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Abstract— There has been an increasing demand for The second category of solutions consists of infrastruc-
infrastructureless localization. Current approaches involving tureless indoor localization systems, and inertial navigation
inertial measurement unit (IMU) generally utilize step detection systems used to estimate pedestrian’s displacement. There
and step counting to estimate the displacement. However, the
accuracy is affected, because the step sizes are neglected. Some are two types of pedestrian dead-reckoning using inertial
groups have proposed algorithms that involve placing the IMU on navgiation systems, which are: a) strapdown and b) step-and-
the foot to estimate the step size, but users have commented that heading [7]. The strapdown algorithm method utilizes IMU
it affects their walking. Hence, this paper presents a new method and estimates pedestrians’ position by double integration of
to estimate both the forward displacement and orientation with the three orthogonal accelerometer readings. The accuracy
the IMU placed at the upper torso. Placing IMU at the upper
torso to estimate horizontal displacement has been challenging, of inertial sensors is greatly handicapped by the notorious
as the accuracy of the inertial sensors is greatly handicapped integration drift, though [8]. To address this, researchers have
by the notorious integration drift when performing integration been utilizing zero velocity updates. Schepers et al. [9] have
in the travel direction with the lack of opportunity for zero utilized the fact that the velocity of the foot is zero when it is
velocity update. Thus, a novel method is proposed in this paper by on the ground to remove the drift effect in their Kalman filter.
exploiting the vertical component of the accelerometer reading.
An inverted pendulum model is proposed with a step detector Thus, the integrated velocity from accelerometer reading is
and a step length estimation method. The system is implemented, set to be zero during the zero velocity intervals. To further
and two sets of experiments are conducted to demonstrate improve the position accuracy, Do and Suh [10] utilize zero
the capability. The experiment sets include straight lines and velocity update plus information extracted from camera image
rectangular shape path, and in each set, four step sizes of small, processing.
normal, large, and mixture are conducted for each test and each
test is performed four times. The experimental results show The step-and-heading approach on the other hand first
an average displacement error of 1% for straight line paths identifies steps or strides, followed by computation of the
and 2% for the rectangular paths. step length by employing the appropriate model, and finally
Index Terms— Dead reckoning, inertial navigation, step length estimates heading by utilizing any devices good for orientation
estimation. estimation such as IMUs and cameras [11]. In this approach,
I. I NTRODUCTION the orientation and heading is mostly estimated using quater-
nion [12] and Kalman filter, either in direct form [13], [14] or
I NDOOR localization demand has been increasing for rea-
sons ranging from public safety to elderly care, safety of
firemen to operational planning or strategy coordination of
indirect form [15], [16]. Alternatively, the heading is corrected
using other sensors like camera [17].
soldiers. Current localization systems can be broadly classi- Pan and Lin [18] proposed step counting using a smart
fied into two categories, namely: 1) infrastructure-based, and phone. Constant step length is usually used to approximate
2) infrastructureless. Infrastructure-based localization systems the displacement. Zhang et al. [19] and Renaudin [20] further
include utilizing Global Positioning System (GPS) [1], [2], improve the accuracy by classifying pedestrian’s motion into
and wireless communication like wireless local area six motion modes with an adaptive algorithm to detect step
network [3]–[5] and radio frequency [6]. However, infra- events. Diaz [7] and Diaz and Gonzalez [21] on the other hand,
structure-based systems are not suitable for a number of proposes using on empirical modeling of walking and utilize
situations due to a couple reasons like requirement for prior the information of the opening angle of the leg to estimate
hardware installation in the building, higher infrastructure cost, displacement. The models used involve parameters that are
calibration and training. personalized for each individual and hence, prior training and
learning have to be conducted to obtain a good estimate of
Manuscript received May 25, 2016; revised August 1, 2016; accepted these parameters.
