Effect of Moisture on the Strength of

Soil from Crocker Formation in

Tamparuli, Sabah, Malaysia

Mohamed Ali Yusof Mohd Husin*, Hennie Fitria Wulandary &

Baba Musta
Geology Programme, Faculty of Science and Natural Resources,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.
e-mail: mohamedaliyusof@yahoo.com*

ABSTRACT
The objective of the study is to determine the effects of moisture on the strength of soil. The
research area is located along Kota Belud – Ranau Road in Tamparuli, Sabah. The study area is
underlain prominently by a sedimentary rock formation known as Crocker, aged from Late Eocene
to Early Miocene. Soil of the area is a weathering product from the exposed sedimentary rock
formation, the alternating different lithology of this formation from one sampling station to another
reflects the diversity in terms of engineering properties. Moisture data obtained from the Proctor
Compaction Curve is utilized using the manipulation of Unconfined Compression Test by treating
the samples with 5% of increment and decrement of moisture from the optimum moisture content.
The term Shear Strength Difference is introduce in this research, it is defined as the percentage of
shear strength difference of the manipulated samples to its shear strength at optimum moisture.
Sample S2 with clayey material scored 75%, the highest percentage of shear strength difference
loss when treated with 5% increase of moisture. Whilst, sample S6 with sandy material scored
145%, the highest percentage of shear strength difference gain when treated with 5% decrease of
moisture. Clay mineral analysis was determined by X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD) and
Scanning Electron Microscope, yielded clay minerals such as montmorillonite, illite-
montmorillonite and illite, which are significant in selected samples. It is concluded that
engineering properties of soil in the study area provide variety of results and this mainly controlled
by the type of soil depending on the diverse alternating rock of Crocker Formation. This research
shows that effect of moisture to the properties of the sample has a direct impact on the shear
strength of soil.
KEYWORDS: Crocker Formation, soil moisture content, soil shear strength, clay mineral,
Unconfined Compression Test

INTRODUCTION
Landslides are frequent occurrences along the major road cutting across the mountainous area of
West Sabah (Tongkul, 2007). Geological input only had been acknowledged recently when designing
and constructing road on high relief area. According to Rodeano et al (2006) slope failure has long
been regarded as one of the major geohazards in Kota Kinabalu, followed by flash flood and road
subsidence. Throughout the Kota Belud – Ranau road, landslides occur almost frequently in the area,
road signs alerting road users of landslides shows how dangerous and hazardous the area is. West
Sabah comprises of intensely fractured, folded and faulted Paleogene sedimentary rock of the Crocker
and Trusmadi Formation (Tongkul, 2007). Ismail et al (2009) mentioned that Crocker Formation is

- 9643 -
 Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9644

highly fractured and jointed mass, this jointing and shearing had characterized the rock mass into
blocks in various sizes which make greater chances for surface weathering to occur, which leads to
failure.
Intense tropical climate in the region act as a catalyst that speeds up the weathering process (e.g.
Rainfall and high temperature). The chemical weathering of sedimentary rock is characterized by
sequential between percolating groundwater and rock forming mineral (Chigira & Oyama, 1999).
Chemical weathering is a major process affecting rocks mineral composition and is controlled by
many variables such as parent rock type, topography, climate and biological activity (Islam et al.,
2001). Due to the tropical climate of the region it contributes a high degree of weathering on rock
mass which leads to the existence of clay. It is believed that rainfall increases the water content in
clays that leads to a reduction in the stability of natural slopes.
Landslides are typically associated with heavy rainfall, in Malaysia most landslides or slope
failures have occurred during or following short periods (less than 3 hours) of intense rainfall (when
total rainfall more than 70 mm) or longer periods (more than 1 day) with some continuous rainfall
(Bujang et al, 2008). Precipitation is a major factor affecting soil moisture other than groundwater.
The climatological conditions of the study area contributed to this factor where the annual
precipitation reflects how wet the area can be. Braja (2010) has demonstrate a relationship between
strength of soil with increasing moisture in terms of Atterberg limits consistency, it shows that with
increasing moisture and transition from solid to liquid, the strength decreases.
A study of Geohazards by Rodeano et al (2006) has listed the triggering mechanism of slope
failure in Sabah is most likely involved heavy rainfalls causing water saturation of slope material and
loss of cohesion along rapture plane, this happens when the rainfall provided water that rendered rock
and earth masses heavier and weakened cohesion along water lubricated bedding slide planes. The
role of rainfall as the main cause of landslide are extensively discussed by Polemio and Sdao (1999)
and Guzzetti et al (2004), where in a short period of time, intense rainfall cause a hazardous and
numerous landslide causing loss of property and life. Yalcin (2007) also listed heavy rainfall as the
triggering factors of landslides, it is believe that the intense rainfall not only contributes to the
weathering of rock mass, but also increase the water content in the clays that leads to a reduction in
the stability of natural slopes.This paper discusses the effect of soil moisture content on the strength of
soil taken from 6 different soil slopes along Kota Belud Ranau-Road.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

