DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND CHILD CARE -

ISSUES, CHALLENGES AND REMEDIES

FIRST EDITION

BY

NSUBUGA HAROONAH
© Copyright 2016a by Nsubuga Haroonah

ISBN: 978-9987-9922-8-7

First Edition: 2016

First Print: 2016

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted

or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means;
electronic, mechanical or other means now known or hereafter
invented, including copying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system without permission in written form
from the copyright owner.

Printed by:

SUMAIT UNIVERSITY PRESS

CHUKWANI – ZANZIBAR,
P.O.BOX 1933
TELEPHONE +255 (0) 24 22 39396
FAX +255 (0) 24 2239396
E-mail: amacep@yahoo.co.uk

Published by:

FALAH PUBLISHING HOUSE

P.O.Box 1596
Mnazi Mmoja
Zanzibar
Tanzania.
i
 DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to my wife; Nakyanzi Fatuma, my

daughters; Tharwa and Husnayaan as well as my sons; Tharut,
Thamur, Humoud and Ramadhan who exercised a great deal of
perseverance by accommodating the vacuum, stress and
loneliness I created whenever and wherever I was busy
researching and working on the production of this book. May the
Almighty God reward them abundantly for the high degree of
patience they portrayed!

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my pleasure to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of

all the persons and organisations that have been so inspirational
and helpful in the preparation and production of this book.
During my graduate studies, I was very fortunate to be taught,
supervised, mentored and guided by two big brains in
Geography, Environmental Studies and Disaster Management
namely; Dr. Sudibyakto M.S. and Professor Sutikno of the
Department of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Geography,
University of Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta – Indonesia.

Their wealth of experience, outstanding research works and deep

involvement in disaster management issues in the whole of East
and Central Asia, inspired me to work for the Center for Disaster
Management, University of Gadjah Mada as a Research
Assistant and thereafter, I started getting deeply involved in
carrying out research activities as well as teaching disaster
management modules at the Islamic University in Uganda and
now at the Zanzibar University.

This ardent love for disaster management issues shared with Dr.
Sudibyakto culminated into the publication of an article entitled
“Disaster Mitigation and Management in Indonesia” published in
the Indonesian Journal of Geography, Faculty of Geography,
Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. I also
pursued studies in disaster management studies at my Ph.D.
program.

Deed and sincere appreciation also go to Mr. Tumwebaze Abu

Bashir of the Department of Languages, Faculty of Arts and
Social Sciences, Zanzibar University, for reading and peer
reviewing this work in its draft and manuscript forms. His
iii
critical comments, criticisms and well thought out suggestions
were depended upon in improving tremendously this book.

I am also greatly indebted to Mr. Abbas Mohamed Omar; the

Acting Director of the Zanzibar University Library Services
whose unfailing type setting competencies and assistance added
colour and stature to this book.

I also sincerely appreciate the contribution of Mr. Salum

Abdulrahman Salum; the Public Relations Officer and Mr. Haji
A. Shehe, staff of SOS Children’s Village, Unguja - Zanzibar,
Mr. Masaba Sowedi; Ph.D. candidate at the Wangari Maathai
Institute for Peace and Environmental Studies, University of
Nairobi, Ms. Sabrina Juma Budda, Ms. Fatma Haji Vuwai and
Mr. Ali Mohammed Ali of the Institute of Postgraduate Studies
and Research, Zanzibar University. Without their upper hand,
this book would not have attained its current stature embodied in
its richness in both scope and content.

I am also indebted to Mr. Mohammed A. Jidawy, Dr. Masoud

Rashid Muhammed; Director, Institute of Continuing Education,
Associate Professor Omar Faki Hamad; Dean, Faculty of
Engineering, Dr. Jamil Serwanga; Dean, Faculty of Arts and
Social Sciences, Mr. Masoud H. Nassor; Head, Department of
Social Work, Dr. Sowed Juma Mayanja, Senior Lecturer,
Department of Shariah, Faculty of Law and Shariah, Dr. Mwinyi
Talib Haji; Director, Institute of Postgraduate Studies and
Research, Ms. Rukia M. Issa, Department of Languages, Ms.
Rukkaya Wakif Muhammed, Head, Department of Public
Administration, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, for their
continued encouragement and support that shed much light in the
development and publication of this book.

iv
I am grateful to the management of the Zanzibar University for
the conducive and user friendly environment that enables
researchers to carry out their investigations that lead to
publications of their research findings. It is in fact their support
and encouragement that made the publication of this book
possible.

Sincere thanks and appreciation also go to the following

organisations and/or institutions for their cooperation and
support that was handy in the development and final publication
of this book. They are; Zanzibar Child Protection Association
(ZACPAS), VUSSC – COL, Save the Children International,
Zanzibar Office, Zanzibar Legal Services Centre (ZLSC) in
conjunction with the Legal and Human Rights Centre (LHRC),
Ministry of Social Welfare, Youth, Women and Child
Development (MoSWYWCD).

Although this book is of immense value to many people who

have become stakeholders in its production, I am fully a ware of
its weaknesses that are often typical of authors, I bear the full
responsibility for such shortfalls in this book.

Nsubuga Haroonah

v
 PREFACE

Production and publication of this book stem from the wealth of

experience I have obtained from celebrated experts in Disaster
Management and Child Rights Protectionists as well as my own
practical experiences I have acquired over the years in these two
crucial fields of societal and economic development; disaster
management and child rights protection.

It reflects a growing concern for sustaining the vehicle and

vanguard of the development process amidst frequent disasters
that occur and seriously hamper the steady progress of child
growth and economic development wherever and whenever
disasters occur.

It is my sincere anticipation and honourable hope that disaster

managers who among others include the Red Cross, the Red
Crescent, Social Workers, Medical Personnel, the Police, army
and Child Rights Protectionists who are in colleges and those
already practicing the management of disasters and child
protection will benefit a lot from this book as to become more
proficient and effective in executing the noble duty of disasters
and child issues in emergencies.

It is high time that our people especially the feeble, the women,
those who are physically challenged in general and the children
in particular stopped being hopeless and defenceless against the
punitive vagaries of the catastrophic events in their societies.
Therefore, this book is empowering them to prepare thoroughly
for these fateful events so as to avert or reduce effects thereof
unto vulnerable communities by saving those affected as well as
those at risk already.

vi
Last but not the least, I wish to thank in advance those
individuals who will provide constructive criticisms aimed at the
improvement of this book as well as those who will endeavour to
adopt and implement the valuable ideas analysed therein. To
those who have contributed either directly or indirectly towards
the realisation of this manuscript, are greatly appreciated. Thank
you very much and enjoy reading it and do whatever it takes to
implement its recommendations for the benefit of humanity in
danger as well as those at risk of disasters.

Nsubuga Haroonah
(March, 2016)

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1: Illustrates confirmed accounts of crimes and human

rights violations committed by United Nations
soldiers, peacekeepers and employees.

Table 5.2: Cases and complaints on Child Abuse in Zanzibar in

2011

Table 5.3: Number of cases on child rights violation in Zanzibar

Table 5.4: Sexual Abuse Cases Reported at Police Stations

within Urban West Region of Unguja in 2011

Table 5.5: Sexual Abuse cases in Unguja

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 : Wreckage of German Wings plane that was

crashed into the Alps mountains by Andreas Lubitz

Figure 1.2: The May, 2015 floods at Kiembe Samaki Unguja -

Zanzibar.

Figure 1.3 : Harm inflicted on persons with albinism in

Tanzania

Figure 1.4: Physically challenged persons

Figure 2.1: The Tōhoku_Japan Friday 11 March 2011

Earthquake/tsunami.

Figure 2.2 : Devastating consequences of earthquake

Figure 2.3 : Homesteads affected by the May 2015 floods in

parts of Unguja

Figure 2.4: The May, 2015 Floods in Unguja - Zanzibar.

Figure 2.5: The May, 2015 Floods at Mwanakerekwe Unguja -

Zanzibar.

Figure 2.6 : Volcanic Eruption

Figure 2.7 : Injury as an example of Environmental

Emergencies

Figure 2.8 : Forest Fire as an example of Environmental

Emergencies
ix
Figure 2.9 : Burundi Crisis

Figure 2.10: Burundi – at a blink of a civil war?

Figure 2.11: The Ebola Virus, which causes Ebola

Figure 2.12: Ebola Victim

Figure 3.1: Adverse effects of disasters unto the ecology

Figure 3.2: Vulnerability of man and ecology to floods in

Unguja – Zanzibar

Figure 3.3: Vulnerability of property to the May, 2015 Unguja

floods

Figure 3.4: Disaster Management Cycle

Figure 3.5: Tanzanian President on a Public Campaign against

cholera outbreak (Kipindupindu) in Dar es Salaam
on Independence Day, 09.12.2015

Figure 3.6: Stranded and hopeless persons displaced by the

May, 2015 Unguja floods

Figure 3.7 : The Zanzibar First Lady- Mama Mwanamwema

Shein delivering her assistance to the victims of the
May, 2015 natural calamity.

Figure 3.8: Samples of the modern Social Media that can be

utilized in the quick dissemination of information
on a loaming catastrophic event.

x
Figure 3.9 : Boat capsizing due to over loading; indicating
human negligence

Figure 3.10: Dr. Ali Mohamed Shein visiting and comforting

the victims of the May, 2015 floods in Unguja.

Figure 3.11 Resettlement after disaster has struck and displaced

communities.