August 5, 2016. Date of publication August 24, 2016; date of current version
September 28, 2016. This work was supported by SUTD Temasek Laborato- In order to avoid the requirement of training, the authors’
ries. The associate editor coordinating the review of this paper and approving it previous work [16] utilizes a walking model to estimate both
for publication was Dr. E. H. Yang. (Corresponding author: U-Xuan Tan.) the step length and step size. However, users have commented
T.-N. Do, R. Liu, C. Yuen, and U-X. Tan are with the Pillar of Engineering
Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, that placing the IMU at their foot or ankle affects their
Singapore 487372 (e-mail: trinhut_do@sutd.edu.sg; ran_liu@sutd.edu.sg; walking. In addition, it is more practical [22] to place the IMU
yuenchau@sutd.edu.sg; uxuan_tan@sutd.edu.sg). at the upper torso for monitoring daily life activities, especially
M. Zhang is with the College of Electronic Science and Engineering,
Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China (e-mail: zmeng@seu.edu.cn). in walking. In a natural manner, people using devices like
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSEN.2016.2601937 cell phone with built-in IMU prefer to put their devices in
1558-1748 © 2016 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
DO et al.: PERSONAL DEAD RECKONING USING IMU 7601
A. Walking Model
Fig. 4. The walking motion of the torso (e.g.: hip) can be modeled as an
Generally, bipedal walking is a simplified version of human inverted pendulum, and the zoom-in version of the hip motion illustrates the
walking motion [25] and can be used to study walking motion. relationship between vertical and horizontal displacement.
When the motion of the foot is deeply analyzed, the leg motion
can be modeled as a simple pendulum. On the contrary, when
analyzing the hip motion, the walking model is an inverted
pendulum. In other words, the pendulum model is used when
the hip is used as the pivot point, and inverted pendulum model
is used when the foot is used as the pivot point.
By using the simple pendulum model, the authors estimated
displacement using only one IMU located at one of the
ankles [16]. A localization algorithm is proposed with no prior
training required and the leg length can be estimated via the
algorithm.
Our clients have commented that it is more convenient and
user-friendly to place the IMU on the torso. Moreover, the pro-
posed algorithm can potentially be developed in smartphone
apps, where the smartphone IMU will be used and hence it
is better to put it on the torso than foot. Therefore, this paper
investigates new locations of IMU at the waist, back and chest
with an assumption of pedestrians’ torso to be kept upright
when walking. Since the IMU is on the torso, and based on Fig. 5. This figures illustrates four cycles of a typical profile of the vertical
acceleration, velocity, and displacement r1 and r2 of Fig. 4.
the fact that the motion of upper torso in pedestrians’ walking
is a cyclic nature gait, an inverted pendulum is used. Fig. 4
blue ring, respectively. Fig. 5 shows four cycles of the a typical
illustrates the motion of the torso and how inverted pendulum
profile of the vertical acceleration, velocity, and displacement
can be used. Integrating the horizontal acceleration directly
r1 and r2 of model shown in Fig. 4.
is not feasible because there is no opportunity to perform any
zero update. Hence, an algorithm utilizing vertical acceleration
to estimate horizontal displacement is proposed. B. Step Detector
Fig. 4 shows an inverted pendulum model that resembles Using the walking model as a guide, a step detector algo-
the motion of pedestrians hip. The pedestrians’ leg length rithm is used based on the peak positions of vertical accelera-
is the arm of inverted pendulum. The small dense dots repre- tion azw . Based on the walking model, the movement of the hip
sent the ideal trajectory of the hip in the horizontal direction in the vertical gravity direction is periodic and can be modeled
when a pedestrian walks. In one period, the hip generally using a sinusoidal function. The hip reaches the top position
starts from the lowest point, reaches to one highest point and (the highest point) at the lowest peak of vertical acceleration
falls to one lowest point as illustrated by the red ring and the whereas it reaches the bottom position (the lowest point) at
DO et al.: PERSONAL DEAD RECKONING USING IMU 7603
Fig. 8. Block diagram of the experiment setup, with the mobile components
(attached to pedestrian) indicated at the top and the base components indicated
at the bottom.
