Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

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Title:
MAGNETOTELLURIC MEASUREMENTS

Author:
Clarke, J.

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SQUID Applications to Geophysics Workshop, Los Alamos, NM, 06/2-4/1980

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LBNL Paper LBL-12266

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I . P.

DE82 002846

Lawrence BerKeiey hasoratory

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
EARTH SCIENCES DIVISION

Presented a t t h e SQUID A p p l i c a t i o n s t o G e o p h y s i c s
Workshop, L O A ~ l a m o s S c i e n t i f i c Laboratory,
STEW
L o s A l a m o s , NM, June 2-4, 1980

MAGNETOTELLURIC MEASUREMENTS

J o h n C l a r k e and N . E . Goldstein

J u n e 1980

Prepared for the US. Department of Energy under Contract W-7405-ENG-48

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MAGNETOTELLURIC MEASUREMENTS*
John Clarke# and N.E. Goldstein##
. ABSTRRCT
The ideas of flux quantization and Josephson
tunnelinq are reviewed, and the operation of the
dc SQUID a s a magnetometer is described. The
SWXD currently w e d f o r ma e t o t e l l u r i c s has a
s e n s i t i v i t y of 10-14 T m - 3 , a dynamic range
a t lo7 i n a 1 Rz bandwidth, a freauency response
from 0 t o 40 kRz, and a slewing r a t e of 5~10‘~T
sel. Recent improvements in s e n s i t i v i t y are
discussed: SQUIDS a r e rapidly approaching the
l i m i t imposed by the uncertainty princinle. The
e s s e n t i a l ideas of magnetotelluric (MT) measure-
ments are outlined, and it is shown how the remote
reference method can lead to major reductions i n
b i a s e r r o r s compared to more conventional schemes.
The f i e l d techniques of t h e Berkeley proup u e ’
described. The p r a c t i c a l avplication of HT re-
quires t h a t amplitude and phase spectra of apparent
r e s i s t i v i t i e s he transformed i n t o a geologically
useful d i s t r i b u t i o n of subsurface r e s i s t i v i t i e s .
3n many areas where ?iT i6 being applied today, the ‘
technique m y not provide the information needed
because s t a t i o n s are too few and widely spaced, o r
because w are unable to i n t e r p r e t data influenced
by complex 3-13 r e s i s t i v i t y features. I n t h i s paper
we examine the results OS two surveys, one de-
t a i l e d , t h e other regional, over the Klamath Rasin,
Oregon. The detailed survey is able to resolve
small (1,- wide) s t r u c t u r a l features t h a t a r e
missed or add a component of s p a t i a l a15asing t o
t h e regional data. Cn the other hand, t h e regional
survey avoids truncation effects t h a t may occur
when the survey undersamples an area.
-
%is work was .upported by th
Office of Energy Research, Office of Baric
Energy bcienms, Material Sciences Division, and
t h e Assistant Secretary f o r Resource Applications,
Office of Industrial L U t i l i t y Applications C
Operations, Geothermal Energy Division of the
U.S. Department of En
‘d Nor W-7405-EN-48.
#Department of Physics, University Of C a l i f o r
nia, Berkeley, and ?lateriala and Molecular Re-
search Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
Berkeley, California 947200
##Earth Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720.
LBL-12266
I. INTRODUCTION
During the past f i v e years, the Berkeley
group has used dc SQUID magnetometers t o perform
magnetotelluric (WP) soundings. The purpose of
t h i s article is to give a brief overview of this
work. )Je f i r s t review a few e s s e n t i a l features of
ntperccnductivity, describe the operatian of t h e
dc SQUID, and then discuss the remote reference
technique f o r magnetotellurics. Brief descrip
t i a s of our f i e l d techniques follow, and we
conclude with a secticn on the modelfng and in-
terpretation of W data.
11. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
In a superconductor, electrons a r e paired
together to form Cooper pairs. It is these p a i r s
t h a t a r e able to carry a supercurrent, and t h a t
are responsible for the zero resistance. They
a l s o give r i s e t o another very important e f f e c t
known a s flux mantitation. Consider a r i n g of
a superconducting material i n i t i a l l y above the
superconducting t r a n s i t i o n temperature, and
therefore in the normal s t a t e . An externally
applied magnetic flux threads the ring. %e
r i n g is cooled below the t r a n s i t i o n ,temperature,
and the external magnetic f i e l d is switched off.
One finds t h a t the i n i t i a l flux is trapped in
the r i n g by means of a c i r c u l a t i n g supercurrent
-
that persists indefinitely. However, t h i s flux
cannot take on ubitrary values, but is quantized
in units of the flux quantum, eo W 2 e , about
2do-15 m.
A highly relevant property of rrupercon-
ductors is josephson tunneling, i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Figure ita). ltvo superconductors are separated by
a thtn insulating b a r r i e r perhaps 20 to 3 0 4 thick.
Cooper p a i r s can tunnel through the b a r r i e r without
dissipation provided the supercurrent they carry is
less than a well-defined maximum value, Io, known
as the c r i t i c a l current. A t y p i c a l p l o t of current
ersus voltage V is shown in Figure l ( b ) f o r a
junctfon shunted by a normal r e s i s t o r to eliminate
hysteresis. A t Berkeley, we make such a junction
using the following procedure ( F i g u r e l ( c ) ) . F i r s t ,
we sputter a r t r i p of Nb, say, 1 0 0 urn w i d e and
2,000 A t h i c k onto a glass, quartz, o r rapphire
substrate. We grow an oxide b a r r i e r by heating
the film in a i r f o r typically 12 minutes a t 13OoC,
and complete the junction by depositing a Pb s t r i p
 T
!