The research area is located along the Kota Belud – Ranau road,Tamparuli, Sabah. The area is
bounded by the latitude 6° 05’ N to 6° 010’ N and the longitude 116° 24’ T to 116° 29’ T. Tamparuli
area is underlain by the Crocker Formation aged from Late Eocene to Early Miocene. It is classified
as a deep marine environmental deposit. Collenette (1958) introduce the term Crocker Formation to
describe the sediment that build up Crocker Range in the West of Sabah. Crocker Formation is
divided to interbedded sandstones and shale unit, shale unit and thick sandstone unit (Sanudin &
Baba, 2007). Weather in the study area is tropical climate, with intense sun and rainfall all year round.
The area is accessible through major roads and some unpaved roads as shown in Figure 1.

MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY

In this study soil samples were taken from 6 different soil slopes along Kota Belud – Ranau road.
The selection soil slopes is based on the current and recurrent landslides along the major road.
Disturbed soil samples are collected during the fieldwork investigation for all the required laboratory
analysis. The amount of soil that is required to execute all laboratory analysis is about 30 kg. A
summary of the location of each sampling station is shown in Table 1, this includes the major
 Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9645

constituents that made up the sampling station such as type of lithological units or rock of the
respective sampling site.
Proctor Compaction Test has been performed to all samples to acquire the compaction curve
where maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of each samples are obtained. The
strength of soil is determined using unconfined compressive test in the accordance of British
Standard, BS1377:1990. In this test a remoulded compacted cylindrical specimen of cohesive soil is
subjected to a steadily increasing axial compression until failure occurs (Braja, 2010). The axial force
is the only force applied to the specimen. The test provides an immediate approximate value of the
compressive strength of soil, either in the undisturbed of the remoulded condition; it is carried out
within a short enough time to ensure that no drainage of water is permitted out of the specimen.
Data obtained from the compaction curve are manipulated by preparing samples with different
percentage of moisture content. This is achieved by treating the samples with 5% increment and
decrement of moisture from the original optimum moisture content of each sample. As for clay
microstructure, all samples had been dried in open air, later crush and grinded to a powder form for
the mineralogical studies. A Philips X-Pert PRO PW3040/60 was used to perform X-Ray Diffraction
(XRD) on the representative samples collected for mineralogical assessment. Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) method is used to determine the features and types of clay mineral exist.

Figure 1: Location of study area and sampling station.

 Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9646

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Shear strength is a combination of cohesion and internal friction (Waltham, 2009), where both are
dependent on material type and state. The change of the shear strength is determined in relation of the
manipulated moisture, in order to study the dry and wet condition of the sample and its effect to soil
shear strength. The term Shear Strength Difference was introduced; it is defined as the percentage of
shear strength difference of the samples to its optimum moisture shear strength. This is done by
applying the percent of gain and loss formula to the shear strength of optimum moisture for each
sample as follows:

where P: Percentage of gain and loss (shear strength difference), V1: Optimum moisture shear
strength of soil and V2: Manipulated moisture shear strength of soil.
Table 1 shows the summary of soil texture and sample shear strength based on the manipulated
moisture content. The results yielded that in all samples, shear strength is inversely proportional to the
percentage of soil moisture content (Figure 2). Based on Table 1 and Figure 3, sample with clayey
material (S2) scored 75%, the highest percentage of shear strength difference loss when treated with
5% increase of moisture from optimum moisture content. Whilst, sample with sandy material (S6)
scored 145%, the highest percentage of shear strength increment difference when treated with 5%
decrease of moisture from optimum moisture content.

Table 1: Soil texture and sample shear strength on manipulated moisture content.
Sample Lithological Soil Sample Moisture Shear Shear
Units of Classification Moisture Content, w Stress, Ƭ Strength
Crocker (Head,1982) Condition (%) (kPa) Difference
Formation (%)
S1 Interbedded Sandy & Silty < 5% MC 10 145.5 27 (gain)
sandstone and Clay Opt. MC 15 114.5 -
shale
> 5% MC 20 38 -67 (loss)
S2 Shale Clay < 5% MC 16 77 56 (gain)
Opt. MC 21 49.5 -
> 5% MC 26 12.5 -75 (loss)
S3 Interbedded Clayey & < 5% MC 19 98 30 (gain)
sandstone and Sandy Silt Opt. MC 24 77 -
shale
> 5% MC 29 20.5 -74 (loss)
S4 Interbedded Sandy & Silty < 5% MC 14 181 60 (gain)
sandstone and Clay Opt. MC 19 113 -
shale
> 5% MC 24 50 -55 (loss)
S5 Sandstone Clayey Sand < 5% MC 10 210.5 143 (gain)
Opt. MC 15 86.5 -
> 5% MC 20 31 -64 (loss)
S6 Sandstone Clayey Sand < 5% MC 10 222 145 (gain)
Opt. MC 15 90.5 -
> 5% MC 20 29 -68 (loss)

*MC – Moisture Content

 Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9647

240
220
200
180
Shear Strength (kPa)

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Moisture Content (%)

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6

Figure 2: Graph showing inversely proportional relationship between shear strength and
moisture content

160% 145%
143%
Shear Strength Difference Gain/Loss (%)

140%
120%
100%
75% 74%
80% 67% 68%
64%
56% 55%60%
60%
40% 27% 30%
20%
0%
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Sample

Shear Strength Difference Loss (>5% Moisture Treatment)

Shear Strength Difference Gain (<5% Moisture Treatment)

Figure 3: Shear strength difference based on manipulated moisture content.

Based on the shear strength difference loss percentage, clayey material soil (sample S2) has a
greater susceptibility to failure with increase of moisture content, while sandy material (sample S6)
soil has a greater strength with decrease of moisture. Similar reports is observed by Horn and Deere
(1962) and Al-Shayea (2001) which found out that for high clay content the clay fraction dominates
the behaviour of the soil mixture and acts as a lubricant, which decreases the friction angle as the
 Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9648