Fig. 7. The solid blue line depicts the vertical acceleration and velocity within
a part of whole result whereas the cyan dotted line is the integrated vertical Fig. 9. Experiment setup with (a) illustrating the size and (b) demonstrating
displacement. The integrated values are reset to zero at the red rings whereas one of the locations tested.
the blue rings represent their previous adjacent values which are taken for the
computation of the horizontal displacement.
constant. In addition, the ground truth is measured using Fluke
411D Laser Distance Meter.
where X j and Y j represent the position in the East- and
North-axis at step count j , and 0.23° is used due to magnetic
declination at Changi, Singapore (location of experiment), and B. Experiments and Results
the angle ψ̂ is above mentioned heading. For all the experiments, the mobile part is mounted on
the torso. Two experimental sets of scenarios are conducted,
IV. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS namely: 1) walking along a straight line with three pre-defined
The mentioned proposed method is implemented as illus- travelling distances for displacement accuracy evaluation, and
trated in Fig. 8, and experiments are conducted to illustrate 2) walking along with a rectangular path with a fixed travelling
the capability of the proposed method. In this section, a brief distance for combination of heading and displacement accu-
description of the experiment setup is first given, followed racy evaluation. Four subjects in our research group aging from
by a description of the experiments conducted and the results 25 to 39 with height ranging from 1.6 meters to 1.86 meters
obtained. are recruited for these experiments, and all the experiments
conducted are repeated with varying step sizes of small,
normal, large and then a mixture of them. Each test is also
A. Experimental Setup repeated for four times.
The proposed algorithm has been tested and the hard- 1) Walking Along a Straight Line: In this experimental
ware used in the IMU localization system is illustrated in scenario, four volunteers are tasked with walking at normal
Fig. 9, with the top portion indicating the mobile components speed. The test is repeated with several distances of the straight
(attached to the pedestrian) and the bottom indicating the base line covering 20 meters, 40 meters and 60 meters. Each
components. The mobile part consists of an Xbee wireless distance is performed with three locations of IMU on upper
transmitter, an MPU-9150 IMU sensor board and an Arduino parts of human body and the locations are: 1) right waist,
Fio microcontroller Atmega328P board whereas the base part 2) end of back bone, and 3) center chest.
has the laptop and an Xbee wireless receiver. The transmitter The results of positions are summarized in Table I. The
communicates with Fio board using serial protocol. The Fio values shown in Table I are averaged estimation from all four
board collects data from IMU board using I2 C communication subjects and repeated tests.
protocol. The receiver is connected to PC or the Laptop via The results in Table I suggest that even though the IMU
serial port. Then, the received data is processed for observation sensor board is put at a few positions like right waist, back and
and visualization. The proposed algorithm is implemented chest, the proposed method is still able to estimate the distance
in the mobile part with the data acquired in every 25 ms with an overall averaged error of 1%. Different parts of the
and passed through a complimentary filter with 225 ms time torso have different vertical displacements, and the reason why
DO et al.: PERSONAL DEAD RECKONING USING IMU 7605
TABLE I
P ERFORMANCE OF THE P ROPOSED M ETHOD B ETWEEN I NITIAL AND E ND
P OSITION OF A S UBJECT WALKING A LONG A S TRAIGHT L INE
TABLE II
P ERFORMANCE OF THE P ROPOSED M ETHOD B ETWEEN I NITIAL AND E ND
P OSITION OF A S UBJECT WALKING A LONG A R ECTANGULAR PATH
Fig. 13. In this figure, the red * represent the estimated positions when
walking along the 1st lane of a standard Olympic stadium.
Fig. 11. In this figure, the red * represent the estimated positions when
walking with (a) small step size, (b) normal step size, (c) large step size, and
(d) mixture step size for a rectangular path.
