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ABSTRACT
can avoid the accident of the vehicle. It also saves the life of the driver and
passenger. The aim of this project is to design and develop a control system based
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. The rest of this article is
Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though
braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for
later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy intopotential energy in such stored
forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields
to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is
converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other
forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air).
Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars
with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and
moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at
1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the
traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have
significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage
carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Mostfixed-
wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also
feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples
include gliders and someWorld War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter
aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a
safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed
Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc
brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill
When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed,
ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the
wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake
shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.
Types
brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an
Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe"
or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such
as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear.
Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and
excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.
Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a
rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum
with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum
brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a
rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are
used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which
rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two
parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc
Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the
machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel
supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some
braking. Some engines use a coil override called a Jake brake to greatly
increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be
regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic
accumulator.
Antilock brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already
part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use
motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped
as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an
generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy
driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called “antilock brakes” as
well).
Characteristics
obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in
Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail
when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per
unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the
Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade.
Some designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively
immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on
fade.
varying brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little
traction, and friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids,
which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for
riders inside.
Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human
application force leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other
brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate to
"powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower
and deformation that exists under braking with ability to retract friction
periodically. Wear surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake
disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates
Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often
Brake boost
Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases
the force applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator.[1] This additional force is
supplied by the manifold vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the
throttle on a running engine. This force is greatly reduced when the engine is
running at fully open throttle, as the difference between ambient air pressure and
diminished. However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle; the driver takes the
right foot off the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot
braking is used.
Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often
brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the driven-wheels in contact with
Noise
Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice
to noise pollution.
with tire construction, road surface, and the magnitude of the deceleration. Noise
can be caused by different things. These are signs that there may be issues with
Inefficiency
ofefficient energy use while driving is to note how much one is braking. If the
majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction instead of braking, one is
squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one of
While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences
efficiency is "off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not
system, allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract. However, this retraction must
distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the
contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the
rubbing surface. During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake
drag can lead to significant parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and
vehicle performance.
Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The
system consists of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, air storage tank.
For the parking brake, there is a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed
ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is
pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100–120 psi or 690–830 kPa) to the
brake chamber, causing the brake to reduce wheel rotation speed. Most types of
truck air brakes are drum units, though there is an increasing trend towards the use
of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the
atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa).
Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the
availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones
or lights. Setting of the parking/antilock brake releases the pressurized air pressure
in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus actuating
the (spring brake) parking braking hardware. A sudden loss of air pressure would
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control
system. The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the
Supply system
The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or
directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine
lubrication and cooling systems. Compressed air is first routed through a cooling
coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture and oil impurities and also may
alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti
freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in
a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which it is then distributed via a fou
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and
shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft
are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air
brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders
and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive
bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep
descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air
brake. , or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air
during landing. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such
stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Still other braking methods even
transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other
forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air).
Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars
A braking mechanism according to the present invention for braking the wheels of
a wheeled truck assembly includes a handle mounted to one beam which, when
braking force is applied, urges a rod toward the other beam. The rod operates a
lever mounted to the other beam which engages the actuation rod of the vehicle's
pneumatic braking system, thereby operating the linkage included in the pneumatic
system to separate the beams, bringing the brake pads into contact with the wheels
BRAKE BOOSTER
interposed between an input member and an output member and encased at the
peripheral side and has lateral abutment surfaces for the input member and the
output member, wherein the abutment surface close to the input member can be
and, consequently, can be excepted from the transmission of the reaction force to a
vehicle driver. To improve its service life, the reaction plate includes a recess in the
brakes that finds application in steel mills, wind turbines, textile machinery and
durability, reliability, high tensile strength and dimensional accuracy. Further, our
entire range of disc brakes can easily be customized as per the definite needs of our
clients.
trains rely upon a fail-safe air brake system that is based upon a design patented by
In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air system, compressed air
linkage to brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels, using the resulting friction
to slow the train. The mechanical linkage can become quite elaborate, as it evenly
from car to car by a train line made up of pipes beneath each car and hoses
between cars. The principal problem with the straight air braking system is that any
separation between hoses and pipes causes loss of air pressure and hence the loss
of the force applying the brakes. This deficiency could easily cause a runaway
train. Straight air brakes are still used on locomotives, although as a dual circuit
system, usually with each bogie (truck) having its own circuit.
