August, 1940
The Bases of V.P. Airscrew Design*
Fundamental Problems, with Particular Reference to
the Principal German Types
T HE use of the variable-pitch airscrew has
to-day become commonplace. Its wide
application permits certain
derived from experience to be postulated and
facts
leads to new development problems.
So long as the speed of aeroplanes remained
below a limit of 300 m.p.h., a relatively satis-
factory flow at the blade sections was produced
throughout from take-off to maximum speed
which gave at both the extreme conditions of
flight a relatively satisfactory lift-drag ratio,
particularly if the peripheral velocity lay in the
vicinity of 300 m./sec. (984 ft./sec.) in the case
of direct-drive airscrews (Fig. I.) With high
lift coefficient values at take-off, however, there
was an unavoidable and marked loss in r.p.m.,
and therefore in output, since the turning
moment of the engine is limited. A fixed air-
screw for higher speeds, set at a pitch for
horizontal flight, gave initial angles of flow at
take-off which led necessarily to turbulence
and, apart from the loss in r.p.m., to very bad
lift/drag ratios. Hence the first requirement
for a variable-pitch airscrew was the possibility
of adjusting it to a pitch for take-off which
would allow the development of the full engine
output, with non-turbulent flow together with
a good lift-drag ratio. If slight variations in
r.p.m. are allowed two pitches of the airscrew
are sufficient to satisfy this requirement. This
simple demand led directly to the so-called
" two-position airscrew " such as the Hamilton
and Schwarz Automaton. ‡
With increasing nominal engine rating at
altitude, however, the possibility of using inter-
mediate positions of a controllable-pitch air-
screw became a necessity ; since climbing flight
at high altitudes at full power and maximum
r.p.m. required a considerably coarser pitch
*Translated from Luftwissen, Vol. 6, No. 10, October, 1939.
Previous articles which have appeared in AIRCKAFT ENGINEERING
to which readers may like to refer in connexion with this paper are
the following:—Vol. VI, 193-4, "The Ratier V.P. Airscrew," pp. 269-
7 0 , and "The Levasseur V.P. Airscrew," pp. 271-2; Vol VII,
1935, "The Hamilton Standard Airscrew," pp. 41-2; Vol. VIII,
1936, "Variable-Pitch Airscrew Performance," by W. H. Savers,
pp. 121-7 and "An Automatic V.P. Airscrew (Schwarz)," p. 128;
Vol. IX, 1937, "An Electric V.P. Airscrew (Curtiss)," pp.159-61;
Vol. X, I93S, "Aerodynamics of the Airscrew," by F. M. Thomas,
pp. 109-115, and "Modern Variable-Pitch Airscrews (Rotol-
Hamilton-Katier)," pp. 306-312 ; Vol. XI, 1939, " Factors Con-
trolling Airscrew Design," by H. L. Milner, pp. 87-91.
†Of the Reichsluftfahrtmimsteriuin, Berlin.
‡Lufheissen Vol. V, 1938, p. 303.
AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING
By K. A. Schmidt †
than at take-off owing to the decreasing air
density. The construction of the so-called
three- or four-position airscrew then led to such
complications in design that these productions
have not yet left the research stage (Hamilton) ;
more especially since the operational conditions,
for which a good use of the power available is
necessary, are constantly increasing in number,
with increasing translational velocity and alti-
tude rating. The optimum climbing speed of
such aeroplanes is already so great in comparison
with take-off that the following conditions of
operations demand a definite airscrew pitch :
(1) Take-off.
(2) Climb from ground level.
(3) Maximum speed near ground.
(4) Climb to nominal rated altitude.
(5) Maximum speed at nominal rated altitude.
(6) Flight at ceiling.
These alone make the multi-position air-
screw a necessity. The aerodynamic refine-
ment of aeroplanes led to increased diving
speeds ; the increasing complication of engine
construction with high-speed supercharger
parts and gears makes them more susceptible
to excessive r.p.m. Both these factors lead to
the necessity of being able so to set the air-
screw pitch that the maximum r.p.m. of the
engine will not be exceeded in closed or full
throttle diving ; i.e. greater pitch angles than
for maximum speed are required.