Fig. 14. This figure shows the experimental result when walking around
rectangular path for a total distance of 1229 m.
existing Kalman filter is that it relies more on gyroscope than In order to obtain the estimated Euler angles, the estimated
the magnetic field, which is more suitable for indoor applica- quaternion (inclusive of error), q̂, is first approximated by a
tions because the effect of interference from the magnetic field discrete equation whereby the third-order local linearization
is lesser. The state of iKF is defined as following equations: algorithm is used:
• State definition: 3 1 1
⎡ ⎤ q̂k+1 = (I4×4 + k T − ωk 22 T 2 − k k−1 T 2
qe yaw 4 6 24
x ⎣ qe pitch ⎦ = qe ∈ R 3×1 (8) 1
− ωk 22 T 2 k T 3 )q̂k (17)
qeroll 48
where x is the state space, and [1 qe ] is a quaternion of where ωk is vector of angular rate without sensor noise and
angular errors. is different from yg . The k is generated from ωk based
• State equation (continuous form): on (10). After that, the quaternion representing the Euler
angles is obtained by multiplying the estimated quaternion
ẋ = −K (yg ) x + −0.5v g (9) with the quaternion-based estimated angular error obtained
where v g is gyroscope measurement noise, and K (yg ) is from equation (11) as follows:
defined by qk+1 = q̂k+1 ⊗ qek+1 (18)
⎡ ⎤
0 −yg (3) yg (2)
where q is the quaternion representing the Euler angles.
K yg ⎣ yg (3) 0 −yg (1) ⎦ (10)
−yg (2) yg (1) 0
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
and yg (1), yg (2), and yg (3) are the x-, y-, and z-
The authors would like to thank Dr. Yang Liangjing and
components of gyroscope measurements respectively.
Mr. Li Hsieh-Yu from Singapore University of Technology
• State equation (discrete form):
and Design for finding the time to conduct the experiments,
x k+1 = exp(AT )x k + wk (11) and Ms Jennifer Lauv from MIT for correcting the grammar.
where wk is a vector of discrete white process noise,
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based algorithm for orientation estimation from earth gravity and B.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees from Nanyang Techno-
magnetic field measurements,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 57, logical University, Singapore, in 2000 and 2004,
no. 3, pp. 638–650, Mar. 2008. respectively. In 2005, he was a Post-Doctoral Fellow
[15] Y. S. Suh, “Orientation estimation using a quaternion-based indirect with Lucent Technologies Bell Labs, Murray Hill,
Kalman filter with adaptive estimation of external acceleration,” IEEE NJ, USA. In 2008, he was a Visiting Assistant
Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 59, no. 12, pp. 3296–3305, Dec. 2010. Professor with Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
[16] T.-N. Do, R. Liu, C. Yuen, and U.-X. Tan, “Design of an infrastructure- Hong Kong. From 2006 to 2010, he was a Senior
less in-door localization device using an IMU sensor,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Research Engineer with the Institute for Infocomm
Conf. Robot. Biomimetics, Zhuhai, China, Dec. 2015, pp. 2115–2120. Research, Singapore, where he was involved in an
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algorithm for pedestrian navigation using smartphone sensors,” IEEE local area network system and actively participated in the third generation
Sensors J., vol. 15, no. 12, pp. 6797–6804, Dec. 2015. Partnership Project Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and LTE-A standardization.
[18] M. S. Pan and H. W. Lin, “A step counting algorithm for smartphone In 2010, he joined the Singapore University of Technology and Design,
users: Design and implementation,” IEEE Sensors J., vol. 15, no. 4, Singapore, as an Assistant Professor. He has authored over 300 research
pp. 2296–2305, Apr. 2015. papers in international journals or conferences. He holds two U.S. patents.