Figure 3.12: Ebola victim being buried soon after breathing his
last

Figure 4.1: SOS Children’s Village Facility worldwide

Figure 4.2: SOS Children’s Village Facility, Mchina Mwisho,

Unguja, Zanzibar.

Figure 4.3: Zanzibar Child Protection Association (ZACPAS)

Matemwe facility

Figure 5.1 Confusion during times of crisis

Figure 5.2: First Lady of Zanzibar pays a visit to the affected

communities resettled at Mwanakwerekwe C
Secondary School.
Figure 5.3: Disaster Management Cycle

Figure 5.4: SOS Children’s Village in Unguja – Zanzibar

Figure 5.5: Some of the areas affected by the May, 2015

Floods in Zanzibar that destroyed a number of
infrastructure
xi
Figure 5.6: Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of
Congo.

Figure 5.7: Abuse of people with albinism

Figure 5.8: Effects of American atomic bomb on Hiroshima in

Japan

xii
 LIST OF ACRONYMS

$ United States Dollar

AAI Action Aid International
ACRWC African Charter of the Rights and Welfare
of the Child
ADB African Development Bank
ADB Asian Development Bank
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AMA African Muslims Agencies
BOMOA BOMOA Exercise of demolition of houses erected in
illegal Places
CBOs Community Based Organisations
Commonwealth (Commonwealth of
Learning)
CP Child Protection
CR Child Rights
CU Coventry University
DC District Commission
DICA Darul Imaan Charitable Association
DM Disaster Manager
D-N Date of publication not known
DR. Doctor
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
DSW Department of Social Welfare
DV Domestic Violence
Education
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation
FBOs Faith Based Organisations
FRP Family Rehabilitation Program
FU Father’s Union
GBV Gender Based Violence
xiii
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GPS Global Positioning Systems
HELB Higher Education Loans Board
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
ICC International Criminal Court
ICRC The International Committee of the Red
Cross
IFSW Declaration of Ethical Principles of Social
Work
ILO International Labour Organisation
ILO International Labour Organisation
IUIU Islamic University in Uganda
IZF – Malawi Islamic Zakat Fund –Malawi
Kapupaten District in Malay Language
KF Kuwait Fund
KIPINDUPINDU Cholera
KM Kilometre
LDRR Local Disaster Risk Reduction Framework
LHRC Legal and Human Rights Centre
MADRASSA Qur-an School
MAK Makerere University Kampala
MDI Munazzamat Da’wa Al Islamiyya
MERS Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
MoSWYWCD Ministry of Social Welfare, Youth, Women
and Child Development
MU Mother’s Union
NASW National Association of Social Workers
NCPS National Child Protection Systems
NGOs Non Government Organisations
NUDP National Union of People with Disabilities
in Uganda
Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy
Q Qur’an
xiv
RC Red Cross
RCr Red Crescent
RGoZ Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar
SCI Save the Children International
SMZ Serikali Mapinduzi Zanzibar
TMA Tanzania Meteorological Agency
UC University of Colombia
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UGM University of Gadjah Mada
UK United Kingdom
UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s
Fund
UNO United Nations Organisation
UPE Free and compulsory Universal Primary
Education
USA United States of America
USE Free and compulsory Universal Secondary
VUSSC – COL Virtual University for Small States of the
WAMY World Association of Muslim Youths
WHO World Health Organization
ZACPAS Zanzibar Child Protection Association
ZLSC Zanzibar Legal Services Centre
ZU Zanzibar University

xv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Pages

Title page

Publisher’s notes i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgement iii

Preface vi

List of Tables viii

List of Figures ix

List of Acronyms xiii

Table of Contents xvi

Chapters xvii

xvi
 CHAPTERS Page

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF DISASTER

MANAGEMENT AND CHILD CARE 1

CHAPTER TWO

TYPES OF DISASTERS 10

CHAPTER THREE

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE 28

CHAPTER FOUR

FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD CARE 49

CHAPTER FIVE

RATIONALE AND STRATEGIES FOR CHILD CARE IN

EMERGENCIES BY DISASTER MANAGERS 72

REFERENCES 118

xvii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF DISASTER

MANAGEMENT AND CHILD CARE

This chapter is designed with the purpose of enabling the readers

appreciate the meaning of the various concepts, terminologies
and paradigms that are used in this book. Most of such concepts
and terminologies are always found in the wide area of disaster
management and child care. Some of these among others include
disaster, disaster management, emergency, child, care, child care,
woman, disaster manager, social work, social worker, protection,
child protectionist, disaster management cycle.

It is absurd to note that despite the effort the numerous

institutions, organizations and individuals are putting in the
world over to design and implement various strategies with an
aim of averting disasters with their effects to man and the
ecology, the results are very minimal. On a daily basis, disasters
are on the increase and henceforth, the disaster risks are on the
rampage. For example, within a period of ten years, that is to
say, between 2003 and 2013, the number of disaster hazards
went on an increase from 700 to 880 worldwide.

During this same spell of time, catastrophic events affected about

2.9 billion people, claimed lives of more than 1.2 million people
and caused economic loss exceeding US $ 1.7 trillion. In terms
of spatial distribution, there is a higher concentration of disaster
risks in the developing economies compared to industrialized
countries. (McEntire, 2001; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
2005; UNDP, 2007; UNISDR, 2013a; Anderson, 2013,
Walhastrom, 2013; Palliyaguru, Amaratunga & Baldry, 2014;
Munich Re, 2014).
1
Meaning of Disaster

This paradigm is given to various meanings. For example,

disaster is
a calamitous event, especially one occurring suddenly and
causing great loss of life, damage, or hardship. Examples can be
floods, airplane crash, or business failure. Dictionary.com
Unabridged, based on Random House Dictionary, 2014,
accessed on Friday 24th October, 2014.

The cases of the sudden disappearance of a Malaysian plane;

Flight MH 370 with more than 300 people aboard and that of a
27-year-old co-pilot; Andreas Lubitz, who deliberately crashed a
German airplane into the Alps mountains in France, killing 150
aboard, are cited as very good examples of disaster. Figure 1.1
clearly illustrates this fateful event.

2
Source
www.google.co.tz/germanwings+plane+crash+24.03.2015

Figure 1.1 : Wreckage of German Wings plane that was crashed

into the Alps mountains by Andreas Lubitz

Further more, disaster may also be understood as an occurrence

that causes great distress or destruction of either people or
environment. It may also be viewed as a serious disruption of the
functioning of a community or a society. This is so because in
most cases, when it strikes, the communication system is
destroyed.

This was experienced in May, 2015 when a big portion of the

road from Zanzibar Town to Tunguu was flooded and destroyed
especially between Mwanakwerekwe market and the nearby
villages commonly and locally known as Nyumba Mbili and
Makaburini, just a couple of meters from the marketplace. This
road became impassable. An international Tourist was over
3
heard complaining to a taxi driver who dropped him at the Abeid
Amani Karume International Airport in May, 2015 that he had
expected to be taken to an Airport not Sea port; as floods were
all over Unguja – Zanzibar, Airport area inclusive. Figure 1.2 is
illustrative of the floods in question in Unguja - Zanzibar.

Source: Primary data, photo taken on Wednesday 6th May, 2015

at 2.00 p.m.

Figure 1.2: The May, 2015 floods at Kiembe Samaki Unguja -

Zanzibar.

Sudibyakto and Nsubuga (June 1997:38) defined disaster as an

event or a series of phenomena resulting from natural processes,
human activities or both that lead to loss of life and human
suffering, loss of property and material wealth, environmental
devastation, destruction of physical facilities such as roads,
bridges, buildings and fields. Disasters involve widespread
4
human, economic or environmental impacts, which exceed the
ability of the affected community or society to cope using its
own resources.

Disaster may also be viewed as adverse happenings often

occurring suddenly and unexpectedly. A disaster may be caused
by carelessness or by negligence of human beings.

Meaning of Disaster Management

Like the concept disaster, disaster management is also viewed in

various ways. For example, Sudibyakto and Nsubuga (June,
1997:38) view Disaster Management as a development and
planning responsibility which calls for multi-disciplinary
collaboration or the efforts and activities taken to reduce the
effects of natural disasters unto society and property. Such
activities among others include; prevention, avoidance,
mitigation, rescuing, rehabilitation and reconstruction before,
during and after the disaster occurrence.

Disaster management may also be seen as a process or a strategy

that is implemented before, during or after any type of
catastrophic event takes place.

Meaning of Emergency

Is a situation that threatens the lives and well-being of large

numbers of people, which requires extra ordinary action to
ensure the survival, care and protection of those affected. It may
also be viewed as a scenario where one believes that a severe
injury or illness is threatening his or her child’s health or may
cause permanent harm to a human being. Figure 1.3 portrays this
scenario.
5
Source http://www.langleytoday.ca/federal-politics-warawa-
fights-to-prevent-murder-of-albino-children-in-tanzania/

Figure 1.3 : Harm inflicted on persons with albinism in Tanzania

Child Defined

There is no standard and conventional agreed upon definition of

the concept child. It is understood differently in different life set
ups and religions. For example, Soanes, Hawker and Elliott
(2007:123) define a child as a young human being below the age
of full physical development. The Save the Children
International (2010:vii) define child as “Every human being
below the age of 18 years….” According to the Islamic Faith, a
girl child is the person who has not started menstruating and one
is deemed a grown up on experiencing menstruation period.