water content increases. The lubricating occurs when the surface of the clay particles is wetted,
causing the mobility of the absorbed film to increase due to increased thickness and greater surface
ion hydration and dissociation (Mitchell, 1993). These clay properties are only mobilized by the
presence of water, the physicochemical interactions between clay minerals and water resulting from
surface hydration and the diffuse double layer, affect many of the properties of clayey soils (Al-
Shayea, 2001).
The mechanism of underlying rain-induced shallow landslide is reported by Chigira and
Yokoyama (2005), where the report shows infiltrating water from rain increases the weight of
weathered material and decreases the suction within the material, which is the final trigger of a
shallow landslide and a long term weathering, which proceeds on the order of the years, provides the
sliding material. Landslides can be triggered by gradual processes such as weathering which can be
intense in humid tropical countries or external mechanism such as intense prolonged rainfall or sharp
fluctuation in ground-water levels (Bujang, 2008). Yalcin (2007) mentioned that with increased of
water content, both stress increased and strength decrease causing landslides occurrences. Rodeano et
al (2008) on the study of Geohazard in Kota Kinabalu mentioned that intense water runoff and
emitted water seepage is the main factor causing failure with depth of weathering influencing the
volume of materials that fail. This shows that with intense surface runoff, emitted seepage and regular
rainfall can easily cause and create landslides in the area. Even a small quantity of water can cause a
significant decrease of the shear stress (Yalcin, 2007). Sample S2 are originated from shale
lithological units of the Crocker Formation, Shale units are associated with a high percentage of
landslides; this is due to the expansive clay minerals found in shale, additionally the expansive nature
of the clays can weaken the soil as the moisture content increases (Ohlmacer, 2000). Expansive clay
increase in volume as the moisture content increases, this leading to the degradation of the rock
structure and formation of soil from the shale (Ingram, 1953). Since shale is the dominant lithological
unit in sampling station S2, it exhibits the lowest shear strength with recorded optimum moisture and
shows the highest shear strength loss when subjected to 5% increase from the optimum moisture.
It is assumed that in the highest shear strength increment difference in sample S6, the sample can
withstand the amount of stress due to internal friction of sand grains. McKyes (1989) reported that
soil shear strength increases with the decrease in soil water content. Similar findings were reported by
Gitau et al (2008) where frictional properties of sandy soils increased in low water content implying
that with certain amount of soil water will increased the bonding between the soil particles,
considering all samples in this research possess a certain percentage of water. The same report also
shows the increase in strength with decreasing water content from the upper to the lower plastic limit.
Sample S6 is generally sand but also made up with a certain amount of clay fines, hence the
classification clayey sand (Table 1), Polito (1999) reported that presence of more than 10 to 20
percent of clayey fines is considered to decrease the liquefaction susceptibility of a soil. In the regard
of the clay fines, high percentage of sand also plays a big role in terms of the shear strength. Sand can
stand in steep slopes when wet due to negative pore pressure, but will fail when dry or saturated
(Waltham, 2009). The strength of sandy type soil is derived from internal friction; it increases due to
grading, packing density and grain angularity.
The samples exhibited a combination of cohesive and frictional properties. Effects of soil
moisture was found to have a strong influence on the shear strength parameter of soil, same
corresponding reports by Alcock (1986) and McKyes (1989) supports this finding. A unique value of
maximum compressive strength cannot be given to a particular soil, hence the limit of shear resistance
is composed of two components, cohesion and friction (Gitau et al, 2008), which supports the fact that
soils are composed of minerals particles which do not interact mechanically as do metallic atoms
(McKyes, 1989), which gives soil a unique geotechnical properties.
The clay occurring minerals in the samples are investigated on its impact to landslides. A
consideration of comparing sample S2 and S6 is taken due to the data acquired in the latter
experiment. Mineralogical studies from the X-Ray Diffraction Method yielded quartz having the
highest intensity in all samples. Clay mineral occurrence in sample S2 is noted by peaks of
 Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9649

montmorillonite, while illite-montmorillonite, and illite are abundant in frequency in the sample
(Figure 4, A). Montmorillonite is also known as smectite (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). Photomicrograph
in Figure 4 (C and D) shows a slightly crenulated to flaky smectite clay coating a detrital grain
(Welton, 1984). Montmorillonite have a high swelling capacity of the order of 10-15 times when
placed in water (Murray, 2007), it is also known as expansive clay. Volumes of expansive clay have
directly proportional relation with moisture; with increase moisture the nature of clay can weaken the
soil (Ohlmacher, 2000). Figure 4 (B) shows the compact and flaky illite-montmorillonite which also
known as rectorite (Welton, 1984; Moore and Reynolds, 1997). Mixed layer clays such as illite-
montmorillonite have very diverse physical and chemical properties (Murray, 2007). Underwood
(1967), shows that soil with clay fractions containing illite and montmorillonite have lower shear
strengths and higher swelling potentials and more prone to landslides than those composed of
kaolinite and chlorite.