The job of a passenger train brakeman wasn't too difficult, as he was not exposed
to the weather and could conveniently move from car to car through the vestibules,
which is where the brake wheel was (and still is, in many cases) located. Also,
passenger trains were not as heavy or lengthy as their freight counterparts, which
A brakeman's job on a freight train was far more difficult, as he was exposed to the
The advantages of the brakes include: brake can be used in dynamic applications;
field serviceable; easy flange connection according to IEC and NEMA standards;
low maintenance because very few parts are exposed to wear; compact design;
good thermal capacity for use in harsh environments; long life; and certified
Air brakes must have a safe level of pressure to disengage the parking brake, so if
your brake system is faulty you can't move the vehicle. An air brake system is a
little less complex than a typical ABS setup. An airbrake system *WITH* ABS is a
bit more complex. Air brakes are a proven technology that will apply more
pressure that hydraulic brakes and will stop a heavy vehicle far quicker with a
foolproof system. One leak in hydraulics and it's game over. Air brakes are almost
foolproof.
pressure, linear force, and linear speed. Spring-return brakes require power to
use methods such as magnetic fields and eddy currents. Friction brakes generate
friction between contact surfaces. Wrap spring brakes transmit torque from the
input to the output through a wrapped spring that uncoils to disengage the brake.
Pneumatic brakes with teeth engage only during stops or at slow speeds. Oil shear
There are several basic types of pneumatic brakes. Band brakes, the simplest
pneumatic brake configuration, feature a metal band lined with heat and wear
resistant friction material. Drum brakes, which are commonly used on automobile
rear wheels, actuate when shoes press against a spinning surface called a drum.
Disc brakes consist of a caliper that squeezes brake pads against a rotor. Cone
brakes include a cone that is lined with heat and wear resistant material that presses
against a mating cup surface. Typically, pneumatic brakes are used in large
motorized vehicles such as buses because they provide reduced braking distances.
width of the assembly; length, the dimension along the axis of rotation; and weight.
Shaft configurations can be in-line along the axis of the load, parallel but offset
The brake shoe carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued to the shoe.
When the brake is applied, the shoe moves and presses the lining against the inside
of the drum. The friction between lining and drum provides the braking effort.
Modern cars have disc brakes all round, or discs at the front and drums at the rear.
An advantage of discs is that they can dissipate heat more quickly than drums so
disc.
LIMITATIONS
causes this.
following problems: low power steering fluid, air in the power steering fluid,
backlash during load engagement and prevent direction reversal during load
disengagement. Adjustable torque, the torque at which the brake disengages
Brake
Control system
The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking
brake circuit and the trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into
front and rear wheel circuits which receive compressed air from their individual
reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The service brakes are applied by
means of a brake pedal air coil which regulates both circuits. The parking brake is
the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the spring
brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control coil. The trailer
brake consists of a direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the
separate control or service line (marked blue). The supply line receives air from
theprime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay coil and the control line
is regulated via the trailer brake relay coil. The operating signals for the relay are
provided by the prime mover brake pedal air coil, trailer service brake hand control
(subject to a country's relevant heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime mover park
Advantages
Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter
transfer pressure from the brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air
The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its
operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake
failures.
Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there
is no danger of letting air into the hydraulic fluid. So air brake circuits of
Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores
potential energy. So it can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems
include an air tank that stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the
compressor fails.
Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake
system can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle
CONSTRUCTION
2.BRAKE LEVER
3.SOLENOID VALE
4.BRAKE SYSTEM
1.wheel system
Rim
The rim is the "outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire." It makes up the outer
circular design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on
vehicles such as automobiles. For example, on a bicycle wheel the rim is a large
hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire and
tube.
Hub
The hub is the center of the wheel, and typically houses a bearing, and is where the
spokes meet.
with no center hub. More specifically, the hub is actually almost as big as the
wheel itself. The axle is hollow, following the wheel at very close tolerances.