Care Defined

Like the proceeding concepts, care is also viewed differently. It

may mean the provision of welfare and protection. It may also
mean serious attention accorded to someone to avoid damage,
risk, or error. It may also mean feeling of affection or liking. In
short, care may mean to:-
6
 • be mindful
• be concerned
• be bothered
• be troubled
• Think about something or somebody

Meaning of Child Care

Again, different scenarios are advanced to explain what is meant

by Child care. For instance, child care may be understood as the
caring for and supervision of a child or children, usually from
age six to age thirteen. See Save the Children Fund (2005). It is
the action or skill of looking after children by a day-care-center,
babysitter, or other service providers.
This implies that some parents or guardians or maids who
mistreat children are practicing inhuman behaviours and these
are practically dysfunctional behaviours as per Industrial and
Human Psychology. It should be noted that good child care leads
to good child development as well as future success story of the
children. This should be the target of parents, guardians, care
givers and all those other types of people in charge of children in
society.

Meaning of Woman

According to Wehmeier (2009), female is a person bearing two

X chromosomes with specific body parts including but not
limited to cell nuclei and normally having an ovary, a uterus and
developing at puberty a relatively rounded body and enlarged
breasts and retaining a beardless face. In this case therefore, such
a person may either be a girl or a woman.

7
Meaning of Disaster Manager

A disaster manager may be a person, a specialist with profound

knowledge and skills of responding to any natural or man made
catastrophes. Such a specialist develops plans, measures,
strategies and procedures for timely response to catastrophic
events in society. He plans and directs activities and/or programs
aimed at reducing effects of disasters to man, ecology and the
environment in general.

The types of catastrophes disaster managers do handle among

others include; floods, hurricanes, fire outbreaks, earthquakes,
tornadoes, nuclear power plant malfunctions and terrorist attacks
that are becoming the order of the day in modern societies the
world over. Therefore, disaster managers among others include
medical and social workers.

On the one hand, the National Association of Social Workers

1973 (NASW) defines Social Work as being concerned with
individual and personal problems including broader social issues
such as poverty, unemployment and domestic violence. On the
hand, the (IFSW) 10/24/2011 Declaration of Ethical
Principles of Social Work defined a Social Worker as a person
whose profession is to promote social change, solving problems,
strengthening human relationship, empowering and liberating
people to enhance their well- being.

Meaning of Disability

According to the World Health Organization (WHO: 2001),

disability is any physical or mental impairment that significantly
interferes or restricts any individual ability to participate in

8
normal activities at home, in education, at work or in the
community in general.

People with disability are those who have complexity interaction

in biological, psychological and social factors including physical,
economic and attitudinal barriers to participate at home, in
education, at work and in the community in particular.

In short, these are people who may be physically challenged and

it may be rather difficult for them to take part in doing heavy
work in society or organizations. But, despite this understanding,
it does not necessarily mean that people who are physically
changed can not carry out physical activities. The National
Union of People with Disabilities in Uganda argues that
“Disability is not inability to do work.” Figure 1.4 is illustrative
of physically challenged persons who are active.

Source: http://www.unicef.org/disabilities/index_69386.html

Figure 1.4: Physically challenged persons

9
 CHAPTER TWO

TYPES OF DISASTERS

This chapter focuses at the types of disasters that normally occur

in developing economies specifically and the world at large. It
should be remembered that a disaster is a serious disruption of
the proper functioning of a community or a society. Disasters do
involve widespread human, material, economic or environmental
impacts, which exceed the ability of the affected community or
society to cope using its own resources.

On the other hand, disaster management is the organisation and

management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all
humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness,
response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.

Sudibyakto and Nsubuga (June 1997: 47) argue that dynamic as

it is, natural disaster mitigation and management should be a
continuous process whose activities are well spread throughout
the time before, during and after each disaster occurrence. This
presupposes that all human capital; disaster managers including
medical, social workers and child rights protectionists ought to
play a vital role in the three phases of disaster management.

It is arguably true that all economies; developed and developing

such as USA and UK and Tanzania, Zanzibar, Malawi and
Uganda respectively are susceptible to disasters. However,
vulnerability to disasters varies from type to type as well as from
country to country. There are basically two schools of thought
that can be advanced to explain the main types of disasters and
these are:-

10
On the one hand, the first school of thought argues that disasters
are either;

i. Natural or
ii. Man made

On the other hand however, the second school of thought

categorizes disasters into four groups notably;

i. Natural disasters
ii. Environmental emergencies
iii. Complex emergencies
iv. Pandemic emergencies

As regards Natural Disasters, it is argued that these are events

that occur naturally. That is to say, they are triggered off by
natural forces or factors or means. They are many in number.
They include floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, volcano eruptions,
landslides, fires, forest fires, tsunamis and indeed many others.

Pertaining to the causes of Natural Disasters, there are basically

three major processes that are known for causing natural
disasters. These are exogenic, endogenic and anthropogenic
processes. Verstappen (1983) as also cited by Sudibyakto and
Nsubuga (June 1997:40) argues that natural disasters can be
differentiated into three major categories according to the factors
of their causation which are;

• Natural Disasters resulting from the exogenic

process that causes flooding, drought and land
sliding,

11
 • Natural Disasters resulting from the endogenic
process which causes earthquake and volcanicity
and
• Natural Disasters resulting from the anthropogenic
process or human activities such as subsidence
abuse or addiction.

It should be noted that all these Natural Disasters have

immediate and far reaching negative impacts on human health
(including women, children and the physically challenged
persons) and secondary impacts causing further suffering and
death in communities where they strike.

There are various scenarios that are emphatical on the various

types of natural disasters that also portray some devastative
impacts unto mankind and the ecology. One of these is the 2011
earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku with a magnitude of
9.0 that occurred on Friday 11 March 2011. Figure 2.1 is
depictive of this deadly natural disaster.

12
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Tohoku_earthquake_a
ndtsunami/friday25.12.2015/10.27am

Figure 2.1: The Tōhoku_Japan Friday 11 March 2011

Earthquake/tsunami.

Earthquake is yet another type of natural disaster. These too have

devastating consequences unto human beings, property and the
ecology. God in the Holy Qur’an says:-

“….Waidhaal Jibaal Suyyirat… (…When the

mountains vanish like a mirage) (Q. 81: 3)

13
Source:
www.youtube.com/devastating/consequences/of/earthquake/f
riday/25.12.2015/11.04am

Figure 2.2 : Devastating consequences of earthquake

Floods are yet another example of natural disasters. They are

found almost all over the globe. In some countries they are
frequent and huge whereby they are referred to as tsunamis.
Regarding Floods, Allah Says:-

“……Waidhal Bihaaru Sujjirat……” (when the

oceans boil over with a swell……..) (Q. 81: 6).
In May, 2015, Tanzania and Zanzibar experienced one of the
worst forms of floods in the two countries in recorded history.
Figures 2.4 and 2.5 are depictive of some of the areas where the
said floods hit most.

The Office of the Second Vice President through the department

which deals with disasters carried out a survey and thereafter
made a thorough assessment and evaluation of the 3rd May, 2015
rains that caused floods in Unguja. The assessment carried out by
the Vice President’s Office found out that, 1424 houses occupied
14
by 852 families as well as 6 educational institutions commonly
known as Madrasa were affected. Here below is the breakdown
of the effects of the May, 2015 floods:-
• in Tomondo, 492 families,
• in Migombani, 178 families
• in Pangawe, 92 families.
• in Kwahani, 90 families.

The assessment further depicted that, among the 1424 houses

which were affected, 39 houses badly damaged and in order to
make them habitable, they must be put up again. Figure 3.3 is
depictive of this argument. The break down of the list of the
affected houses is as follows:-
• In Tomondo village, 22 houses,
• In Sebuleni village, 4 houses
• In Jang’ombe village, 2 houses,
• In Chumbuni village, 2 houses,
• In Urusi village 2 houses,
• In Karakana village, 1 house,
• In Bububu village, 1 house,
• In Kisauni village, 1 house,
• In Mombasa village, 1 house,
• In Kwamtipura village, 1 house,
15
 • In Mpendae village, 1 house and
• In Welezo village, 1 house.
It is worthy noting that many houses were indeed at risk. For
example, of all these, as many as 371 houses were heavily
damaged. Then, some 104 of them needed heavy repair. Only
267 houses needed some light repair. Some 757 houses were
flooded and became inhabitable. Also water entered into some
257 houses, but, it was cleared after a couple of days.

The Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA) – Zanzibar Office

Director; Mr. Mohammed Ngwali, said that the three hour heavy
rains recorded 172.2 millimeters and it was the highest in
Zanzibar’s recent history. Figure 2.3 is depictive of the real
experience of the houses that were flooded in one of the areas of
Unguja.