A further consequence of the aerodynamic
233
refinement of aeroplanes was that in the event
of failure of one engine of a multi-engined
machine, the additional drag of a stationary or
revolving airscrew relative to the total remain-
ing drag proved to be so great as to prejudice
flight using one engine only. This led to the
necessity of making possible the adjustment of
the airscrew blades to the position of least drag
(i.e., the fully-feathered condition), the only
position in which a faulty engine can, in some
cases, be brought to a standstill. If in addition
to these problems a free-running hub or air-
screw brake is proposed, then the requirement
for a fully-feathered condition prevails ; since
the other two properties undoubtedly require a
considerably greater expense in design than the
pitch range, of some 40 deg., of the adjustable-
pitch airscrew ; the requirements for which, for
certain pitch angles, have been sketched in the
foregoing remarks.
Aeroplane development in recent times has
led to two further requirements for variable-
pitch airscrews. Modern high-speed aeroplanes
would reach in diving, a speed which would no
longer give the pilot time to arrive at a certain
point in safety ; further the wing area of such
machines is so small that the addition of diving
air-brakes causes considerably increased diffi-
culties in design. The utilization as a brake of
the airscrew driven by the head-wind in a dive
therefore suggests itself. There are two charac-
teristic airscrew positions which, for otherwise
equal power conditions (e.g. throttle closed and
switched off), and at a given translational
speed, both allow maximum r.p.m. to be
obtained, Figs. 2 and 3. Between these two
positions the permissible r.p.m. would be
exceeded, while at the 0 deg. and 90 deg.
positions the r.p.m. are reduced to nil. The
forces acting on the airscrew blade are, however,
very different in the two cases; in fact at the
smaller pitch there is a much more marked
brake-effect, Fig. 3. The possibility of obtaining,
in this way, a brake-effect in a dive, has proved
in tests to be practicable although the stability
problems still remain to be thoroughly investi-
gated. Finally, it might be thought possible to
obtain a brake-effect in a dive by using full
throttle, when the force conditions shown in
 234
Fig. 4 would be realized. I t is also theoretically-
possible to achieve a braking-effect by passing
the fully-feathered position, adjusting the pitch
to an angle beyond 90 deg., and maintaining a
certain maximum r.p.m. I t should be men-
tioned that the illustrations given in Figs. 3
and 4 are intended merely to indicate the basic
effect of the air forces on the blade section, and
that it is not possible, for example by means of
the method of v. Doepp* to determine this
condition by calculation.†
The second result of high-wing loading on
very fast aeroplanes is a high landing speed and
a very long landing run. I t has often been
proposed in recent years to use the airscrew as
a brake during landing by a negative setting of
the airscrew blades and reopening the throttle.
This requirement may be satisfied in principle
by adopting two airscrew pitch ranges and
passing progressively through the fully feathered
or the zero pitch position, of which the latter
would appear to be the more suitable. Fig. 4.
Here again practical tests have shown consider-
able results, in short, the following represent
some of the continually increasing requirements
of variable-pitch airscrews:
(a) Take-off—horizontal flight.
(b) Take-off—climb and horizontal flight near
ground and at altitude, cruising flight.
(c) Take-off—climb—horizontal flight, cruis-
ing flight, dive-brake-effect 0 deg., with-
out excessive r.p.m. Fully-feathered.
(d) Take-off—climb—horizontal flight, cruis-
ing flight, dive-brake-effect 90 deg., fully-
feathered, landing brake-effect.
I t should also be mentioned that airscrews
which make possible a negative pitch setting so
as to produce negative thrust are particularly
suited for the manoeuvring of sea-planes on
the water.‡
The multiplicity of the foregoing requirements
accordingly necessitates a number of selected
airscrew pitches which must be retained for
more or less lengthy periods and changed more
or less rapidly. So that numerous definite
pitch angles are required for the optimum use of
the engine output at any time and this is
particularly necessary in cruising or long-
distance flights at varying altitudes.