a t r i g h t angles to the mi ~ fa, s is usual, we
wish t o obtain the non-hy6teretic I-V charactcr-
istic shown in Figure U b ) , we f i r s t deposit a
diagonal s t r i p of Au t h a t provides a p a r a l l e l
resistance to the function. We attach curreng and
voltaqe leads a s shownr and measure the 1-0 charac-
t e r i s t i c w i t h the junction Lmnersed i n l i q u i d
helium. %e measured c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is rather
close to t h a t shown in Figure l ( b ) . For use in
the SQUIDS described in the next section, the
c r i t i c a l current is t y p i c a l l y 2@* and the shunt
resistance is about 1 0 .
change in response to a flux change. The SQUID
could thus be used as a d i g i t a l naqnetmeter by
sfmply counting the o s c i l l a t i o n s in voltage as the
flux is changed. However. as w e shall see pre-
sently, in practice one can detect the voltage
change t h a t r e s u l t s from a change in f l u x of much
less t h a n Q o r thereby greatly increasing the
s e n s i t i v i t y of the device to magnetic field.

/
t
.' -
v . Fiqure 2
0 I 2 We0
(a) de S W D , w i t h r e s i s t i v i t y Shunted
junctionst (b) I-V c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with
fluxes No and (n + l/2)Cpo threading
Fiprve 1 (a) Two ntpcrconductor8 separated by SQotDt (e) V V.4.
h S u l a t b g b a r r i e r to form a Josephson
tunnel jun&iont (b) current ( 1 ) vg.
voltage ( V I c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r a
Josephson junction shunted with a
resistance, a s shovn i n (e).

111. THE Dc SQUID

The dc SQUID neatly incorporates Josephson
tunneling and flux quantization. %e device con-
sists of a superconducting r i n g interrupted by hro
non-hysteretic Josephson jtXnCtion8 ( F i g u r e 2(a)).
We can measure the I-V charactcristAc in the usual
way. I f we change the external magnetic flux
threading t h e ring, we find *at the critical
current of the SQUID o s c i l l a t e s perLodic8lly in
t h e flux, with a period of precisely one flux
quantum. The o s c i l l a t i o n s arise in a way that is
analagous t o the interference between tvo beams of
l i g h t in a two-slit expariment; it is f o r this
reason that we talk a b u t a "quantum interference
device.. Furthermore, the l a r w a l t a g e I-V charac-
t e r i s t i c 'ia a l s o periodic in the applied flux, a s
indicated in Figure 2 (b). ' Thos, i f we bias the
SWID with a canatant current, we can see t h a t as
the 1-0 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are modulated by a change
i n the flux, the voltaqe across the device a l s o
o s c i l l a t e s (Fiiqute 2tc)). Operationally, t h i s is
a l l one needs to how about the SQUID: it is a
flux-tetroltage transducer t h a t produces a voltage

2
 Figure 3 shows the type of SWID developed
by Clarke, Goubau and Ketchen (1976)_thatwe have
been using f o r aver s i x years. The device is
deposited on a 3-nmrdiameter quartz tube. We
begin by dcpesitinq the Au s t r i p s t h a t Ultfmatdy
serve a s shuntn, and t h t n deposit a Pb band around
the tube. This is followed by twu Nh s t r i p s t h a t
make superconducting contacts t o the Pb band. We
then oxidize the Nb, and evaporate a Pb "T" to
form the two junctions. The SQUID i s coated vith
an insulating layer, and a Pb ground plane (not
shown) is evaporated mer tht slit in the Pb ban8
and the narrow i i h s to reduce the p a r a s i t i c
1 inductance. Finally, we attach two t h i n Cu wires
with In pellets to enable us to measure the
characteristics.
We invariably use the SQUID i n a feedback
circuit shown schematically in Figure 4. The
SQUID i~biased w i t h a Constant current i n the
Figure 5 shows the measured spectral density
of the equivalent flux noise of a SQUIDenclosed
in a Pb s h i e l d t o eliminate external magnetic
interference. Zn the mid-frequency range, the
noise is white, w i t h a magnetic f i e l d rms noise
of 10'14T Uz -lI2. A t frequencits below about
2xl0'2Hz, the noise scales roughly as V i , where
f is t h e frequency. The high-frequency toll-off
is due t o a f i l t e r placed between the SQUID and
the computer used t o measure the spectral'density;
it is n o t i n t r i n s i c t o the SQUID o r the electrarics.
. I I I
I
P -
"s" 104
0..

'
s
. -
5.
non-zero voltage state. Any change i n t h i s voltage Y
's.
is amplified by conventional ma-temperature % "*'-'-*
electronics, the output of which is connected via
a r e s i s t o r t o a coil placed inside the SQUID. B
g3 Io'*-
.' -
Suppose a w a l l change in flux,64, , is applied t o
0
t h e SQUID. The 9stem responds by inducing a in
opposing flux, -
current i n the coil t h a t generates an exactly
6 # , i n the SQUID. The voltage,
Vo, produced across the series r e s i s t o r , J?,, is
d2.
proportional t o &#. Thus, the use of feedback
l i n e a r i z e s t h e response Of t h e S m D by making it FREQUENCY (Hr)
a n u l l detector in vhich the total flux (applied
and feedback) remains constant. In practice, we
use a emewhat m e complicated wystan in which we Figure 5 Spectral density of flux noise of SQfJID.
apply a m a l l alternating flux to the SQUID, and
amplify the alternating voltage across t h e device by
Beans of a cooled transformer or resonant circuit.
The signal i s further amplified by canvendonal Figure 6 shows the hmg-term d r i f t of the SQUID i n
electronics, and lock-in detected before being fed a Pb shield a temperature-regulated He bath.
back i n t o the coil. The measured d r i f t was less than lO'l4~ hr-1.

i
I
MI)

Fi-t 6 D r i f t of SQUID output with 0.25 Hz

lorpass f i l t e r .