16
http://lukemusicfactory.blogspot.com/2015/05/baadhi-ya-
maeneo-mengine- yalikumbwa-na.html at 12:45 pm
Figure 2.3: Homesteads affected by the May, 2015 floods in
parts of Unguja.
These floods had far reaching negative effects unto people and
the ecology. Mr. Ayoub Mahmoud Mohammed; the District
Commissioner (DC) for West District, said that the most affected
areas also saw floods claiming some lives. He said;

17
 “A 25 –year –old man; Juma
Hamad died on his way to
Mwanakwerekwe market after he
accidentally fell into a deep hole
and failed to swim out and a nine-
year-old boy who was returning
home from Madrassa, was swept a
way by running water”.
Source: Issa Yussuf of the Tanzania Daily News
(Dar es Salaam) 5 May, 2015; Tanzania: Many
left homeless after Isles downpour.
On the effects of the May, 2015 floods in Unguja, the office of
the Vice President, in its impact assessment report, confirmed
that these floods had a number of causalities as already analysed.
It specifically showed of the lives lost in Mwanakwerekwe dam
and at Kinuni area.
A part from the loss of lives that was recorded, the floods also
destroyed property and the ecology. This was particularly in
areas like Magomeni, Sebuleni, Sogea, Karakana, Chumbuni,
Kwahani, Mpendae, Kwa Alinato.
Zanzibar town areas were also heavily affected. This included
areas like Mwanakwerekwe, Tomondo, Mombasa, Welezo,
Mtopepo, Pangawe, Kinuni, Kisauni, Kiembe Samaki and
Bububu. In Jang’ombe and Nyerere areas of the West District,
houses, wells and sewerage systems were destroyed.
In order to reduce the effects of these floods especially unto the
masses, the government responded quickly to evacuate
communities to safer places. The Office of the second Vice
President working hand in hand with relevant organs such as the
Rescue Teams from the Unit of Fire Fighters and Rescue
18
Operations and the divers from the Coastal Guards, settled the
survivors at Mwanakwerekwe “C” Secondary School.
As many as 87 survivors from Kwahani were resettled at
Mwanakwerekwe “C” Secondary School. However, within a
short spell of time, the numbers increased to 170 as many more
people were brought in from Kijito Upele and Magogoni areas.

It is vital no note that, most of the structures that were heavily

damaged, had been built in low land areas which are in most
cases the passage of running rainy water with all its soil erosion.
This therefore, made the structures become susceptible to the
heavy downpour. The masses should be encouraged by both
local and central government officials to resettle in high land
areas that are not vulnerable to hazards like floods.

19
Source: Primary data obtained on Wednesday May 6th, 2015 at
2.30 p.m.

Figure 2.4: The May, 2015 Floods in Unguja - Zanzibar.

20
Source: Primary data obtained on Wednesday May 6th, 2015 at
2.33 p.m.

Figure 2.5: The May, 2015 Floods at Mwanakwerekwe Unguja -

Zanzibar.

Volcanic eruptions are yet another type of natural disasters. It is

arguably true that these happen when lava and gas are discharged
from a volcanic vent. The most dangerous type of volcanic
eruption is referred to as a 'glowing avalanche'. This is when
freshly erupted magma forms hot pyroclastic flow which has
temperatures of up to 1,200 degrees.

The pyroclastic flow is formed from rock fragments following a

volcanic explosion, the flow surges down the flanks of the
volcano at speeds of up to several hundred kilometres per hour,
21
to distances often up to 10 km and occasionally as far as 40 km
from the original disaster site. Figure 2.6 is illustrative of an
active sample of this natural event in question.

Source:
www.telegraph.co.uk/volcaniceruption/friday/25.12.2015/11.41am

Figure 2.6 : Volcanic Eruption

2. Environmental Emergencies

Environmental Emergencies may be referred to as either

technological or industrial accidents that often occur in industries
where hazardous materials are produced, used or transported.
More often than not, these are caused by man’s negligence.
Some examples include forest fires, factory fire outbreaks and
22
the like. Figures 2.7 and 2.8 are very good examples of
Environmental Emergencies.

Source: www.documentingreality.com/major-lower-leg-injury-
being-hit-by=bus/friday/25.12.2015/12.04pm

Figure 2.7 : Injury as an example of Environmental Emergencies

23
Source:
https://www.google.co.tz/search?q=images+of+forest+fire
accessed on 28.12.2014

Figure 2.8: Forest Fire as an example of Environmental

Emergencies

3. Complex Emergencies

Complex Emergencies are a major humanitarian crises that more

often than not emanate from a combination of devious factors
such as political instability, conflict and violence, social
inequities and underlying poverty. Complex Emergencies may
also emanate from a break-down of authority. They lead to
looting, attacks on strategic installations, conflict situations and
war. They are very common in poorly managed political
economies. Many countries can be said to be experiencing bouts
of complex emergencies. These among others may be Iraq,
Syria, Yemen, South Sudan, Somalia and Burundi. Figures 2.9
and 2.10 are emphatical on complex emergencies.
24
Sources:
www.imgfeatures.com/burundi+crisis/friday/25.12.2015/5.17pm

Figure 2.9 : Burundi Crisis

www.tercerainformacion.es/burundi_crisis.jpg/friday/25.12.2015
/5.23pm

Figure 2.10: Burundi – at a blink of a civil war?

25
4. Pandemic Emergencies

This is the last and final category of disasters. A pandemic may

be defined as an epidemic or infectious disease that has the
potential to spread through human populations across a large
region within a short spell of time. It can for example engulf a
country, a region, a continent or even the world at ago.
Recorded history shows a number of pandemics such
as smallpox and tuberculosis. Modern history is recording
pandemics like the ZIKA virus in Brazil, Ebola and HIV/AIDS.

Pandemic Emergencies therefore are events that involve a

sudden onset of contagious diseases that affect health, disrupt
services and businesses, bring socia-economic costs and heavy
suffering to societies more so to women, children and the
disabled persons. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 are depictive of Ebola
Virus that causes Ebola and an Ebola Victim.

Sources: www.images.search.yahoo.com/EbolaVirus/friday
25.12.2015/5.50

Figure 2.11: The Ebola Virus, which causes Ebola

26
www.google.co.tz/Ebola+Victim/friday/25.12.2015/6.03p.m.

Figure 2.12: Ebola Victim

27
 CHAPTER THREE

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

The first part of this chapter is aimed of reminding the readers of

the meaning of some terminologies as used under this topical
area of disaster management, appreciate the types of potential
hazards (including natural and non-natural disasters), causation
factors of disasters, aims of disaster management and disaster
management cycle, details of an effective disaster management
plan and the cardinal roles of Disaster Managers in reducing the
adverse effects of disasters unto mankind and communities
specifically and the ecology in general.

It should be recalled that Disaster Management is viewed as a

development and planning responsibility which calls for multi-
disciplinary collaboration and coordination of the various efforts
and activities of different stakeholders whose intention is to
reduce the effects of natural disasters unto society and property,
Sudibyakto and Nsubuga (June, 1997:38).

Therefore, disaster management is a systematic process equated

and based on key management principles of planning,
organizing, coordinating and directing. This is so because
managing disasters involves a great array of activities that have
to be systematically planned for and adequately organized and
coordinated, lest, the efforts will yield no significant results and
community will be left in total pain and disarray.

Aims of Disaster Management

It is arguably true that disasters cannot always be avoided, since

some of them do strike due to natural phenomena and forces.
28
However, despite this fact, their adverse effects can
tremendously be averted or minimized depending on the affected
society and the nature and magnitude of the disaster itself that
has struck.

Disaster Management therefore aims at reducing the negative

consequences of these adverse events unto; society, ecology and
man. For example, houses road systems and the environment are
washed away. Figure 3.1 is depictive of the practical aims of
disaster management.

Source: Primary data from the field. Photo taken at

Mwanakwerekwe, on 6th May, 2015.

Figure 3.1: Adverse effects of disasters unto the ecology

29
Disaster Management Cycle

On the one hand, Disaster Management Cycle may be referred to

as the aggregate body of activities aimed at averting, reducing
and/or minimizing the adverse effects of disasters unto man and
man’s surrounding. However, on the other hand, it may be
viewed as a cycle with phases that are aimed at reducing or
preventing disasters from occurring.
Disaster Management Cycle therefore has a couple of concepts
that are so critical that Disaster Managers including Social
Workers, Medical Personnel, Child Rights Protectionists and
others must be familiar with if they are to be successful while
managing disasters. The terminologies in question just among
others are:-

• Mitigation

Mitigation refers to a situation where the impact of a given

hazard or disaster unto people, communities and ecology is
either greatly reduced or minimized.

• Risk Management

Risk management refers to a situation where disaster managers

are involved in establishing the kind of hazards or threats most
likely to occur in a given area or locality. Not only that, but also,
determining the degree of probability of the occurrence of such
hazards or threats. For example, are the masses most likely to
strike on announcing the election results? Are the populations
dwelling in wetlands most likely to be affected by heavy
downpour?

30
Risk Management is also used by disaster managers in
estimating the magnitude or level of impact the threat might
cause or inflict unto the communities at risk. If it is an
earthquake for example, of what magnitude will it be? For
example, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0 or 8.5 and above!

Risk Management may also enable the disaster manager to

determine the necessary measures that can be taken to reduce the
risk of the impending threat or hazard in an area. That is to say,
early warning, relief coordination, evacuation – and if
evacuation, are the facilities available? Are they sufficient? Will
the masses accept to be evacuated?

Risk Management is also employed by disaster managers to take

action with minimum delay to reduce or avert a looming threat or
hazard in an area. In this case therefore, Disaster Managers
including the medics, Social Workers, Child Rights
Protectionists and many others to take action proactively. If the
situation is deemed necessary, they are also expected to take
affirmative action so that the dangers and effects of such a
looming hazard are averted completely or reduced tremendously.