Added importance attaches, then, to the
problem of the control of these processes, the
solution of which has been the subject of many
alterations during the course of the develop-
ment and multiplication of the basic require-
ments already mentioned. Even if it had been
possible to achieve at once a sufficiently
developed direct method of control to satisfy
the conditions for the two-position arrangement,
it is apparent that the fulfilment of all the fore-
going requirements by an ideal variable-pitch
airscrew is no longer possible on account of the
entirely different force relationships, which
militate against direct control. By direct control
a design of variable-pitch airscrew is under-
stood in which the pitch setting is regulated
directly by the forces acting on the airscrew
blades. Such types have often been proposed
and in various instances the thrust, the torque
or the centrifugal force on the blades have been
proposed as the regulating medium. Of the
types of this character which have most
recently became known—Everel in U.S.A. and
dc Lavaud in France—sufficient information is
not yet available. Apart from the great
difficulties in operating with adequate precision
a governor process of this nature (the adjusting
moment arising from the mass effects, the
various deflexions of the individual blade
sections due to thrust and the resulting adjust-
ing moments, the air force moments and, not
least the frictional, moment in the bearings must
all be controllable within very narrow limits
* "Luftschraubenrechmulgen nach dem Verfahren her gleich-
wertigen Tragflugel-Polan." Luftfahrtforschung, Vol. 13, Bo. 2,
1936. (It is hoped to public a full translation of this important
article, which seems to have escaped notice, in an early issue.—
Editor.)
†See also N.A.C.A. Report, No. 641,
‡See "The I.Ae.S. Annual Meeting," AIRCHAFT ENGINEERING.
April, 1940, pp. 103-4.
AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING
and must be related one to another according
to a single law which will satisfy all the condi-
tions) the requirement for a braking-effect
inevitably necessitates a special method of
operation, since it is no longer in the normal
range of angular adjustments of the airscrew.
If such an operation is necessary then it is
certainly better, as is confirmed by the various
solutions, to effect it by the normal means of
adjustment.
The question whether, with a variable-pitch
airscrew which is intended principally to provide
an adjustment to any pitch, the adjustment is
achieved most suitably by the pilot or auto-
matically has not yet been fully answered.
I t is, however, certain that in circumstances
in which the pilot, and particularly the war-
time pilot, wishes to use the maximum output
(either at take-off or in fighting), automatic
adjustment is essential; i.e. the output of the
engine or the r.p.m. must be maintained
constant in all variations of flight conditions
by a corresponding governor process without
the necessity for operation by the pilot. Flight
at varying altitudes and with varying engine
conditions, e.g. economical cruising, demands
however the use of varying r.p.m. and this
necessarily results in a not inconsiderable
complication of the governor in that this neces-
sitates either a variable characteristic or that
the governor must be over-ridden and the
airscrew adjusted by manual control.
The types of governor in most frequent use
to-day are generally provided to meet this
requirement, with a connexion to the throttle
lever so that each position of the lever actuated
by the pilot is arranged to correspond with a
definite spring loading and by that means with a
definite rotational velocity of the governor.
By a suitable selection (e.g. a cam disc operating
on the governor spring) it becomes possible to
comply with a definite r.p.m. law along the
travel of the throttle lever. This law may be
varied either by hand or by other influential
values (air density for instance) by displace-
ment or rotation of the cam disc or other means.
With this arrangement it is also possible to
set any desired r.p.m. to correspond with any
chosen, known value, such as boost pressure.
A further development is required in that the
sense of operation of the governor must be
reversed if it is desired to use the pitch setting
for the diving brake-effect, 90 deg. position, with-
out, as is desirable in diving, requiring action by
the pilot. This reversal of the governor action is
necessitated, as shown in Fig. 2, by the fact
that the lower pitch angles correspond, within
this diving brake-effect range, with the lower
r.p.m.