[19] H. Zhang, W. Yuan, Q. Shen, T. Li, and H. Chang, “A handheld inertial He received the IEEE Asia-Pacific Outstanding Young Researcher Award in
pedestrian navigation system with accurate step modes and device poses 2012. He serves as an Associate Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON
recognition,” IEEE Sensors J., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1421–1429, Mar. 2015. V EHICULAR T ECHNOLOGY and was awarded as the Top Associate Editor
[20] V. Renaudin, M. Susi, and G. Lachapelle, “Step length estimation using from 2009 to 2015.
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in level walking using a single inertial measurement unit attached to
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pp. 1125–1128. Meng Zhang was born in China in 1964.
[23] J. C. Alvarez, D. Alvarez, A. López, and R. C. González, “Pedestrian He received the B.S. degree in electrical engi-
navigation based on a waist-worn inertial sensor,” Sensors, vol. 12, no. 8, neering from the China University of Mining and
pp. 10536–10549, 2012. Technology in 1986, and the M.S. degree in bio-
[24] F. Inderst and F. P. M. Santoni, “3D pedestrian dead reckoning and electronics engineering from Southeast University,
activity classification using waist-mounted inertial measurement unit,” Nanjing, China, in 1993, and the Ph.D. degree
in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Indoor Positioning Indoor Navigat., Oct. 2015, in microelectronics engineering. He is currently a
pp. 1–9. Professor with the National Application Specific
[25] T. McGeer, “Passive dynamic walking,” Int. J. Robot. Res., vol. 9, no. 2, Integrated Circuit System Engineering Technology
pp. 62–82, Apr. 1990. Research Center, College of Electronic Science and
Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
He is also a Faculty Adviser of Ph.D. graduates. His research interests include
Tri-Nhut Do received the B.Eng. degree in electri- digital signal and image processing, digital communication systems, wireless
cal electronics engineering and the M.Eng. degree sensor networks, information security and assurance, cryptography, and digital
in technology cybernetics engineering from the integrated circuit design, machine learning, system, and network optimiza-
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, tion. He has authored or co-authored over 50 referred journal and interna-
Vietnam, in 2002 and 2005, respectively, and the tional conference papers. He holds over 60 patents, including some PCT,
Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Uni- U.S. patents.
versity of Ulsan, South Korea, in 2012. From 2013 to
2014, he was a Post-Doctoral Fellow with the Secu-
rity Laboratory, Multimedia University, Malaysia.
Since 2015, he has been a Post-Doctoral Fellow
with the Singapore University of Technology and
Design, Singapore. His research interest includes indoor localization, human
daily activities tracking, robotics, sensor fusion, and human emotion recog-
nition for security. He is a recipient of the Outstanding Paper Award from U-Xuan Tan (S’07–M’10) received the B.Eng. and
ICCAS-SICE 2009. Ph.D. degrees from Nanyang Technological Uni-
versity, Singapore, in 2005 and 2010, respectively.
Ran Liu received the bachelor’s degree from the From 2009 to 2011, he was a Post-Doctoral Fellow
Southwest University of Science and Technology, with the University of Maryland, College Park, MD,
Mianyang, China, in 2007, and the Ph.D. degree USA. From 2012 to 2014, he was a Lecturer with
under the supervision of Prof. Dr. A. Zell and the Singapore University of Technology and Design,
Prof. Dr. A. Schilling from the University of Singapore. In 2014, he decided to take up a research
Tuebingen, Germany, in 2014. Since 2014, he has intensive role and since an Assistant Professor at
been a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow under the Singapore University of Technology and Design,
supervision of Prof. C. Yuen with the MIT Interna- Singapore. He received the STUD Outstanding Edu-
tional Design Center, Singapore University of Tech- cation Award - Excellence in Teaching in 2015 and Best Student Paper
nology and Design. His research interests include Finalist for the IEEE ROBIO 2006. His research interests include mechatron-
robotics, indoor positioning, UHF RFID localization, ics, medical robotics, sensing, control, mechanism design, and disturbance
and mapping. compensation.