• Vulnerability

This is a situation or a condition wherein human settlements,

buildings, agriculture, or human health are exposed to a
calamitous event/disaster. Therefore, disaster managers work
around the clock to ensure limited negative effects of danger
unto society and ecology. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 are emphatical on
the magnitude of hazards that normally adversely affect human
lives and the ecology. Therefore, disaster managers are expected
to rescue the inhabitants in order to reduce the magnitude of
vulnerability.
31
Source: Primary data. Photos taken on 4th May, 2015 at
Mwanakwerekwe

Figure 3.2: Vulnerability of man and ecology to floods in Unguja

– Zanzibar

Source: Primary data. Photos taken on 4th May, 2015

Figure 3.3: Vulnerability of property to the May, 2015 Unguja

floods

32
Source: VUSSC – COL (d-n) Introduction to Disaster
Management, Vancouver, Canada, accessed at
www.col.org/vussc+Saturday+26.2.2016+12.24pm.

Figure 3.4: Disaster Management Cycle

Phase I: Mitigation

This is the first phase of the Disaster Management Cycle. It

ought to be observed from the word go that managing disasters is
quite a puzzling activity. It therefore requires putting in place
strategies for minimizing the effects of the threat. This ushers in
the concept of mitigation which basically refers to measures put
in place to minimize the effects of any disaster event that may
strike a given area at any time.

Mitigation phase is critical because disasters are never confined

to any one locality and in most cases, hazards do not disappear
soon after striking. This calls for a robust approach and an
33
effective strategy for optimally, efficiently and effectively plan
and respond to the hazard by the disaster managers. These
among others may include the Red Cross, Red Crescent, Social
Workers, Medical Personnel, the army and Child Rights
Protectionists.

More often than not, mitigating may involve building codes and
zoning of areas under threat, carrying out vulnerability analyses,
carrying out mass or public education for purposes of
disseminating awareness and strategies for evacuation.

Carrying out public campaigns can also be considered as an

effective mitigation measure. This can be organized in mega
cities as well as in areas prone to hazards, in the mass and
electronic media and the like. Figure 3.5 is illustrative of
practical mitigation phase of the disaster management cycle
where the Tanzanian President; Dr. John Joseph Pombe
Magufuli participated in a general clean up exercise aiming at
averting the outbreak of cholera in Dar es Salaam on
Independence Day of 09.12.2015.

34
Source: http://www.google.com/url?/tanzanian-president-John-
Magufuli-cleans-streets-on-independence-day-to-fight-cholera-
kipindupindu-thursday-09.12.2015/8.08pm

Figure 3.5: Tanzanian President on a Public Campaign against

cholera outbreak (Kipindupindu) in Dar es Salaam on
Independence Day, 09.12.2015

It is important to note that this phase of the Disaster Management

Cycle is rather laborious to Disaster Managers and institutions
that normally get involved in the mitigation phase. The phase
requires a variety of resources that are unfortunately scarce.
Therefore, as a way forward to solving this challenge, there must
be collaborative and coordinational efforts from international
institutions, the central and local government systems, the
private sector, the Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and
the like. Otherwise, the affected community may not be able to
handle the intensity and magnitude of the impending calamity
using its own meager resources.

35
Local and international based organizations that can offer an
upper hand during the mitigation phase just among others may
be the government institutions such as the Department of Social
Welfare (DSW), Universities and Colleges that teach and carry
out research on disaster management or child rights protection,
Save the Children International, Action Aid International,
UNICEF, UNDP, SOS Children’s Villages.

However, it should be observed that, the kind of collaboration

agitated for in this case, will go along way in easing the would
be stiff challenges of mitigating against, preparing for as well as
responding to the impending life threatening calamities. This is
so because response to a calamity and recovery from the effects
of the disaster will be effected sooner than later.

Phase II: Preparedness

Preparedness is the second phase of the Disaster Management

Cycle whose ultimate goal is to achieve a satisfactory level of
readiness to respond to a calamitous event whenever and
wherever it strikes.

It connotes putting in place a number of resources that would be

handy in encountering a threat. The resources are either human,
financial, informational or physical in nature. These are
thoroughly prepared to take action after the occurrence of
disasters. Specialised personnel like medics, the army, the police
force, fire brigade, scouts, community militias and disaster
managers including Social Workers and Child Rights
Protectionists take action to rescue the vulnerable communities.

More often than not, the service providers are given some drills
aimed at according them the necessary and adequate technical
36
skills and managerial competencies to counter the hazard
effectively and professionally. These among others include usage
of available equipment, rescue methods, methods of treatment of
the victims including those who may be in need of first aid
services.

This phase of the Disaster Management Cycle puts in place

considerable amounts of foodstuff, medicines, clean water, warm
clothes, sanitary towels, blankets, financial resources, transport
facilities in form of ambulances, military helicopters, all aimed at
quick response to the catastrophes with minimum delay. This is
so because the community based services including but not
limited to the road systems and accommodation might have been
destroyed by the hazard or may be insufficient.

Figure 3.6 exemplifies this argument in Unguja – Zanzibar

following the May, 2015 floods that displaced people from their
houses and destroyed their property. Thus being in dire need for
assistance in order to survive the after months of the calamity
that had just befallen them.

37
Source: Primary data from the field taken on 4th May, 2015

Figure 3.6: Stranded and hopeless persons displaced by the May,

2015 Unguja floods

Advance and rescue teams are drawn from government

institutions such as hospitals, social welfare departments,
international organizations and community based organizations.
These conduct public education sessions aimed at community
mobilization and awareness of the dangers of hazards as well as
developing long-term and short-term approaches for preparing
and responding to disaster events.

Phases III and IV: Response and Recovery

These are the last two phases of the Disaster Management Cycle
which come immediately after preparedness for disasters. They
are almost carried out simultaneously as it may be a bit difficult
38
to establish where response begins and ends to give room for the
beginning of the recovery phase. Disaster response is the total
sum of actions taken by disaster managers and institutions on
any disaster occurrence.

It is vital to note that the total sum of actions should begin with
warming the masses or communities on the impending
catastrophic event so that they prepare to evacuate and avoid
danger and loss of life and property. There are two short term
goals of these two phases of the Disaster Management Cycle
namely; to provide and/or deliver the basic human needs to the
victims of the calamity so as to minimize or avert death and
secondly to resettle the victims of the disaster whose property
has been destroyed.

However, the Response Phase has a number of long-term goals

notably to;

• limit the total number of causalities,

• provide the victims with adequate medical care,
• re-instate and re-install with minimum delay the basic
socio-economic amenities destroyed by the calamitous
event,
• support the most vulnerable groups of people in society
including children, women and the elderly
• ensure self sustainability of the victims of the catastrophic
event.
It should be recalled that communities normally do not have
capacity to address the consequences of disasters using their own
resources. Therefore, in order to achieve the long –term- goals of
the Response Phase of the Disaster Management Cycle, the
disaster managers and institutions involved must carry out or act

39
together with sister local and international organizations such as
the Red Crescent (RCr), the International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC), UNICEF, Save the Children International (SCI),
academic institutions that are involved in teaching, researching
and promoting basic human rights. Their effort may yield results
especially in terms of saving lives of people who are at risk.

Figure 3.7 is illustrative of the practical goals of the response and

recovery phases of the Disaster Management Cycle where the
First Lady of Zanzibar; Mama Mwanamwema Shein paid a visit
to the victims of the May, 2015 floods in Unguja – Zanzibar. She
delivered her condolence message and granted the displaced
community members some financial and material support at
Mwanakwerekwe C School where they had been resettled.

Source: http://www.zanzinews.com/2015/05/mama-mwanamwema-
shein-supporting-and-conforting-the-victims-of-the-floods

Figure 3.7 : The Zanzibar First Lady- Mama Mwanamwema

Shein delivering her assistance to the victims of the May, 2015
natural calamity.
40
In order to ensure timely response to any disaster occurrence,
effective Response Phase necessitates usage of quick means of
communication. This will translate into keeping the total number
of causalities of the disaster to the minimum level possible. This
therefore presupposes that the modern social media would be
applied in the coordination, information sharing, awareness and
rescue strategies. For example, in the first place, the cellular
phones can be used to send across a huge number of messages on
the impending disaster for the masses to plan evacuation.

Secondly, mapping technologies such as Geographic Information

Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing (using satellites) and Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) especially in the more developed
economies can also be used to support and enhance the activities
of emergency response operations and programs.

Thirdly, the social media and social networking can be applied as

an effective instrument for emergency response communication.
Tweets, Whatsapp calls and messages, Viber calls and messages,
Tango calls and messages, calls and messages on Face book,
You Tube video clips could go a long way in disseminating
awareness of an imminent danger in disaster response in
emergencies. Figure 3.8 is depictive of the types of social media
that can be utilised in the dissemination of information on an
impending or loaming catastrophic event if information is to be
spread far and wide more over within a short spell of time.

41
Source:www.bing.com/+some+of+the+modern+channels+of+co
mmunication/5/1/2016/11:43 am

Figure 3.8: Samples of the modern Social Media that can be

utilized in the quick dissemination of information on a loaming
catastrophic event.

Phase IV: The Recovery Phase

This is the last and final phase of the Disaster Management

Cycle. It is commonly known as the Recovery Period from a
disaster event. It is a scenario where the survivors are brought
back to normal life whereby the affected communities begin a
fresh their routine business for their full settlement and
sustainability after the restoration of the social- economic
amenities and infrastructure that had been destroyed by the
disaster event.

It is indeed a period used by the survivors and the disaster

managers to reflect on the ugly situation they have just gone

42
through and/or survived so as to forge a way forward for a better
disaster-free- future and environment. Causes like human error
and negligence that might have caused disasters are reflected
upon to avoid similar mistakes in the near future. During this
period also, strategies for mitigation, prevention, preparedness,
response and recovery to minimize vulnerability to other bouts of
disasters are enhanced. This leads to laying strategies for
developmental programs and activities.