Besides the basic operational process of the
governor sketched in the foregoing, there is
still the problem, from the design point of view,
of the quantity of energy required to satisfy the
various conditions for varying the pitch ; and
the problem of conducting it efficiently in its
most appropriate form to the airscrew blades.
The amount of energy required for making
the adjustments is determined by the total
adjusting moment acting on the airscrew blades,
the necessary speed of adjustment and the
efficiency of the adjustment mechanism. The
determination of the adjusting moment has
been variously dealt with. I t usually consists of
the small turning moments at small pitches,
consequent upon the mass effect, the frictional
moments and the air force moments. The first
two depend largely on the blade width and the
specific weight of the blade material. The last
moment, for a normal range of blade width
and a chord some 6 per cent to 8 per cent of
the diameter at 0·7 of the radius, with duralu-
min as material and a tip-speed of approxi-
mately 300 m./sec. (984 f t / s e c ) , is of the order
of magnitude of 100 m./kg. (723 lb. ft.). On
the other hand the predominating influence from
the aerodynamic viewpoint is exerted by the
wider blade sections lying nearer the hub,
particularly if they are set at a pitch angle of
some 45 deg. This is the reason, for instance,
why the blade root of the Hamilton airscrew is
August, 1940
cylindrical over a relatively great length ; since
otherwise the pressure of the oil from the engine,
utilized to make the adjustments, cannot be
relied on to ensure the requisite speed of
adjustment. For the further development of
high-performance airscrews of reduced diameter,
in which the blade width is already between
10 per cent and 12 per cent at 0·7 radius,
Elektron, or preferably a light wooden material
as used by the Schwarz company, may become
indispensable, especially if, as will be explained
later, the speed of adjustment is considerably
increased. Various means have been suggested
for the reduction of the resultant adjusting
moment; such as the spiral ball-bearings
adopted by von Seppeler and Ratier or the
various balance weights of different designs.
The first has the disadvantage that it gives, at
constant centrifugal force, only a certain
adjusting moment independent of the pitch
angle, so that a variable, even if lesser, resultant
moment remains, and that with the landing
brake-effect the balance operates in the reverse
sense ; i.e. increases the adjusting moment.
The second method has the disadvantage of an
unpleasant increase in weight, which naturally
is correspondingly less with the use of lighter
blades.
The frictional moments depend, in the first
place on the type of bearing and then on the
absolute weight of the blades. The frictional
values are relatively small as a result of the
unavoidable vibrations to which the airscrew
is subject when revolving.
The problem of the speed of adjustment pre-
supposes a consideration of the greatest possible
variations in flight and engine conditions ; in
which the coincidence of both variations, in so
far as they both operate in the same sense of
adjustment of the airscrew with regard to the
forces of inertia in it and the adjustment
mechanism, is the governing factor in the
determination of the maximum value of the
speed of adjustment. An analytical solution
of this problem is possible only by adopting a
mathematical expression for the Kd-curve over
the airscrew modulus. A determination of the
order of magnitude of the speed of adjustment
is possible if the pitch angles for different
extreme conditions of the engine (e.g. light
running and full throttle), are plotted over the
speed, or if the pitch angle for otherwise
constant speed is plotted over the throttle lever
travel. From these two, the necessary angular
variation over the time may be determined for
hypothetical rate of variation of engine con-
ditions or one ascertained by calculation or test.
Another possibility consists in assuming a
certain speed of adjustment to correspond with
an assumed condition of flight (V=constant)
and an assumed constant condition of the engine
—light running for instance—and in plotting the
r.p.m. curve over the time. In this case, how-
ever, the moment of inertia of the airscrew must
be taken into account. While the speeds of
adjustment determined in this way and corre-
sponding to the requirements of zero-pitch
braking may initially reach an order of magni-
tude of 1 deg. to 5 deg. per second, these values
become multiplied if the diving brake-effect with
the most efficient angle (Position B in Fig. 3)
and the landing brake-effect (Position D in
Fig. 4) are required. I t must, therefore be
possible to pass through these extreme con-
ditions into the normal range of airscrew angles
without reaching dangerously excessive r.p.m.