The overall specification of the system we

use f o r geophysics is as follows: t h e dynamic
range is about lo-' in a one Elz bandwidth, and
t h e mall-signal frequency response is from 0 t o

t h e electronics package -
about 40 kHz ( t h e upper l i m i t i s set e n t i r e l y by
the SQUID i t s e l f should
pperate up t o frequencies of me GIIz or higher).
Figure 4 Feedback c i r c u i t f o r dc SQUID. The slewing rate is about 5x10-5 T 8-1, and the
s e n s i t i v i t y is 10-14~H Z - ~ I ~ .

3

Although the SQUID j u s t described is rather
an old design, its performance has been more than
adequate f o r OUT geophysical measurements. How-
ever, new SQUID designs have l e d t o great advances
in s e n s i t i v i t y in t h e last year or so. A con-
venient measure f o r the s e n s i t i v i t y of 8 SQUID is
t h e noise energy per u n i t handwidth,
S
t11
where 4 is the spectral density of the equivalent
flux noise, and L is the SQvIDinductance. The
theory of Tesche and Clarke (1977) p r e d i c t s t h a t g
is proportional to K C ( L C ) ~ / ~where , K is the absolute
temperature and C is the junction capacitance, which
is proportional to the junction area.. Fbr p r a c t i c a l
applications, it is very undesirable to reduce the
operating temperature belov the boiling point of
l i q u i d H e , 4.2A, SO t h a t one must reduce L and/or C
to isprove the energy s e n s i t i v i t y . Photolithography
and electron-beam lithography have k e n w e d very
successfully to reduce both the junction areas and
t h e dimensions of SQUIDS. For example, the cylin-
d r i c a l SQUID has an inductance of about one nHD a
function area of about 10-2m2, and a noise energy
of about ~ X ~ O - ~ O J H a~ t- 4~ . 2 ~ . recent a e r i e s
of devices with planar geometries have retained an
inductance of one nH, hut have junction areas of
1 0 - h 2 and 10brmn2, respectively (Koch e t al., E79~
Voss u., 1990a). The measured noise energies
were about 2x10-31 JHZ-1 and 2x10-32mt-1,
respectively, in accord with the t h e o r e t i c a l pre-
diction. A t the time of t h l s meeting, the.most
- -
s e n s i t i v e SQUID is t h a t described by Voss e t al.,
(1980b) with ~ / 1 H z 2x10'3311~ 20 6 where & = h/2T
and h is Planck's constant. Recent t h e o r e t i c a l
calculations (Koch $t al., 1981) indicate that the
ultimate noise energy is approximately&, no that
there is still considerable scope f o r improvement.
The more eammonly used cryogenic magnetmeter
is #e commercially available rf SQUID. The rf
SQUID is described elsewhere in these proceedlnqs
by C.H. Falco and I.K. Schuller. A d e t a i l e d des-
c r i p t i o n of both the dc and rf SQUID can k found
in reviews by Clarke (1977.and 1980).
Iv. ~m&rEuuRIcs
K?qnetotellurics (MT)makes use of u l t r a -
lov electrcmaqnetic energy reaching t h e earth
from solar-generated disturbances in t h e ion-
mphara (below 1 m d frcm world-rido alectri-
cal thunderstorm a c t i v i t y (above 1 Hz). For a
general review of the subject, see, f o r example,
Vozoff ( 1972). Since the e a r t h is a qood elec-
trical conductor compared with the atmosphere,
t h e incident f i e l d is reflected, while components
of both t h e magnetic and e l e c t r i c f i e l d decay i n t o
t h e ground with a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c length equal to
t h e skin depth 6 LI 0.5(PTI1&n km, where P is
the e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y of the earth at the
s t a t i o n and T is the period of the o s c i l l a t i o n i n
seconds. The frequency range of i n t e r e s t typical-
l y lies between Hz and I O 2 liz, and the skin
depth a t 1 Rz m u l d be on t h e order of 1 t o 5 km.
In !fX', one measures simultaneously the orthogonal
horizontal components of magnetic f i e l d , H x ( t )
4
*
and X y ( t ) , and the electric f i e l d , %(t)
and Ex(+)* ,
From the Fourier transform of these f i e l d s , one
can compute the impedance tensor, .p),
defined by:
.E(w)
, = g(w) %w). P I
The impedance tensor contains four centplex imped-
ance elements &(w), z+w), zyx(d, and
ZyYtw). H~MVCT. t h e quantity of r e a l physical
i n t e r e s t is not so much Z(w but rather p ( r ) , t h e
r e s i s t i v i t y of the ground as a function of psi-
tion. In general, it is exceedingly d i f f i c u l t to
obtain an accurate p i c t u r e of p ( r ) from measure
ments of $$wl, no matter how accurate the l a t t e r
amy be, but it frr useful to make some general i'
comments on t h e problem. HoweverD we note f i r s t
t h a t one freuuently meahres a f i f t h f i e l d compo-
nent, H Z ( t ) , t h e magnetic f i e l d perpendicular to
t h e e a r t h ' s surface. This quantity enables one to
obtain the tipper, $(w), defined via the r e l a t i o n
A=(W) TxQ)Xx(W) + Ty(~)Hy(w) t3 I
The a p l e s t modeling e l t u a t i o n , and the only
one t h a t can be interpreted tmambiguously, is the
1-D case in which the conductivity v a r i e s with
-
depth, but is independent of position in the c and
-
y-ditections. The H-field is always perpendicular
to t h e E-field, so t h a t Z, = Zw = 0, and A, 0,
so that Tx = Ty 0. A more complicated situa-
t i o n is t h e 2-D case in which the conductivity a l s o
varies in, f o r example, t h e y-direction, but is am-
s t a n t in the r d i r e c t i o n . The r d i r e c t i o n is one of
t r a n s l a t i o n a l invariance, and is called the strike
direction in keeping with geological terminology.
I f we measure the impedance tensor and r o t a t e the
axes SO t h a t a principal ucia l i e s along the s t r i k e ,
we w i l l agaln find that Z, = + =O. M e r -
more, Tx = 0, but Ty L 0. Thus a non-zero tipper
component provides a d i r e c t indication of a change
in l a t e r a l conductivity. m i t e often, one finds
t h a t a given survey can be approxlmated by a 2-D
model. However, one may f i n d t h a t the ground is
d e f i n i t e l y 3-D i n which case ?ne of the canpnents
of g(w) or Tfw) is zero, and modeling becomes ex-
ceedingly d i f f i c u l t .
The deviation of the r e a l earth f r o m a simple
1-D model motivates t h e usual method of presenting
MT data. The measured f i e l d s a r e r e l a t e d via the
expanded form of equation (2):
F