The developmental programs further include promulgation of

policies aimed at arms control if at all the disaster at stake was an
armed conflict, measures against reckless driving and/or loading
such as provision of life-jackets are provided for everyone in
case the disaster was in form of boat capsizing. Therefore scenes
like the one in Figure 3.9 would not be experienced again.

Source:
http://www.google.com/url?/tag/capsize/sunday/27.12.2015/12.1
0pm.

Figure 3.9: Boat capsizing due to over loading; indicating human

negligence

43
During the development period, temporary housing system is
initiated but equipped with basic necessities of life such as good
sanitation, lighting, air, health with safety education is
propagated so that diseases like cholera do not break out as a
result of the congestion of crowds of people, reconstruction of
more permanent houses for communities that are relocated takes
off, counseling and guidance programs are intensified since
many people lost their dear ones and property which is a big
stressor. They may not be able to concentrate on the kind of new
life if still traumatized and depressed.
This is the time when the role of Disaster Managers including
Social Workers, Child Rights Protectionists and Medical Social
Workers becomes critical. They have to solicit government
support to aid the newly resettled communities who have to
under go counseling and guidance sessions for their moral and
emotional stability. Figure 3.10 is depictive of Dr. Ali Mohamed
Shein; the President of Zanzibar paying a visit and also
comforting the victims of the May, 2015 floods that hit Unguja
very hard.

44
Source: http://www.fullshangweblog.com/2015/05/05/rais-wa-
zanzibar-dk-ali-mohamed-shein-awafariji-waliopatwa-na-maafa-
ya-mvua-zanzibar/ accessed at 11:30 pm
Figure 3.10: Dr. Ali Mohamed Shein visiting and comforting the
victims of the May, 2015 floods in Unguja.

The disaster victims are usually very much grieved yet their
communities do not have their own resources to come to their
aid. It is therefore pertinent that governments and disaster
managers work out a program of coming to the rescue of the
disaster affected communities in terms of resettlement schemes.
Figure 3.11 is indicative of some of the necessary support that
will lead to emotional stability and development.

45
Source: http://www.google.com/url?/disaster-relief-recovery-
monday-28.12.2015-2.42am

Figure 3.11: Resettlement after disaster has struck and displaced

communities

The Recovery and Development phases necessitate the

immediate burying of the dead (in case the disaster was an armed
conflict or war that left many dead or if it were as a result of an
out break of a contagious pandemic like Ebola or Marburg) to
avoid many health related problems that may ensue from
unburied corpses. Diseases that may break out among others
include typhoid, diarrhea and cholera. Figure 3.12 exemplifies
this argument very well where those dead of Ebola in West
Africa in the recent history were put to rest immediately after
their demise. In fact they were buried with minimum delay!

46
Source:
http://search.tb.ask.com/search/AJimage.jhtml?&searchfor=imag
es+of+Ebola
+victim+being+buried+Monday+28.12.2015+3.00am

Figure 3.12: Ebola victim being buried soon after breathing his
last

The practice of burying the dead is nowadays very common all

over the world. They are buried in mass graves to avoid further
health related calamities that may strike and claim lives of the
survivors. The Sin Jar mass grave and those in the Republic of
South Sudan may serve as the best examples.

47
It ought to be noted that the Disaster Managers, Medical and non
medical Social Workers, Child Rights Protectionists, Red
Crescent and Red Cross Societies are always at the center stage
of the practice of putting to rest the dead ones after disasters
have struck. This is because if they are not buried sooner, there
may occur an outbreak of some other dangerous diseases that
may again claim lives of the survivors. This action shows the
usefulness of Disaster Mangers in society today.

48
 CHAPTER FOUR

FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD CARE

Chapter one of this book centered around the definition and

meaning of various terms and concepts as used in this book. For
purposes of clarity, some of these are repeated here. This chapter
for example is emphatical on meaning of child, care, child care
and other pertinent concepts surrounding disasters and children.
Save the Children International (SCI) (2010:vii), defines child
as;

“Every human being below the age of 18

years….”

However, this definition is challenged by many critics and

people from different schools of thought. It is therefore affected
by space and time. For instance, Muslims view a girl child as an
individual who has not started menstruating.

There are many people who are challenging this definition

advanced by Save the Children International as quoted above.
Sigmund Freud (1905) is one of the contributors. When
contributing to the Psychosexual Development Theory, he
argued that Psychosexual Development is;

“The central element of the psychoanalytic

sexual drive theory, that human beings from
birth, develop sexual excitement/passion.”

He argued that a child goes through five stages; oral, anal,

phallic, latent and genital. At the Phallic stage (3-7), the child

49
learns to realize the difference between males and females and
becomes aware of sexuality.

In fact, it was at this very stage of child development that the

Last and Final Prophet of God advised parents to separate their
children in terms of bed, bedrooms specifically and
accommodation generally. The boy and girl children should not
put up together because at the age of seven, their sexuality is
developing already.

Sigmund Freud then analysed the Latency stage (7-11) during

which the child continues his or her development but with some
degree of quiet sexual urges. He then concluded with the Genital
Stage of development (11- Adulthood) in which the growing
adolescent shakes off old dependencies and learns to deal
maturely with the opposite sex.

So, it is clear here that by the eleventh year of a child’s

development, in most cases, a girl child more specifically is
already becoming a fully grown up person whose sexual urges
are becoming more vigorous and this is far a way below the age
of eighteen emphasized by the Save the Children and other
frameworks. The age of eighteen is controversial and it should
not be the standard definition since some schools of thought and
critics are nursing different opinion towards it!

FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD CARE

It is arguably true that the concept at stake is stemming from four

vital Instruments or Charters. That is to say; Qur’an and Sunnah
on the one hand, and the United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child (UNCRC) of 2nd September, 1990. The

50
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948 and
other few minor frameworks on the other hand.

Qura’n and Sunnah

It is arguably true that these were the earliest sources around

which the concepts of child care, child protection and child rights
rotated. This is so because today, it is exactly 579 years since
these cherished sources propagated for child rights and child
protection; (2016 – 1437 = 579 years). The modern approaches
of child care and child protection have just been developed in
both recent history and modern times.

It is important to note that the rights of children in Islam are

captured long before child birth. They continue on child birth
through youth stage to maturity until one breathes one’s last. For
instance, the right to a healthy environment before birth, the
parents are prohibited to partake intoxicants as they affect the
zygote. God says;

“ Yaa Ayyuha Lladhiina Aamanuu, innamal

khamur, wal maysir, wal answaabu, wal
azlaamu rijsuu min a’mal sshaitwaan,
fajtanibuuhu laa’llakumtuflihuun. (Oh you
who believe! Intoxicants (all kinds of
alcoholic drinks), and gambling, and Al-
Ansab, and Al-Azlam (arrows for seeking
luck or decision) are an abomination of
satan’s handwork. So, avoid strictly all the
abominations so that you may be
successful). Q 5: 90-99.

51
It is obvious here that for Allah to forbid the partaking of all
alcoholic substances because they are acidic and as thus, taking
thereof may endanger the embryo.

On the right to life after child birth, that is to say, right to life.
God says in the Holy Qur’an;

“………..walaataktuluu awlaadakum
min imlaaqi, nahnuu narzuqkum,
waiyyaahum……… (…….Kill not your
children because of poverty. We provide
sustenance for you and for them…..…)
(Q6: 151)

He further clarifies that;

“…Innaaqatlahum kaana khit’aa

kabiir“ (…Surely, the killing of your
children due to poverty is a great sin)
Q17: 31.

Allah also says;

“…Waidhal mauu’datu suilat,

Biayyidhanbi qutilat…” (..When the
female (infant), buried alive, is
questioned, for what reason she was
killed…) (81: 8-9)

This was a pre Islamic period practice of the Arabs who used to
burry and therefore kill their daughters alive basing on the
traditional belief that the girl child was a source of mischief or
curse in society. It was only the boy child that was spared due to
52
the belief that he was a source of fortunes and blessings! All this
evidence points to one fact that Islam, since its inception, has
been advocating for child rights and child protection for quite a
number of ages now!

Prophetic Traditions on Child Rights

Besides the Holy Qur’an being the major source of child rights
and child protection, there are also a number of prophetic
traditions that are advanced to justify the view that Hadith was
part of the earliest sources or foundations of issues pertaining to
child care, child protection and child rights. For example, the
Holy Prophet is quoted to have said that:-

“It is a sufficient sin to lose or waste those

whom you are obliged to support by not
providing proper care and upbringing.”

In a related development, the Holy Prophet is quoted to have said

that

"Every intoxicant is Khamr and every

intoxicant is unlawful." This Hadith was
narrated by Ibn 'Umar.

Abu Hurayra reported that the Prophet (May Allah bless him and
grant him peace,) said,

“Anyone who does not show mercy to

our children nor acknowledge the right
of our old people is not one of us.”

53
'Amr bin Shu'aib (May Allah be pleased with him) narrated that
on the authority of his father who heard it from his father
reported: Messenger of Allah said:

"He is not one of us who shows no

mercy to younger ones and does not
acknowledge the honour due to our
elders". [At- Tirmidhi and Abu Dawud].

'Abdullah ibn 'Amr ibn al-'As reported that it reached him that
the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said,

"Anyone who does not show mercy to

our children nor acknowledge the right
of our old people is not one of us."