Such a condition is however reached in the
pitch-angle region of about 0 deg., particularly
at high speeds, even with the engine running
light and is aggravated if the throttle is opened.
A speed of adjustment is therefore necessary,
such that an angular range of 30 deg. to 50 deg.
may be passed through in a second or less.
Only the future will show whether this will be
possible by normal control methods with the
source of energy required for normal variations
or whether some other means will have to be
adopted for this special case. However, the
maximum r.p.m. occur during the dive and in
this case the required power output for adjust
 August, 1940
ment is correspondingly greater and may reach
the order of 10 h.p. (Efficiency of the whole
unit assumed to be 50 per cent).
From the foregoing the problem necessarily
arises of how to produce the required output for
adjustment and, from the solution of this
problem, how this power output for adjustment
is to be transmitted from the stationary portion
of the engine to the rotating parts.
Literature on the subject contains numerous
possibilities for the solution of these problems.
In the following, the most important examples
are collected. With regard to the form of
energy for adjustment and its final conversion
to mechanical energy at the blade the discussion
will extend to the choice of the means of trans-
mission from the fixed to the rotating parts.
In Germany, the Argus, Junkers and V.D.M.
airscrews represent three well-advanced designs
of which the first is predominantly mechanically
operated, the second hydraulically and the
third electrically, Fig. 5 and Table I. These
serve to illustrate that the type of energy far
adjustment used in any one of them is not
necessarily preferable to the other types. The
possibilities of a very exact pitch adjustment,
and consequently of large power reserves which
are an advantage with hydraulic operation,
contrast with the electrical method of adjust-
ment which is still capable of operation in the
event of engine failure (i.e. oil pressure nil) and
the advantage given by the distant control of
electric cables compared with oil pressure leads.
In the Argus airscrew an attempt is made to
utilize the mechanical torque of the engine
through the ribbed spinner in front of the air-
screw.
In the discussions at the start of variable-
pitch airscrew development, besides the means
of operation and the problem of the energy
necessary for adjustment, there was also the
important problem of the bearings of the air-
screw blades to be considered ; since the satis-
factory solution of this problem is an essential
AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING
condition for a practical design. There are
several basic solutions for the support of the
extraordinarily high centrifugal forces on the
blades and for the otherwise rather scanty
operational conditions with such bearings.
While the V.D.M. uses a cageless tapered roller
bearing, the cylindrical roller bearing which has
proved itself satisfactory on the Hamilton
airscrew is adopted by Junkers ; and the Argus
airscrew, which is at present provided, almost
exclusively, with wooden blades, uses the ball
bearings developed by the Schwarz Company.
(The Schwarz bearing is also used with the
wooden-bladed V.D.M. airscrews). I t is inter-
esting to note that, here again, the three German
variable-pitch airscrew systems utilize three
basically different bearings without' any one of
them giving marked superiority. I t should,
moreover, be notice that these differences are
clearly not desirable from the point of view of
standardization, but are attributed to the fact
that during the development of these three
airscrews it could not be decided whether diffi-
culties would develop with any one or other of
these types of bearings. Mention may also be
made of the fact that with the Junkers and
V.D.M. airscrews it was at first thought advis-
able to arrange for spring loading of the step
bearings ; but this proved to be unnecessary
since the transverse forces and moments in these
airscrews are taken up by the duplicated roller
or Radiax bearings. On the other hand, with
the Schwarz bearing, which transmits the
bending moments in a single plane, spring load-
ing is necessary and the problem is very cleverly
solved by the use of the principle of the Ürdinger
annular spring, Fig. 6.