Spokes
A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel
(the hub where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round traction
surface. The term originally referred to portions of a log which had been split
lengthwise into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were
made by carving a spoke (from a log) into their finished shape. A spokeshave is
a tool originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the term spoke was more
commonly applied to the finished product of the wheelwright's work, than to the
materials he used.
Wire
The rims of wire wheels (or "wire spoked wheels") are connected to their hubs by
wire spokes. Although these wires are generally stiffer than a typical wire rope,
they function mechanically the same as tensioned flexible wires, keeping the rim
were invented by aeronautical engineer George Cayley and first used in bicycles
as wheelbuilding.
Tire
covering that fits around a wheel rim to protect it and enable better vehicle
performance by providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock while keeping the
wheel in close contact with the ground. The word itself may be derived from the
word "tie," which refers to the outer steel ring part of a wooden cart wheel that ties
The fundamental materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber,
fabric and wire, along with other compound chemicals. They consist of a tread and
a body. The tread provides traction while the body ensures support. Before rubber
was invented, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fitted
around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Today, the vast majority of tires
and wires encased in rubber and generally filled with compressed air to form an
inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, such
SOLENOID COIL
an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port coil the flow is
switched on or off; in the case of a three-port coil, the outflow is switched between
the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid coils can be placed together on a manifold.
Solenoid coils are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks
are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many
application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long
service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power
Operation
There are many coil design variations. Ordinary coil can have many ports and fluid
paths. A 2-way coil, for example, has 2 ports; if the coil is closed, then the two
ports are connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the coil is open, then
ports are isolated. If the coil is open when the solenoid is not energized, then the
coil is termed normally open (N.O.). Similarly, if the coil is closed when the
solenoid is not energized, then the coil is termed normally closed. There are also
3-way and more complicated designs. A 3-way coil has 3 ports; it connects one
port to either of the two other ports (typically a supply port and an exhaust port).
Solenoid coil are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can
generate a limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the coil, then
Where d is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15 N (3.4 lbf).
(69 kPa)) gas with a small orifice diameter (e.g., 3⁄8 in (9.5 mm) for an orifice
area of 0.11 sq in (7.1×10−5 m2) and approximate force of 1.1 lbf (4.9 N)).
When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are
may be possible.[1] In such a design, the line pressure is used to generate the
high coil forces; a small solenoid controls how the line pressure is used.
Internally piloted coils are used in dishwashers and irrigation systems where the
fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square inch (550 kPa) and
In some solenoid coils the solenoid acts directly on the main coil. Others use a
small, complete solenoid coil, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger coil. While
actuated coil, they are sold and packaged as a single unit referred to as a
solenoid coil. Piloted coils require much less power to control, but they are
noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full power at all times to open
and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may only need full power for a
short period of time to open it, and only low power to hold it.
operation time of a piloted coil depends on its size; typical values are 15 to 150
milliseconds.
Internally piloted
While there are multiple design variants, the following is a detailed breakdown
A solenoid coil has two main parts: the solenoid and the coil. The solenoid
closes the coil mechanically. A direct acting coil has only a small flow circuit,
pilot coil). In this example, a diaphragm piloted coil multiplies this small pilot
Solenoid coils may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have electrical
interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the coil
opened (normally open) or closed (normally closed) while the coil is not
activated.
A- Input side
B- Diaphragm
C- Pressure chamber
E- Solenoid
F- Output side
The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic coil, controlling the flow
of water in this example. At the top figure is the coil in its closed state. The
weak spring pushing it down. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its center
which allows a very small amount of water to flow through it. This water fills
the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure is equal on both
downward force. The spring is weak and is only able to close the inlet because
Once the diaphragm closes the coil, the pressure on the outlet side of its bottom
is reduced, and the greater pressure above holds it even more firmly closed.
The above all works because the small drain passage D was blocked by a pin
which is the armature of the solenoid E and which is pushed down by a spring.
If current is passed through the solenoid, the pin is withdrawn via magnetic
force, and the water in chamber C drains out the passage D faster than the
pinhole can refill it. The pressure in chamber C drops and the incoming
pressure lifts the diaphragm, thus opening the main coil. Water now flows
directly from A to F.