The Holy Prophet also said;

“Irhamuu manfil-ardhi, yarhamkum

man fi ssama” (Be kind to those on
earth; children inclusive, He will be
kind to you the one who is in the
heaven)

The aforementioned Qur’anic verses and prophetic traditions are

based upon to justify the argument that issues of child care, child
protection and child rights are old enough stemming from the
time of the Holy Prophet who lived some 579 years ago. It may
therefore even be justified if one argued that the modern sources
of child care, child rights and child protection get their routes
from the Islamic perspective.

54
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
(UNCRC)

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

(UNCRC) came into force on 2nd September, 1990. It argues that
a child is entitled to special care and assistance from the family.
The family in this case is the fundamental group of society and
the natural environment for the growth and well being of all its
members particularly children. Family should henceforth be
accorded the necessary protection and assistance so that it can
fully assume its responsibilities of taking care of the children
within the communities.

The Convention also argues that for the full and harmonious
development of the child’s personality, the child should grow up
in a family environment because it enables the child to grow up
in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding.

It is against this background that the child should be fully

prepared to live an individual life in society and be brought up in
the spirit of peace, dignity, tolerance, freedom, equality and
solidarity. Such a child therefore would grow up as a respected
and honourable member of the large community because the
atmosphere was a conducive one during the infancy stage of the
child’s growth and development.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948

and other Frameworks

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a

milestone document in the modern history of mankind more
especially in the areas of human rights. The UDHR was drafted
by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds
55
from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by
the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10th December,
1948. This was the 217 Resolution of the General Assembly. It
set out an agenda of the universal protection of the fundamental
human rights including the rights of a child. A sample of some of
its articles directly relating to the issue at stake are:-

Article 1.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act
towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2.

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in

this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race,
colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the
political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or
territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent,
trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of
sovereignty.

Article 3.

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

56
Article 4.

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the

slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

Article 5.

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or

degrading treatment or punishment.

Article 6.

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person

before the law.

Article 7.

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to
equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this
Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Source:www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights-
accessed-Tuesday-1.12.2016-11.38am.

57
THE ILO CONVENTION NUMBER 182 ON THE WORST
FORMS OF CHILD LABOUR

This was yet another vital instrument developed in favour of the

rights of children. It is now less than two decades old. It was
adopted on the 17th day of November, 1999 by the General
Conference of the International Labour Organisation at its eighty
– seventh session. It came into force on the 19th Day of
November, 2000.
The General Conference of the International Labour
Organization, that was convened in Geneva by the governing
body of the International Labour Office, at its 87th Session on 1
June 1999, considered the need to adopt new instruments for the
prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour.
It discussed and resolved upon a number of pertinent issues of
national and international action interests. Some of them were
international cooperation and assistance, complementing the
Convention and the Recommendation concerning Minimum Age
for Admission to Employment, 1973, which todate have
remained fundamental instruments against child labour
worldwide.
The instrument also considered the effective elimination of the
worst forms of child labour which requires immediate and
comprehensive action, taking into account the importance of free
basic education and the need to remove the children concerned
from all such work and to provide for their rehabilitation and
social integration while addressing the needs of their families.
The instrument was still cognizant of its earlier resolution
concerning the elimination of child labour adopted by the
International Labour Conference at its 83rd Session in 1996, that
58
agreed that child labour is to a great extent caused by poverty
and that the long-term solution lies in sustained economic growth
leading to social progress, in particular poverty alleviation and
universal education.
Further still, the instrument was adopted because the
Organisation had earlier on passed the Convention on the Rights
of the Child adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on
the 20th Day of November 1989 as well as the ILO Declaration
on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-
up, adopted by the International Labour Conference at its 86th
Session in 1998.
Aware also that the instrument had focused at some of the worst
forms of child labour as covered by other international
instruments especially the Forced Labour Convention of 1930
coupled with the United Nations Supplementary Convention on
the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and
Practices similar to Slavery, 1956 and having decided upon the
adoption of certain proposals with regard to child labour, which
was the fourth item on the agenda of the session, and after
determining that these proposals would take the form of an
international Convention, then, the Convention was adopted on
the 17th Day of June, 1999. It was named the Worst Forms of
Child Labour Convention, 1999. Its articles were:-

Article 1
Each Member which ratifies this Convention shall take
immediate and effective measures to secure the prohibition and
elimination of the worst forms of child labour as a matter of
urgency.

59
Article 2
For the purposes of this Convention, the term "child" shall apply
to all persons under the age of 18.

Article 3
For the purposes of this Convention, the term " the worst forms
of child labour" comprises:
(a) All forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as
the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom
and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or
compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;
(b) The use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for
the production of pornography or for pornographic
performances;
(c) The use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities,
in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs as
defined in the relevant international treaties;
(d) Work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is
carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of
children.

Article 4
1. The types of work referred to under Article 3 (d) shall be
determined by national laws or regulations or by the competent
authority, after consultation with the organizations of employers
and workers concerned, taking into consideration relevant
international standards, in particular paragraphs 3 and 4 of the
Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation, 1999.
60
2. The competent authority, after consultation with the
organizations of employers and workers concerned, shall identify
where the types of work so determined exist.
3. The list of the types of work determined under paragraph 1 of
this Article shall be periodically examined and revised as
necessary, in consultation with the organizations of employers
and workers concerned.

Article 5
Each Member shall, after consultation with employers' and
workers' organizations, establish or designate appropriate
mechanisms to monitor the implementation of the provisions
giving effect to this Convention.

Article 6
1. Each Member shall design and implement programmes of
action to eliminate as a priority the worst forms of child labour.
2. Such programmes of action shall be designed and
implemented in consultation with relevant government
institutions and employers' and workers' organizations, taking
into consideration the views of other concerned groups as
appropriate.

Article 7
1. Each Member shall take all necessary measures to ensure the
effective implementation and enforcement of the provisions
giving effect to this Convention including the provision and
application of penal sanctions or, as appropriate, other sanctions.
61
2. Each Member shall, taking into account the importance of
education in eliminating child labour, take effective and time-
bound measures to:

(a) Prevent the engagement of children in the worst forms of

child labour;
(b) Provide the necessary and appropriate direct assistance for
the removal of children from the worst forms of child labour and
for their rehabilitation and social integration;
(c) Ensure access to free basic education, and, wherever possible
and appropriate, vocational training, for all children removed
from the worst forms of child labour;
(d) Identify and reach out to children at special risk; and
(e) Take account of the special situation of girls.

3. Each Member shall designate the competent authority

responsible for the implementation of the provisions giving
effect to this Convention.

Article 8
Members shall take appropriate steps to assist one another in
giving effect to the provisions of this Convention through
enhanced international cooperation and/or assistance including
support for social and economic development, poverty
eradication programmes and universal education.

62
Article 9
The formal ratifications of this Convention shall be
communicated to the Director-General of the International
Labour Office for registration.

Article 10
1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members of
the International Labour Organization whose ratifications have
been registered with the Director-General of the International
Labour Office.
2. It shall come into force 12 months after the date on which the
ratifications of two Members have been registered with the
Director-General.
3. Thereafter, this Convention shall come into force for any
Member, 12 months after the date on which its ratification has
been registered.

Article 11
1. A Member which has ratified this Convention may denounce
it after the expiration of ten years from the date on which the
Convention first comes into force, by an act communicated to the
Director-General of the International Labour Office for
registration. Such denunciation shall not take effect until one
year after the date on which it is registered.
2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention and which
does not, within the year following the expiration of the period
of ten years mentioned in the preceding paragraph, exercise the
right of denunciation provided for in this Article, will be bound
for another period of ten years and, thereafter, may denounce this
63
Convention at the expiration of each period of ten years under
the terms provided for in this Article.

Article 12
1. The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall
notify all Members of the International Labour Organization of
the registration of all ratifications and acts of denunciation
communicated by the Members of the Organization.
2. When notifying the Members of the Organization of the
registration of the second ratification, the Director-General shall
draw the attention of the Members of the Organization to the
date upon which the Convention shall come into force.

Article 13
The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall
communicate to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, for
registration in accordance with article 102 of the Charter of the
United Nations, full particulars of all ratifications and acts of
denunciation registered by the Director-General in accordance
with the provisions of the preceding Articles.

Article 14
At such times as it may consider necessary, the Governing Body
of the International Labour Office shall present to the General
Conference a report on the working of this Convention and shall
examine the desirability of placing on the agenda of the
Conference the question of its revision in whole or in part.

64
Article 15
1. Should the Conference adopt a new Convention revising this
Convention in whole or in part, then, unless the new Convention
otherwise provides:

(a) The ratification by a Member of the new revising Convention

shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of this
Convention, notwithstanding the provisions of Article 11 above,
if and when the new revising Convention shall have come into
force;
(b) As from the date when the new revising Convention comes
into force, this Convention shall cease to be open to ratification
by the Members.
2. This Convention shall in any case remain in force in its actual
form and content for those Members which have ratified it but
have not ratified the revising Convention.

Article 16
The English and French versions of the text of this Convention
are equally authoritative. The General Conference of the
International Labour Organization, having been convened at
Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour
Office, and having met at its 87th Session on 1 June 1999, and
considering the need to adopt new instruments for the prohibition
and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, as the main
priority for national and international action, including
international cooperation and assistance, to complement the
Convention and the Recommendation concerning Minimum Age

65
for Admission to Employment, 1973, which remain fundamental
instruments on child labour, the Convention was adopted.