A short description of the methods of opera-
tion of these three German variable-pitch air-
screws follows ; giving a brief sketch of the
governor and actuating processes, the so-called
" actuating arrangement," and a short criticism
will be made of the designs in the light of the
requirements mentioned earlier.
The V.D.M. airscrew, which, next to the
T A B L E I — S u r v e y of the different V.-P. a i r s c r e w systems
pitch adjustments and its application
Conversion in
Energy for Adjustments engine
I.—MECHANICAL—
Turning force of engine .. .. nil
Turning force of engine .. .. nil
Centrifugal forces of rotating airscrew nil
II.—HYDRAULIC—
Engine oil-pressure .. .. .. nil
forward airscrew bearing
Increased oil-pressure
re .. .. nil
III,—ELECTRIC— .. .. .. Electro-motor
Electric .. .. .. .. nil
235
world-famous Hamilton airscrew, is that with
which most practical experience has been gained
and which has been built in the largest numbers,
may be assumed to be well-known, both with
regard to its construction and method of
operation. The pitch adjustment is made by
means of an electric motor of 80-120 watts
through a set of planetary pinions. The dis-
advantage of having a large number of gear
wheels continually revolving, even at constant
pitch, particularly in respect of the lubrication
problem, may be regarded as outweighed ; in
any case it is not a sufficient reason to give up
an otherwise satisfactory solution of the
problem. The advantages of the compact ring-
shaped construction of the pitch-adjusting gear
lie in the possibility of a satisfactory pitch-
return movement, sometimes necessary even
with the governor process, and enables a satis-
factory reversal to be made without neces-
sitating an additional over-riding device or
supplementary source of energy. This type also
has the advantage that for flanged or stump
roots, for engines with or without a gun firing
through the airscrew hub, the principle of con-
struction and even the present available models
may be used. The electrical actuating arrange-
ment also has the advantage that by a simple
switch the airscrew may, without alteration to
it, be changed over to automatic operation, by
the addition of a few devices, instead of the
present-day hand operation. It is even possible
without serious difficulty subsequently to con-
vert a whole series of aeroplanes to constant
r.p.m. operation. In this matter, the V.D.M.
airscrew has two main possibilities for the
governor process; by using either a circuit
where the voltage is dependent on the r.p.m.,
or a mechanical governor with a pendulum
oscillating between two contacts with a relay,
until a satisfactory function is assured.
I t should be mentioned that with this con-
struction the pitch-adjusting energy is already
converted to its mechanical form before trans-
mission to the shaft. The actuation by elec-
trical means (as with Curtiss) is not therefore
obligatory but may be effected by other means,
e.g. oil pressure.
The Junkers variable-pitch airscrew is of a
fully-automatic design. By an oil - pump
operated by the engine the required volume of
oil is delivered at the necessary pressure to an
oil-operated motor, between two oil-tight joints
in the hub. The gearing required for this
operates, of course, only during pitch adjust-
ments, but in contrast to the hydraulic air-
screws known abroad (Rotol and Hamilton) it
permits a blade-setting over the entire angular
range of 360 deg. Although experience is not
available with regard to scries production of
this airscrew, as with V.D.M. airscrews, it can
with regard to the energy used for making
to the airscrew
Transmission from Conversion in
engine to airscrew airscrew Example
indirect coupling nil Argus
direct coupling nil Smith
nit nil Schwarz, Everel, de
Lavaud, Bendix
oil-tight joints at piston Hamilton, Rotol
ditto oil-operated motor Junkers VS.
Differential gear nil V.D.M. (Pistolesi, etc.)
slip-ring electro-motor Curtiss, Ratier
 2.36
be said that the many difficulties feared in
connexion with the transmission of the pitch-
adjusting medium at such considerable pressures
as 18 atmospheres, and in quantities of the
order of 40 litres per minute, have not materia-
lized. The very disagreeable solidification of the
oil in long flights at very low temperatures,
frequently observed with Hamilton airscrews,
has not, up to the present, been noticed to any
appreciable extent; particularly in the case of
the automatic airscrews where the pitch varies
constantly between certain limits, thus ensuring
a constant circulation of the oil.
