
9 ( 
 !2$$¥< &

et Passionibus
!!E J%&'

, 
! 
 !2$$¥<J% 
!2E J '


, 
11 ( 
 !"$$¥J '() J-
teorology

J)

V 
33r#2_v)
!E &8:&'
7
@ + 1 J)



)
2E <
  6 ( 

=$ 9 5('



, 
!#$

"E E  J ) 9'5  



, 
!_$
_E <
  6 ( 5&

 N 


, 
!$
3E :'  1

')N%
 6 ( 
'&



V, 
!ˆ$

ˆE <('
 5&

 N 
 N   7 '

'  :'    6 (      J    5
 '

(

, 
!#$
#E <
   @&'  &
 6


, 
!2$
 E  :') J'
    5
    @(&
 5
   
@()04&='


, 
!"$

/ ' (( ')& 

!
" with that of ; one
 
0R
 *)
 *  ,'


&

  
9 5('



'
) not in logic but rather in the metaphysical
2!ˆ ?
 (

 *'
  
* 
  ( 0R

+
% '
$
  &
&


 
&/


), plants (/

/), and animals (/
$
?
 $9'0R
devotes a separate chapter in the physics to the question of elemental mixture (%

4=$*'
  
&
&
& '
   ( 
passing away (%

 


$, ) * '
*'0R

*'
   
 
 )(')'




), astronomy ('

?;
), arithmetic ('
$/), and music
('
%$  &'& 

!
" is still missing,
 &
  *'(&


' &' )
N?&) *') 
 0R
 '    )

  &'
') +
at the relevant section in
!
" '
0R+')*
'('   '' (  
    
&8
   
&

 9&
 '
%  
  '    E     J )  '    
'  '1

')N%
     '

*  
%
 1

') :

N%
   '


, immediately
 ' '& P&( ( '
'&&' + (
-
'

 0R*

* & )
(+('& 
seemingly having in mind the God of Abrahamic religions when discussing the
1

')N%
  B
'&
J''0R&'&
) &
question about the complete and the deficient (
 

 ), discussed
)   

"9'
 & '

 '&'
( &
 


 '     '
%& '
&

 




'&(&
&
  
%0R
')
  *
 
9% 
'&' '  
%
* '
&
+ 
 & 9 '



 *
' )   0R
might have thought it unnecessary to repeat what he had dealt with at length in
(
  + 0R
'' (   )
 (*  '
 (F 
')
   ),
0R *


 — quite understandably, since his chief purpose
as a theologian is to establish the truth of religious doctrine.
9'
 * 
!
"    
; is apparent in

'
'&&'   
 0R

&


 ()


 )

  
*' (
''
 )'%)'&(&

!
" ''&
' ' *'*
&  
 
%
%  *

(
 '
!
" in comparison
*
' 
   
;

   2!#

 

(    0R
' ' 
  -
curs in 

3*'0R''&
 }  but with slight stylistic
 (
  
 ('(&  

!   & N  
  @ 5&
2ˆ 9 ' ' 
 '   &  
    ' (
chapter (

 ._$*'0R'
 
G &)'8
G
:  ')   '
    '0' ' 
 0R
 %
 

&'D
  
'  

2" ;2#/'
 
 

 '
' &  0R
 
0R
' &   
% (' ' )'
-
sages in
!
" In 

.20R
&


  J )
 
  

2 Also, in 

V."0R
'
*
universe and everything therein emanates from and owes its existence to the Prin-
ciple of Being (
/
;
; ) — a Plotinian cosmological theory commonly
)J&

'
 )

9

*
' }  
    29 
 %& )   
8'*'+
"
In 

!20R
&


*' 
& &  (


influenced by the celestial souls and how it receives illumination from the Active
 '(& 

'
& ')0R 


& 
&    
;, 

"*'
&


*'& 
&
would finally return upon leaving the body and what should be done in order to
  

  % ,'

&%
 %'' '-
 
 0R

&)   

'&
*


(   
&' 


9''  *

&
  
&0R
 &
&  )


  
+9'     *'ship

2ˆ
0R
!
", !ˆˆ  
 $   
;)

,??, "2#"!
2#
0R
!
", !33ˆ 
 $   
;)

,??, "!2_
2
0R
!
", 
)!22 
 $   

;)
,??, "_
29
0R
!
" 22_2ˆ 
 $E 
 '&

JJ
7
   8 8 ‘ G#  89   # # 
 
88

, 9œ
"œ):'
!##$ ='FN%&     
& &K=
='
&'' & '

  
'
 
!2## \

88
 
)6J8

 E:& ,

'  “'O&',
D&

 ˆ4&'
(2

'!!$3_"ˆ
"
  
;) ,??, _2> also his ,) ,?? 2!ˆ!#
2! ?
 (

for one’s well-being in this world and in the Afterlife, the family matters, the neces-
sity of government, popular obedience, and morality — all this is not discussed
)0RB*'0R
 &   
 
&

 
on the possibility of miracles and the controversy surrounding the status of the
&''()(&


+   !

9' ( 

( ' ')&(
)* &


,'
(  ' &'

&
?&   
* 


' '  
*' (

&
0R
2
;
B
;
and
!
" it is misleading to characterize the period in question as that
   
(  > 


')


 +
&

* &' ( (
 
0
'%) 
&(0R
 


&'
%)'
&
 
 (

*'+
0R+&
   
%

& '?& )*   '   9
   ( )' '

( ''

   

'  
 & 
'&(&J&
*'  *
)
 31
/  
 '&       
    '   )

  
'(&  0R*

' 
'
*  '& 
) (  '(  ' 

    


()6&'( D0R

)*
('
  
 ?& 
&((
 (
?

;% is the only
 &  >0R
'*& ' +'
@'
)

*'+  ''
&'

**
')  *  , )
& '*
  
&'
 0R
*'+

 
)') (


) '+ 
'  

, 

 ,
 P ? 

?

31
See (

  \
) (   , 

 + G 
G
 
!* 8/ ›œ8/ šš* šÂÂÂ)PP


 <<
=& 22$>(8  (
* )@/ 
+) :'  2!$ 1Ä , 8

? N
   7
 $> "
 ( (
) C   
J +     (
? F8)<5@
  B0@
= 2"$