To obtain any of the impedance elements in the con-
ventional analysis scheme, one multiplies equations *
( 4 ) and ( 5 1 i n turn by t h e complex conjugate f i e l d s
<(w), and $(w), and averages over
a u t e and cross-powers to obtain
Q(IU)A;(W), H,(wIE*(w), etc. me then SOlVe8 a
, subset of four of L e s e equations t o obtain the
, impedance elements. For example, one method of
solution leads t o
 i
,
-- --
Z#) - Z H*
--- - -
X Y
IHxI
2
IHxI 2- ExH:
IH f 2 A H*
H
X Y
H*
H H* .
(61 e
Y . X Y Y X
with corresponding expressions f o r the other ele-
. ments. The usual procedure is t o r o t a t e the axes
of t h e impedance fensor a n a l q i c a l l y u n t i l the
quantity I & x ( w ) I + lzyy(w)[ i s minimized.
This defines one of t h e tvo directions f o r which
we have the l a r g e s t t r a n s l a t i o n a l invariance ( t h e
7 s t r i k e ) . Qle then ignores t h e campnents q x ( w )
and %(w), thereby assuming t h a t the ground can
be adequately represented by a 2-0 model. Finally,
using Uaxwell's equations, one introduces the
apparent r e s i s t i v i t i e s i n the IC and y-directions
VI
I81
where T is the period in seconds, 0 - and Pyx are
i n n m , and Zw and Zy. a r e in (#/kn~)(nT)'~.
Where the ground can be represented by a 2-0
model, we often associate the apparent r e s i s i t i v i -
t i e s i n the principal directions (equations ( 7 )
and ( 8 ) ) with e i t h e r the transverse electric (TE)
or transverse magnetic (TM) modes of wave propaga-
t i o n , and these terms a r e often used in PV nomen-
clature. The TE m o d e referr t o the electric f i e l d
p a r a l l e l t o s t r i k e , w h i l e the TM node r e f e r s to the
maqnetic f i e l d p a r a l l e l t o strike. For example, if
x is the s t r i k e direction t h e n P x y (w) is called
the TE mode apparent r e s i s t i v i t y .
In 1974, Gamble, Goubau, and C l a r k e began a
project t o use 3-axis dc SQUID n a g n e t a e t e r s f o r
naagnetotelluric measurements. This work was
undertaken following a sugges+ion by Profesor H.F.
m r r i s o n t h a t the use of more s e n s i t i v e magneto-
meters might lead to,an improvement in the q u a l i t y
of MT data in bande of l o w signal strength. A good
deal of data wa6 obtained without undue d i f f i c u l t y ,
but i n the subsequent analysis it was found t h a t
the apparent r e s i q t i v i t i e s contained very large
e r r o r s . The source of the e r r o r is well-known, and
can e a s i l y be mcen by innpection of eauation ( 6 ) .
The denominator contains the autopower IHy(q) I 2.
In f a c t , a l l methods of solving equations'(4) and
( 5 ) f o r 2- and ZW lead t o a r e s u l t w i t h a t
l e a s t one auto-power in the denominator o r numera-
t o r . Suppose now (t) a c t u a l l y consists of
. two cmpnentfi, a " p a r t and a "noise" part:
Computing the auto-power and assuming t h a t the
signal and noise p a r t s a r e uncorrelated, we f i n d
5
Under c e r t a i n circumstances , I ffyn(w 1 I can
greatly exceed I Hys(w 1 I , thereby "biasing"
%y(w) to a value much lower than its t r u e value.
Clearly, no amount of averaging w i l l reduce this
error. hs a r e s u l t of t h i s preliminary work,
Gamble, ,Goubau, and Clarke concluded t h a t the
source af the noise, although unknown in origin,
did not l i e in the magnetometer, and began t o
examine other techniques f o r overcoming t h i s
problem.
M t e r a prolonged investigation, these authors
f i n a l l y t r l e d a method they called the "remote
reference technique." The e s s e n t i a l idea is t o
i n s t a l l a second two-axis magnetometer a t a site
( f o r example) 5 t o 10 km from the primary site.
Data from the remote site is broadcast t o the UT
site, and recarded simultaneously w i t h the local
data. To analyze these data, we then multiply
equations ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) by the camplex conjugates
of the remote f i e l d s , H*xr(w) and A* to), t o
obtain four equations t h a t can be sopfvcd f o r the
impedance elements. As an example, one finds:
----
It is immediately evident t h a t equation (11) con-
t a i n s no auto-powers. Furthermore, i f the noises
i n the l o c a l f i e l d s a r e uncorrelated w i t h the
noises in the reference f i e l d s , the noise tenus
w i l l average t o zero, and the impedance elements
w i l l be f r e e from bias.
5b test the method, which r e l i e s c r i t i c a l l y .
on the assumptions t h a t the local and remote noises
a r e uncorrelated, an MT s t a t i o n was established a t
Upper L a Gloria in Rear Valley, California, w i t h a
second site a t Lower La Gloria, roughly 5 Ian away.
A l l of the data were recorded on tape at Upper La
Gloria, and subsequently analyzed. Figure 7 shows
t h e apparent r e s i s t i v i t i e s obtained from one set of
data using the remote reference analysis scheme.
The apparent r e s i s t i v i t i e s are smooth functions of
frequency. To t e s t the effectiveness of the remote
reference technique, we re-analyzed the same set of
data using the conventional analysis technique (for
example, equation ( 6 )1. We see in Figure 8 t h a t
t h i s technique yielded w i l d , unphysical d n g s i n
the apparent r e s i s t i v i t y a s a function of frequency.
The very considerable improvement t h a t r e s u l t s from
the use of the remote reference scheme is c l e a r l y
demonstrated.
'+-L
K
401'
0.01
# '
0.1
I ' I
I
1 " I
10
' 110 0
kriod (SI
Figure 7. Apparent r e s i s t i v i t i e s obtained from one
s e t of data a t Upper La Gloria, using
remote reference method.
 t f i .We b r i e f l y describe the f i e l d techniques t h a t
the Berkeley group c u r r e n t l y uses. The electrodes
f o r measuring the E-field consist of the usual
ceramic pots with a permeable bottom. Each pot .
contains a saturated aolution of CuSO4 i n which a
Cu electrode is immersed. The electrodes are
placed t y p i c a l l y 200 m apart, and the voltage
between the eolmnon electrode and each of t h e two
other electrodes is detected with a low-noise
preamplifier. The three SQUIDS a r e mounted ortho-
gonally in a f - l i t e r capacity superinsulated
f i b e r g l a s s cryostat. The cryostat uses no l i q u i d CT:
m nitrogen, and the l i q u i d helium loss rate is