The use of the Junkers airscrew is dependent
upon a relatively large number of provisions
being made in the engine during construction.
This appears to be a disadvantage with regard to
the alternative use of various types. I t is, how-
ever, possible that this principle may lead to
the future development of power units already
fitted with variable-pitch airscrews. This fact
may be observed quite clearly in the further
development of the Hamilton airscrews and the
engines of the United Aircraft Corporation.
In the Argus variable-pitch airscrew, the
pitch adjustment is effected by means of a
ribbed nose cover which is capable of rotation
relative to the main hub-cover and which is
connected through the governor, in a pitch-
decreasing or increasing sense, with the adjust-
ing mechanism. The moment required for
making the adjustment, which is transmitted
through the mechanism to the blades, is pro-
vided by the air resistance offered to the ribbed
cover in this condition of rotation. The first
model of this airscrew, which is now in series
AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING
production, makes provision for the governor
itself in the hub, and makes possible by means
of a so-called switch gear the switching on or
off of a second governor spring, which enables
two r.p.m. values to be maintained constant;
e.g. maximum and cruising r.p.m. This type
has the advantage that, apart from a simple
push and pull rod to the engine and to the unit,
no other provisions at all need be made. The
ribs on the hub cover, set in the full airstream,
are alone sufficient to provide the moment
necessary for making the adjustments in pitch.
An oblique position relative to the axis produces
a moment which is present even in the case of
engine failure and suffices to bring the airscrew
to the fully feathered position and so to bring
the engine to rest. If the coupling is made in
the reverse sense, the engine may again be set
in motion. Pitch adjustment is therefore
generally possible in flight with a stationary
engine ; it is not possible with the aircraft at
rest but this is not necessary. In a later
development the principle of the Argus air-
screw may be put into practice with a stageless,
controllable governor; in which case the
governor itself might be fitted to the engine
and the coupling in the hub be effected by
alternating oil-pressure. In contrast to the
Junkers airscrew, therefore, in this arrange-
ment not the pitch adjusting energy but only
the force necessary to control the pitch adjusting
operation is transmitted by hydraulic means
to the shaft. I t may be pointed out that those
constructional parts which gave rise to fears of
difficulty in the early design (i.e., the reciprocal
claw coupling) have proved satisfactory.
August, 1940
As already mentioned, it is possible with the
governor set in the engine, as with the V.D.M.,
Junkers and Argus airscrews, to adjust to any
desired r.p.m. by alteration of a loading spring ;
i.e. all three systems permit, by choice of
maximum r.p.m., a diving brake-effect with
light running engine—the position A in Fig. 2.
For the realization of position B (Fig. 2) and for
the landing brake effect, special additional
measures would be necessary with all three
systems. I t is certain that this problem will be
solved, since preliminary tests have already
shown the necessary corresponding efficiency.
In conclusion it may be said that experience
with variable-pitch airscrews up to the present
has shown that an unconditional preference
cannot be given to any system of pitch adjust-
ment nor to any type of bearing for the blade
roots. A stageless governor giving any desired
airscrew revolutions and an infinite range of
adjustment are fundamental requirements and
are provided by all three German types. An
advantage over many designs well-known
abroad can doubtless be recognized in this fact
I t is not to be assumed that the justifiable
renunciation, for the time being, of any one or
other of the possibilities, and the resultant
possible simplification of design at the great
speed with which development progresses, must
be taken as unalterable for any great length of
time ; least of all with regard to high perform-
ance, and more especially, fighting types. On
the other hand, all three German producers,
having once decided on a certain type, have
concentrated within definite limits on the
accomplishment of the object in view and have
not attempted all possible variations—which is
the impression given by some types produced
abroad (e.g. Ratier).
By this means, the designs have been so far
developed that it may be said without exaggera-
tion that the German variable-pitch airscrews,
if not superior to those of other countries, are
in no wise inferior to them.