Figure 4: Soil Sample S2 (A) XRD Graph showing peaks of illite, montmorillonite and illite
montmorillonite. SEM Photomicrograph (B) is illite-montmorillonite while (C and D) are
montmorillonite.
 Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9650

Figure 5: Soil Sample S6 (A) XRD Graph showing peaks of illite and quartz. SEM
Photomicrograph (B) is showing quartz grain and (C and D) are showing Illite.
In sample S6, illite are significant in terms of intensity (Figure 5, A). Quartz is abundant in
sample S6 which is compatible with the high percentage of sand value, while illite is occasional in the
sample but in low intensity compared to quartz. Illite, shows in photomicrograph Figure 5 (C and D),
and can be noticed with its irregular flaky clay platelets parallel to each other and often looks like
thin flakes with ribbon like projection (Welton, 1984). The abundance of quartz grains in sample S6
can be the main contributor to the ability of this sample to withstand stress, but a further experiment
on its angle of friction, packing and grain angularity is necessary to support this fact.

CONCLUSION
The effects of moisture on the strength of soil shows inversely proportional relationship, where
with increase of moisture content in soil, the lower shear strength it will possesses. Clay mineral such
as montmorillonite, illite-montmorillonite, and illite are frequent or occasional in the samples. A
consideration is taken to compare sample S2, which have the highest shear strength decrement
difference loss and sample S6, which have the highest shear strength difference gain. Sample S2 is a
clay material soil, due to this fine dominant texture its shear strength is decreasing with increase of
moisture. This is supported by XRD and SEM data, which shows the existance of montmorillonite.
Montmorillonite is known for its swelling properties and lower shear strength and are more prone to
landslide problems. Sample S6 is a sandy material soil, which have the highest shear strength
difference gain; where quartz is dominant based on the XRD and SEM data. By having a coarser
texture, the shear strength of soil depends on the internal friction of the soil grains. It is concluded that
engineering properties of soil in the study area provide variety of results and this mainly controlled by
the type of soil depending on the diverse alternating rock of Crocker Formation. This research shows
that effect of moisture to the properties of the sample has a direct impact on the shear strength of soil.
Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9651