When the solenoid is again deactivated and the passage D is closed again, the
spring needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again and the main
From this explanation it can be seen that this type of coil relies on a differential
of pressure between input and output as the pressure at the input must always
be greater than the pressure at the output for it to work. Should the pressure at
the output, for any reason, rise above that of the input then the coil would open
Components
Example core tubes. Non-magnetic core tubes are used to isolate the fluid
from the coil. The core tube encloses the plugnut, the core spring, and the
core. The coil slips over the core tube; a retaining clip engages the
depression near the closed end of the core tube and holds the coil on the core
tube.
Solenoid subassembly
Core tube (a.k.a. armature tube, plunger tube, solenoid coil tube,
Bonnet–diaphram–body seal
Hanger spring
Backup washer
Diaphram
Bleed hole
Disk
Coil body
Seat
The core or plunger is the magnetic component that moves when the solenoid is
energized. The core is coaxial with the solenoid. The core's movement will
make or break the seals that control the movement of the fluid. When the coil is
not energized, springs will hold the core in its normal position.
seal the fluid. To optimize the movement of the core, the core tube needs to be
nonmagnetic. If the core tube were magnetic, then it would offer a shunt path
for the field lines. In some designs, the core tube is an enclosed metal shell
because the fluid cannot escape from the enclosure, but the design also
increases the magnetic path resistance because the magnetic path must traverse
the thickness of the core tube twice: once near the plugnut and once near the
core. In some other designs, the core tube is not closed but rather an open tube
that slips over one end of the plugnut. To retain the plugnut, the tube might be
crimped to the plugnut. An O-ring seal between the tube and the plugnut will
The solenoid coil consists of many turns of copper wire that surround the core
tube and induce the movement of the core. The coil is often encapsulated in
epoxy. The coil also has an iron frame that provides a low magnetic path
resistance.
Materials
The coil body must be compatible with the fluid; common materials are brass,
To simplify the sealing issues, the plugnut, core, springs, shading ring, and
other components are often exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as
well. The requirements present some special problems. The core tube needs to
be non-magnetic to pass the solenoid's field through to the plugnut and the core.
The plugnut and core need a material with good magnetic properties such as
iron, but iron is prone to corrosion. Stainless steels can be used because they
coil might use 304 stainless steel for the body, 305 stainless steel for the core
tube, 302 stainless steel for the springs, and 430 F stainless steel (a magnetic
Types
Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, one-solenoid coil described
above:
Common uses
Solenoid coils are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to
solenoid coils to control water entry into the machine. Solenoid coils are used
in dentist chairsto control air and water flow. In the paintball industry, solenoid
coils are usually referred to simply as "solenoids." They are commonly used to
control a larger coil used to control the propellant (usually compressed air or
CO2). In addition to this, these coils are now been used in household water
Besides controlling the flow of air and fluids, solenoids are used in
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Power
In this project we are using to stop the vehicle by apply the Brake. Here we are
placing the switch which is fixed in the body of the engine . Whenever an obstacle
comes in front of the vehicle, the corresponding signals are given to the control
unit and hence the brake system is activated by a solenoid coil. Then the vehicle is
Simple in construction
UNIT COST
SNO MATERIAL QUANTITY
( Rs)
Solenoid
1. 1 500
coil setup
Wheel
3 1 1000
system
4 Switch 1 100
5 Labour - 2500
charges,weld
ing and
painting
6. Total 6600
DISADVANTAGE
APPLICATION
Thus the antilock stopping system project was successfully completed. In this
comforts and driving pleasure. It is a very good substitute and replacement for a
REFERENCES
^ Hybridmotor cycles.com
^ WSJ.com
^ Motorauthority.com
^ Credit-suisse.com.
Switcher" (PDF).
^ "RailPower To SupplyY TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with hybrid power plants
for rubber tyred gantry cranes" (PDF) (Press release). 2006-10-10.[dead link]
^ "Railpower to supply TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with hybrid power plants for
rubber tyred gantry cranes" (Press release). RailPower Technologies Corp.. 2006-
10-10.
TreeHugger.