Figure 8
001 0.1 I
hrmd Is1
U

Apparent r e s i s t i v i t i e s obtained from the

. approximately 1 l i t e r per day. The cryostat is
same a e t of data as in Fig. 7 , using
conventional analysis scheme ( s o l i d l i n e ) .
Dashed l i n e s represent curves in Fig. 7 .
W e note that two other benefit. result from
the use of the remote reference rchaue. F i r s t , it
enables one t o place r e l i a b l e confidence l i m i t s on
the apparent r e s i s t i v i t i e s . This is e s s e n t i a l i f
one is t o perform meaningful modeling. The appar-
ent r e s i s t i v i t i e s of Figure 7 have been replotted
in Figure 4 w i t h probable e r r o r bars shown. The
probable errors can be as l w as a fev tenths of
one percent a t high frequencies where many data
segments are available. Second, one can reanalyze
the data to aeparate out the "signal" terms from
the "noise" terms. In f a c t , one often finds that
the wnoisewis higher than the "signal," but,
nevertheless, the remote reference achaue enables
one to obtain r e l i a b l e , accurate apparent r e s i r -
d V i t i e 8
-I
0
r e a d i l y portable and could e a s i l y be carried i n t o
remote areas on a back-pack frame; it io a l s o very
robust. All the magnetometer electronics a r e
mounted on the top of the cryostat; one needs only
t o connect b a t t e r i e a and a recording system. The <
magnetometer needs no adjustment In the field.
After being .witched on, the electronics automat-
i c a l l y s e t the output to zero, and the device is
ready t o measure the magnetic f i e l d fluctuations.
We find it necesary to protect the cryostat with a
wind- and ann-shield. I n f a c t , wherever possible,
ye bury the cryostat, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the case of
the remote maqnetbmeter, which may be l e f t tmat-
tended f o r days a t a time. a c i d e n t a l l y , we rum
use a 30-liter cryoatat f o r t h e remote reference,
with a h o l d t h e of about one month.
The data a r e recorded i n a closed truck. The
tu0 E-field algnals and the three l o c a l H-field
signals a r e connected to the vehicle with cables,
while t h e two remote H-fields are telanetered to
the vehicle. IVter m i t a b l e f i l t e r i n g a l l seven
aiqnals are recorded. Typically, below 1 Hz t h e
data are fecorded on a d i g i t a l tape recorder, while
above 1 Hz the data are analyzed by a LSI-11 m i c r o -
processor t h a t computes all the required auto- and
cross-power spectra. A t the completion of any s e t
of data, we can print out the e s s e n t i a l information
t o aasess its quality.

VI. m m A T I O N OF FIELD MEASUREMENTS

d 'I As explained above, HT workers are now

capable of making HT measurements with a high
degree of accuracy, and of obtaining impedance

i.1
L

c o t b a t e s w i t h good s t a t i s t i c a l r e l i a b i l i t y , even
i n the frequency band of low s i g n a l strength. The
major task before the geophysicist is t o transform
the m s u r e d impedances i n t o geologically useful
I information. This involves finding a half-space
dfotribution of reoiativities t h a t f i t . t h e complex
impedances over the aurvey area.
101 I
lo-2 0-1 I 10 102
Period becondrl I n i t i a l l y , thlr waa not a p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t
midable problem because most e a r l y surveys were
Figure 9 Apparent r e s i s t i v i t i e s sham i n Figure 7 conducted a t 8ites i n topographically f l a t aedi-
replotted with v e r t i c a l bars representing mentary basins (Cagnaird, 1953) where the apparent
the probable errors. reoiativity, Pa(@), was invariant with respect to
orientation of the horizontal coordinates. %en,
aa is y e t the practice in some areas of t h e world,
a single induction-coil magnetaneter and a s i n g l e
pair of electrodes were used t o obtain %calarW
impedance estimates which were interpreted mainly
by f i t t i n g Pa(@) t o gets of layered-earth curves.