REFERENCES
Alcock, R. 1986. Tractor – Implement Systems. Avi Publishing Co. Inc., Westport,
Connecticut. Pp 44-58.
Al-Shayea, N. A. 2001. The combined effect of clay and moisture content on the behaviour of
remoulded unsaturated soils. Engineering Geology 62 (2002) 319-342.
Braja, M.D. 2010. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Cengage Learning, USA.
BS 1377. 1990. Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. London : British
Standard Institution.
Bujang, B.K.H., Faisal H.A., Baker H.D., Harwant, S., Husaini, O., 2008. Landslides in
Malaysia: Occurrences, Assessment, Analyses and Remediation. Penerbit Universiti
Putra Malaysia.
Chigira, M. and Oyama, T., 1999. Mechanism and effect of chemical weathering of
sedimentary rocks. Engineering Geology 55 (1999) 3–14.
Collenette, P., 1958. The Geology and Mineral Resources of Jesselton-Kinabalu Area, North
Borneo. British Borneo Geological Survey Department, Government Printing Office,
Sarawak.
Gitau, A.N., Gumbe, L.O. and Mwea, S.K. 2008. Mechanical Behaviour of a Hard Setting
Luvisol Soil as Influenced by Soil Water and Effective Confining Stress. Agricultural
Engineering International: The CIGR E-Journal. Manuscript LW 07 201.
Guzzeti. F., Cardinali, M., Reichenbach, P., Cipolla, F. Sebastiani, C, Galli, M. and Savati, P.
2004. Landslides Triggered by the 23 November 2000 Rainfall Event in The Imperia
Province, Western Liguria, Italy. Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 229-245.
Head, K.H., 1982. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 2: Permeability, Shear
Strength and Compressibility Tests. Pentech Press, London: Plymouth.
Holtz, R.D., Kovacs, W.D., 1981. Pengenalan Kejuruteraan Geoteknik. Dr. Ramli Mohamad
and Mohd Raihan Taha (Trans), 1990. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.
Horn, H.M and Deere, D.U. 1962. Frictional Characteritics of Minerals. Geotechnique 12 (4).
Ingram, R.L., 1953. Fissility of Mudrocks. Geological Society of America, Bulletin 64.
Islam, M.R., Stuart, R., Risto, A.,Vesa, P.,2001. Mineralogical changes during intense
chemical weathering of sedimentary rocks in Bangladesh. Journal of Earth Sciences 20
(2002) 889-901.
Ismail Abd Rahim, Sanudin Hj. Tahir, Baba Musta, Shariff A. K. Omang. 2009. Lithological
Unit Thickness Approach for Determining Intact Rock Strength (IRS) of Slope Forming
Rock Material Of Crocker Formation. Borneo Science UMS. Vol. 25.
McKyes, E. 1989. Agricultural Engineering Soil Mechanics. Elsevier, New York.
Mitchell, J.K. 1993. Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour (2nd Edition). John Wiley and Sons Inc.
New Jersey.
Moore, D.M. and Reynolds, R.C.Jr., 1997. X-Ray Diffraction and the Identification and
Analysis of Clay Minerals (2nd Edition). Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York.
Murray, H.H., 2007. Applied Clay Mineralogy Occurrences, Processing and Application of
Kaolins, Bentonites, Palygorskite-Sepiolite, and Common Clays. Elsevier United
Kingdom.
Vol. 19 [2014], Bund. Z1 9652

Ohlmacher, G.C., 2000. The Relationship between Geology and Landslide Hazards of
Atchison, Kansas and Vicinity. Curr. Res. Earth Sci.
Polemio, M. and Sdao, F. 1999. The Role of Rainfall in The Landslide Hazard: The Case of
The Avigliano Urban Area (Southern Apennines, Italy). Engineering Geology 53 (1999)
297-309.
Polito, C.P., 1999. The Effects of Non-Plastic and Plastic Fines On The Liquefaction Of
Sandy Soils. Thesis, Virginia Plytechnic Institute and State University.
Rodeano, R., Sanudin Hj. Tahir, Shariff A. K. Omang & Ismail Abd Rahim. 2006.
Geohazards in Kota Kinabalu Area, Sabah. Proceeding of the 2nd SANREM Conference
2006. Universit Malaysia Sabah & Science and Technology Unit of Sabah State
Government.
Rodeano, R., Zawawi, N.S.A., Sanudin, T., Omang, S.A.K.S., 2008. Engineering Geological
Assesment of Slope Failure in the Ranau to Tambunan Area, Sabah, Malaysia.
Internation Conference on Geotechnical & Highway Engineering: GEOTROPIKA 2008.
Seri Pacific Hotel, Kuala Lumpur.
Sanudin, T. and Baba, M. 2007. Pengenalan Kepada Stratigrafi. Penerbit UMS.
Tongkul, F., 2007. Geological Inputs in Road Desingn and Construction in Mountainous area
West Sabah, Malaysia. Proc. Of the 2nd Malaysia-Japan Symposium on Geohazards and
Geoenvironmental Engineering. City Bayview Hotel, Langkawi.
Underwood, L.B., 1967. Classification and identification of shales: Proceeding of the
American Society of Civil Engineers. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division v.93.
Waltham, T., 2009. Foundations of Engineering Geology Third Edition. Taylor & Francis,
NY.
Welton, J. E., 1950. SEM Petrology Atlas, 1984. The American Association of Petroleum
Geologist, Tulsa Oklahoma, USA.
Yalcin, A., 2007. The Effects of Clay on Landslides: A case study. Applied Clay Science 38
(2007) 77-85.

© 2014 ejge