6
 However, scalar surveys a r e r a r e l y performed in
the United S t a t e s today, unless there is a r e i o r i
evidence t h a t the area is s t r u c t u r a l l y one-dimen-
sional. For those rare cases, interpretation
is simplified by use of several d i r e c t inversion
techniques# e.g. Weidelt (19721, Rost
and Oldenburg (1979).
- . The need t o apply the Mr! technique t o areas
of complex geology has prompted the measurement of
t h e impedance tensor, # w ) , (see Section I V ) and
hence the requirement to develop numerical tech-
a
niques f o r 2- and 3-0 forward solutions t o the
e l e c t r a a g n e t i c s c a t t e r i n g problem. Several
forward solutions t o t h e 2-D problem are i n general
use, such @s v a r i a t i o n s of the network analogy
(Swift, 19711, i n t e g r a l equation (Lee and Morrison,
19t30), and f i n i t e element-finite difference ap-
proaches (Ryu, 1971). Computation costs are in the
range of $10 t o $50 per m o d e l , depending on model
P complexity and machine used, and various programs
a r e routinely used by the I S L and others. Often we
begin M i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by employing a 1-D inver-
sion on part of the data t o pin down a few parame-
t e r s , switching over a s soon a s possible t o a t r i a l
and e r r o r forward 2-D solution. W e might then seek
t o optimize the f i t by means of an automatic
i n t e r a t i v e 2-D direct inversion (Jupp and Voroff,
1977) once a reasonahle model has been found t h a t
seems consistent with a l l known data. Recently,
t h e r e has been an i n t e r e s t i n approximate non-
i t e r a t i v e d i r e c t 2-D inversions ( m e n , 1 9 R O ) .
Whether t h i s approach w i l l be successful has been
questioned because of problems related t o ( a )
non-uniaueness, ( b ) geological noise, (c) the need
' f o r close-spaced mtations, and ( d ) the large mount
of computer tine required. Also, as the technique
involves non-linear transformations, good i n i t i a l
estimates of model parameters are needed and these
a r e usuallv d i f f i c u l t to obtain unless s u f f i c i e n t
geological and geophysical data are available.
Although 2-D i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e umetimes
adequate to i n t e r p r e t a l i n e of s t a t i o n s perpendi-
cular to geologic s t r i k e , we discover t h a t a s the
r t a t i o n array is expanded i n the s t r i k e direction,
a 3-D i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is invariably needed. mr
this there e x i s t s an assortment of forward 3-D
solutions based on the i n t e g r a l equation m e t h o d
(Xohmann and Ting, 19781, the f i n i t e element
method (Pridmore, 19781, or a hybrid of the two '
(Lee 1981). Regardless of algoritlna, -the
c o s t of 3-D modeling remains high and these codes
are not exercised much beyond the point of t e s t i n g
them on simple models involving a few frequencies.
Consequently we do not y e t have an e f f i c i e n t means
for making topographic corrections, and UT s t a t i o n s
located on or near mountains and ridges rill yield
data degraded by what is equivalent t o geologic
mise
While e f f o r t s continue f o r finding improved
schemes t o reduce the c o s t of 3-D forward model
calculations, the application of El" t o more chal-
lenging geological problems has i d e n t i f i e d several
other p r a c t i c a l problems t h a t were less evident
i n the past. One general problem centers on the
d i f f i c u l t y of obtaining a s u f f i c i e n t number of
s t a t i o n s upon which t o base an interpretation.
This problem manifests i t s e l f i n various ways; one
f a i r l y common one occurs f o r surveys in areas of
l i m i t e d access t o vehicles. me means for m i t i -
gating the access problem has been the use of the
telluric-magnetotelluric (T-UT) technique
(Hermance, u., 1975; Hermance and Thayer,
19765. In this technique, a five-component base
s t a t i o n i s i n s t a l l e d a t a convenient location,
while an array of t e l l u r i c (Ex, % only)
s t a t i o n s , with s u i t a b l e radio telemetry, i s placed
around it (Figure 10). Magnetotelluric analyses
a r e performed using a mmon magnetic f i e l d ; i.e.,
assuming a unffom magnetic f i e l d over the survey
area. Although magnetic f i e l d s can be uniform wer
large distances, 30 t o SO km, t h i s 1s not t r u e
everywherer e.g., i n coastal areas o r areas where.
strong l a t g r a l Contrasts e x i s t i n surface rocks.
-.
Figure 10. Magnetotelluric sensor array using
remote t e l l u r i c and magnetic stations.
The problem of obtaining adequate s t a t i o n
density a l s o arises in areas where subsurface
geological information is i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r survey
planning purpses. If the s t a t i o n Beparations are
kept small, survey time and costs w i l l escalate a t
an unacceptable rate. For t h i s reason, it i s more
l i k e l y t h a t the geophysicist w i l l make the s t a t i o n
density a s l o w a s he f e e l s i s safe, but, neverthe-
less, r i s k i n g the dual dangers of ( a ) l o s s of
important information due to truncation e f f e c t s o r
gaps or (b) error introduced by s p a t i a l aliasing.
The qeneral problem of undersampling is a M j O t
source of concern t h a t i s most l i k e l y t o arise
because, f o r reasons of cost, eccess, o r poor
geological information, station5 are too f a r apart
r e l a t i v e t o the l a t e r a l dimensions of mubarface
r e s i s t i v i t y changes. It may a l s o arise whenever
inadequate information is obtained; e.g.2 ( a ) a t
s t a t i o n s located where 3-D topographic corrections
a r e important, ( b ) where the T-MT method does not
provide enough information a t the telluric-only
a t a t i o n s t o discriminate the geologic strike
direction, or (c) where s t a t i o n s may not have been
located f a r enough away from the primary area of
i n t e r e s t to provide the regional "background."
To i l l u s t r a t e the i n t e r p r e t a t i v e problems and
inaccuracies t h a t derive from undersampling, we
present the r e s u l t s from two nvveys conducted in
the Mamath Basin h southern Oregon (Stark, &.,
1979 and 1980). The area was subjected t o post-
Miocene c r u s t a l extension resulting in a canplex
graben structure, characterized by numerous H40-
noma1 f a u f t s , i n t e r m i t t e n t oofcaniim, and- pro-
nounced l i n e a r physiographic features. t y p i c a l of
the Basin and Range province* The first survey
was a detailed T-MT survey performed by Ceonomics,
Inc. I n the Swan Lake-Meadow Lake area, 10 h #E
of the c i t y of Klamath Falls. K l i n e of s t a t i o n s
(Line A-A') was placed a t nearly right angle t o
the Basin and Range f a u l t s ; the s t a t i o n spacing was
approximately 2 ko (Figure 11). Three of t h e nine
s t a t i o n s , those without a l e t t e r designation, Yere
complete fivecomponent stations. The other six
(4A, ZA, 2C, 6A, 8A, and 8B) were telluric-only
s t a t i o n s , f o r which the simultaneous magnetic
f i e l d s were obtained a t the base s t a t i o n W i t h the
same number designation.
. w-a

Figure 12 I n i t i a l two-dimensional m o d e l f i t to .
the line of YIT s t a t i o n s along line A-A',
Swan Lake Valley area, Mantath County,
Oregon.

For example, a caaparison of the TE modes in

?igurcs U and 14 ahows that we e r e unable to
obtain r good match between observed and calcrrlated
pseudo-sections. The poorest match occurs in the
vicinity of telluric statLona 81 and 88 whlch l i e

-
on the Swan Lake rim. the opthrown s i d e of a f a u l t
block elevated 500 m &we Swan Lake Valley. While
there could be various reasons why we were unable
t o f i t the data, we -sed that the lack of three-
canponent magnetic information a t these stations
could have resulted in 8 mi.-identification of which
of the +wo principii r e s i s t i v i t y d i r e c t i o n s is
associated With the TE mode.

Figure 11 Wagnetotelluric stations i n the

Swan Lake Valley area, Klamath Comty, ?lgure 13 Ueasurcd TE mode apparent r e s i s i t i v i t y
Oregon. pseudo-section f o r line A-A', Swan Lake
Valley, Klamath Comty, Oregon.

A 2-D f i t to the data v i a forward modeling

yielded the r e s i s t i v i t y m o d e l in Figure 12. we
vere n e i t h e r happy With nor confident in this
model because, despite repeated attempts t o obtain
a better f i t between observed and calculated
pseudo-sections, we were unable t o do so.

8
i .
i
wonlatol yb
s
o t z 3 4 a
Mnnkn
IBl.lS8-uuI
Figure 14. Calculated "E mode apparent r e s i s t i v i t y
pseudosection ( l i n e A-A') f o r model
shown in Figure 12.
There was a l s o some doubt a s t o the proper made
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a t Station 4. we therefore inter-
changed the presumed TE and TM sounding data a t
s t a t i o n s 4, 0A, and 08, t o obtain the posudo-
section in Figure 1s.
X*L
pseudo-section (line A-A') a f t e r
presumed TE and TM apparent resistiv-
ities were interchanged at s t a t i o n s 4,
0A, and 88.
I
P o l l w i n g the same PrOceuure as
then derived a new 2-0 model (Figure 16) f o r which
the calculated pseudo-section (Figure 17) shows a
much b e t t e r f i t to the 'observed" pseudo-section.
The new model a l s o reveals some d e t a i l absent in
t h e first modelt e.g., the conductive wne l 6 n m 1
a t 1.0 t o 1.5 km depth beneath t h e valley and the
presence of a deeper c r u s t a l conductive zone (3 nm)
a t a depth of 20 km. The l a t t e r %on@ was l a t e r
confirmed by results of the second survey, a
regional MT survey across t h e Klamath graben, along
a l i n e passing over t h e valley.
3
noli SDOC*
Waim*rd -OM
0 1 2 3 4 5
LilMIm
IoLm-zw6
Figure 16 Revised hxrdimensional model f i t t o
the MT s t a t i o n s along l i n e A-A' a f t e r
interchanging m o d e s a t s t a t i o n s 4 , 8 A ,
Urd 8B.
0-23 tiln*hn4 5 .
1.LmlO-mM
Figure 17 Calculated TE m o d e apparent r e s i s t i v i t y
pseudo-section (line A-A') €or the
revicred two-dimensional model shown In
Figure 16.
m.Io*.
Despite the better f i t , we are not t o t a l l y
confident i n the revised model and there may yet
remain errors, p a r t i c u l a r near the Swan Lake Rim.
For example, a s we made no topographic correction
and our assumption regarding s t r u c t u r a l tm-
. dimensionality is open to question,-the conductive
"zone ( 2 n m ) adjacent to the normal f a u l t may be,
ln p a r t , an a r t i f a c t of fnterpretation. 'Po res6lve
We this gllcstion, additional s t a t i o n s supported by
d r i l l i n g o r other geophysical methods wuld be
necessary.
It should be clear, however, from! t h i s axmple,
t h a t considerable c r t r u c t ~ r a ld e t a i l w i l l be resolved
i f the s t a t i o n density is high. Narrow structures,
ouch as the graben beneath station (madow Lake
Valley), can be resolved w e l l . As the s t a t i o n
separation is increased from 2 t o 12 km, a s #e next
example shows, the d e t a i l s a r e l o s t and the r i s k of
s p a t i a l a l i a s i n g grows.
9
 t

Figure l8 chows t h e locations of base (8) and e f f e c t s of such inhanogeneities are small, they may
remote (RI s t a t i d n pairs occupied by LEL f o r a not be r e a d i l y suspected. The r t r u l t i n o interpret-
remote magnetic reference MT arvpey along a lina a t i o n w i l l a u f f e r from an indeterminant component ’
extending from the sfsky00 MDlmtains, across t h a of s p a t i a l a l i a s i n g which may manifest i t s e l f in
Caacades and the Klamath Basin, and terminating i n t h e poorness of f i t between obaerved and calculated
the sssfi! and Range province near Bly, Oregon. me pseudo-rections and l a r g e confidence l i m i t s calcu-
Swan Lake Valley occupies t h e c e n t r a l position of l a t e d f o r c e r t a i n r e s i s t i v i t y unies i n the model.
t h e area between atations 87 (Xlamath F a l l s ) and 88
(Yonns). The principal r e s i a t i v i t y d i r e c t i o n s
were found via the rtandard tenaor r o t a t i o n pro-
cess, and the 90° ambiguity a s to W c h d i r e c t i o n
can be taken a s the regional geologic . t r i k e areas
was resolved by choosing t h e d i r e c t i o n c l o s e s t t o
t h a t f o r which Ty (equation ( 3 ) ) is a maxhm.
,Thir helped u s o c h t e t h e two apparent r e s i s t i v i t y
soundings, pxy(w) o r pyx(o). with either the TE o r
ZM mode. The tu0 s e t a of obaerved data, p l o t t e d
I n pseudo-section form, vera j o i n t l y i n t e r p r e t e d by
means of a forward 2-D modeling algorithm. Data SI- i I 4
from S t a t i o n 2ri oi t h e Swan Lake m survey were
c.
I200 1 1700
included in t h e a n a l y s i s to provide an additional
sounding. It may be seen frau Figure l5 that t h e
s p e c i f i c choice of S t a t i o n 2a, r a t h e r than another
s t a t i o n in the v a l l e y (2 or 2C), imposes some bfaa
on t h e interpretation,, although t h e differences are
n
20 - 39
I

255
-
Slight.
(25,611 . 4.3 (115,560)
,
so - ( 3.7.5.0)
t?u -blcu(oted nriacivityOn
-
OlS.1601 bnfidana limits
lo nsiuirity
100
XILWS-MV

?igura 19 TnrdClaandanal =del f i t t e d to the

regional ?lT survey between the Parker
(PM) and Rly (BL) s t a t i o n s .

ou
M

--
Figure 18 Location map of regional s t a t i o n s of
Thio work vas supported by t h e A s s i s t a n t ‘
a remote magnetic reference m survey
Secretary f o r Conservation and -able
, across the Klamath Basin, Oregon. Energy, Office of Renewable Technology, D i p
h i o n of Geothermal and HyazropaWer Technol-
ogies of t h e U.S. Department of Energy
under Contract No. W-7405-ENG-48. W e would
Figure 19 ah- t h e r e s u l t i n g 2-D i n t e r p r e t a - l i k e t o thank T.D. Gamble, W.H. Goubau,
t i o n of the regional MT survey. Because this survey M.B. Ketchen, R.H. Koch, R. ea-,
and t h e earlier Swan Lake Valley wrvey covered C.D. Tcsche for their e f f o r t t thatmade
s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t frequency bands,, it is inappro- possible t h e work described on the dc SQUID
priate t o make a p o i n t - b y p i n t d e t a i l e d canparison and the r m t e reference magnetotellurks.
of t h e two s e t s of results. However, it m y be We also want to acknowledge H. S t a r k for
seen t h a t both surveys discerned c e r t a i n common his work i n i n t e r p r e t i n g the Klamath B a s h
features; e-g., (a) the l o w r e s i a t i v i t y zone rn data.
(4.3Rn) t h a t occurs a t a depth of 15-18 km beneath
t h e basin, and (b) t h e Ngh r e s i s t i v i t y aurface
zone (610 Ra) west o f t h e Swan Lake Valley. ch t h e
o t h e r hand, important narrow 2-D f e a t u r e s such as
t h e Wcadow Lake graben structure and perhaps t h e
conductive zone adjacent t o t h e Swan Lake Rim, both
on the order of 1 km wide, cannot be resolved.
However, we how from 2-0 model atudier t h a t the
presence of such s t r u c t u r e s may perturb t h e f i e l d s
obsemed a t s t a t i o n s 5 t o 10 km away. Recause the

10
 REFERENCES
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Method of MT Analysis & Workshop on Elec-
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University of Utah, Department of Geology and
Geophysics, b a l t Lake City, p. 1755177.
Cagnaird, L., 1953, Basic Theory of the Magneto-
t e l l u r i c method i n geophysical prospecting:
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C l a r k e , J . , 1977, Superconducting Quantum Inter-
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