TYPES OF CHILD CARE ARRANGEMENTS

Child care, child protection and child rights are effected and
implemented by different societies worldwide through different
strategies, approaches and arrangements. Save the Children
(2010:vii) is emphatical on some of them and these are; Family –
based Care, Family-like Care, Informal Care, Kinship Care,
Residential Care, Institutions and Emergency.

• Family – based Care

This is a short-or long term care arrangement agreed with, but

not ordered by a competent authority, whereby a child is placed
in the domestic environment of a family headed by non
biological parents. These can access some kind of financial and
other related assistance from local and international
organisations for purposes of making sure that the care provided
is sufficient.

• Family-like Care

Basically, this is an arrangement in a community or within a

large facility, whereby children are cared for in small groups by
one or more specific parental figures, in a manner and under
conditions that resemble those of an autonomous family. In this
case, the caregiver caters for their day today needs including
feeding, accommodation and scholastic materials. The SOS
Children’s Village facility at Mchina Mwisho, Unguja, Zanzibar
serves as a perfect example in this case.
66
The brain behind the establishment of this Children’s Village in
Zanzibar stemmed from Hermann Gmeiner, an Austrian and the
SOS Founder. He argues that children who have lost parental
care are nevertheless entitled to protection and fair chance in life.
Every child should be loved, protected and respected. Every
child should have the opportunity for an education and access to
medical care.

These happen to be the guiding principles behind the work of

SOS Children's Villages in 133 countries and territories. The
SOS Children's Villages provide care for children who have lost
the care of their biological families or who can no longer be
cared for. Each child stays in a home with a housemother and
eight to ten boys or girls of various ages.
Hermann Gmeiner lost his own mother at a tender age, on
growing up, he engaged in youth work to help orphans and
homeless children in need. This is why the purpose of SOS
Children’s Villages is to provide permanent family care for
children who have lost their parents (Gmeiner 2010:7). The
children supported come from various races, nationalities and
creeds. Ages vary from infancy to age eight and these children
stay within this facility until they are able to begin independent
life.

Today, the SOS Children’s Village from its inception in 1949

has over 67,000 children with family-based child care
worldwide. It operates 500 SOS Children’s Villages in 133
countries or territories across the globe. About 46,000 children
have been supported in family-based child care since 1949
including Zanzibar children. (Gmeiner 2010:8).

There are about 682 children who have accessed direct care
services in SOS Children’s Village in Zanzibar. About 1,150
67
family-strengthening programmes benefit over 1,400 children
and their families. Around 3,240 children attend 4 SOS
Kindergartens and 22,630 children attend 3 SOS primary and
secondary schools. (Source: SOS data base, pg 14,-16, 2013).
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 are depictive of the facilities in question.

Source:
www.soschildren’svillage.Org/accessed/on/friday/21.11.2014/at/
10.21/am
Figure 4.1: SOS Children’s Village Facility worldwide

68
Source:
www.sos-
childrenvillages.org/accessed/on/Friday/21.11.2014/at/10.24a.m

Figure 4.2: SOS Children’s Village Facility, Mchina Mwisho,

Unguja, Zanzibar.

Informal Care

This refers to any private arrangement provided in a family

environment, whereby a child is looked after on an ongoing or
indefinite basis by relatives, friends or others. This is effected on
a voluntary basis. The service provider does not expect any
financial support from central or local government authorities or
any other domestic or international agency.

69
Kinship Care

This refers to family-based care within a child’s extended family

or with close friends of the family known to the child. Due to
biting poverty around the globe today, this is being neglected as
families do avoid extra burden and responsibilities. Families are
shunning a way from adopting and therefore taking care of
outsiders. But, this may be a sign of weak faith since it is God
the Almighty who provides and sustains His creatures not the
family heads. The family heads are only a means through who,
all the members of the family get their daily bread.

Residential Care

This is a group living arrangement in a special designated facility

within a community. The facility has employees who are
engaged in serving the children. These could be facilities like
orphanage centers or homes. The Zanzibar Child Protection
Association (ZACPAS) Matemwe facility is a good example
here as reflected in Figure 4.3.

Source: Field Data collected on Wednesday 13.01.2016

Figure 4.3: Zanzibar Child Protection Association (ZACPAS)

Matemwe facility
70
Institutions

These are settings where children are looked after full time for at
least one month due to the temporary or permanent inability or
unwillingness of their parents to provide care. In Africa, these
are almost not available!

Emergency

Is a situation that threatens the lives and well–being of large

numbers of people (children inclusive), which requires
extraordinary action to ensure the survival, care and protection of
those affected. They are either sudden or rapid, or develop
gradually but may become chronic. Examples are Heat Wave,
Hurricanes, MERS, Droughts, Earthquakes, Famine and floods,
armed conflict and Mass movement of refugees.

71
 CHAPTER FIVE

RATIONALE AND STRATEGIES FOR CHILD CARE IN

EMERGENCIES BY DISASTER MANAGERS

It should be recalled that a disaster manager may be understood

as a person or a specialist with profound knowledge and skills of
responding to any natural or man made catastrophes. Such a
specialist develops plans, measures, strategies and procedures for
timely response to catastrophic events in society. He/she plans
and directs activities and/or programs aimed at reducing effects
of disasters unto man as well as the ecology.

In this case therefore, this chapter considers a disaster manager

as that individual with profound knowledge and skills that can be
utilized to avert a catastrophic event from occurring or if it
occurs, then, it neither leads to death of many people nor does it
destroy the ecology and/or the environment. The list of Disaster
Managers may be very long, among others, it may be comprised
of medical or non medical personnel, child rights protectionists
and Social Workers.

There is a dire need for the timely involvement of Disaster

Managers in scenarios of disaster events because of the fact that
whenever and wherever catastrophes strike, many people
become victims but children, women, the elderly and those who
are physically challenged become more vulnerable and many
breath their last if they are not timely rescued. This explains why
whenever and wherever disasters strike, there is total confusion
in society, people flee from their beloved homes, run a way from
their beloved ones.

72
Due to this phenomenon, the fleeing exodus neither follows nor
takes one route, people with their property including beddings,
children, livestock are always seen wondering from one place to
another and in all directions. Many are reported in the mass and
electronic media as having drowned or even been rescued from
drowning in large water bodies like the Pacific or Atlantic Ocean
heading to safer zones especially in the neighbouring countries
and/or continents especially Europe more so during situations of
armed conflicts. This is aimed at safeguarding and protecting
their precious lives and necks from danger.

It is asserted that during the 1999 Uganda-Tanzania war that

ousted General Idd Amin Dada from power, a woman carried a
puppy instead of her child and ran to the forest for their safety.
She only came to terms with the reality after reaching what she
considered most secure place deep in the forest. On the other
hand, her child was picked by monkeys and the child grew up in
the forest. The child adapted animal behaviour as a result. On
this kind of confusion that people go through during times of
crises, God says:-

“Yauma Taraunahaa Tadhhalu

kullu Murdhiatin Amma Ardha’t
Watadhaau kullu dhaati Hamlii
Hamlahaa. Watara Nnaasi sukaara
Wamaahum bisukaara
Walaakinna A’dhaaba Llhahi
Shadiiduh.” (The Day you shall see
it,.. Every nursing mother will
forget her nursling, and every
pregnant one will drop her load,
and you shall see mankind as in a
drunken state, yet they will not be
73
 drunken, but, severe will be the
Torment of Allah. (Q 22: 1-2))

God continues to say; “Yaa

Ayyuhanaansu, Taku Rabbakum
Inna zalzalata ssaa’ti Shaiaun
adhiim.” (O mankind, Fear your
Lord and be dutiful to Him!
Verily, the earthquake of the Hour
(of Judgment) is a terrible thing.
(Surat Al-Hajji; 22:1)

During times of crisis, people move, hide and run around for the
safety of their lives. They run in opposite directions. Each one is
nursing the belief that his or her direction is the safest. This is
indeed real confusion and it is the order of the day even in
modern times. Places like Yemen, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Congo,
South Sudan, mankind is suffering because of conflict and war.
Figure 5.1 is depictive of the kind of scenario being explained
here.

74
Source:http://search.tb.ask.com/search/AJimage.jhtml?searchfor
=reFUGEES+CAMP+IN+NGARA+ Accessed on 16.12 .2014

Figure 5.1 Confusion during times of crisis

Rationale for Child Care during Emergencies

There are a multiple of variables explaining why Disaster

Managers get involved in coming to the rescue of the vulnerable
people during times of disaster events as well as coming up with
strategies for resettling both the victims of disasters as well as
those communities at risk. Some of these factors are:-

75
Disaster Mangers are getting involved because when disasters
strike and cause terrible confusion, many people (children
inclusive) are abandoned. These among others include children,
the feeble, the elderly and those who are physically challenged.
These need to be saved and rescued from the effects of the
catastrophic event, lest, the event may have far reaching negative
effects unto families and communities.

The second variable is that, Disaster Managers are obliged to

participate in emergencies as well as designing and developing
strategies for child care because when disasters strike, there is a
lot of pain, torture and grief experienced by the survivors as
a resultant effect of either the demise or loss of their beloved
ones including parents, guardians, children and care givers.

Another factor is that each disaster event comes with negative

effects such as trauma, stress and depression. Life threatening
experiences become the order of the day and survivors are
desirous of Samaritans coming to their rescue. This is therefore
justification for the participation of Disaster Managers across
communities and nations which are prone to catastrophic disaster
events the world over.

Further still, it is observed that usually, when parents, guardians,

close relatives and original care givers either die or disappear,
the surviving generations more especially the children get
exposed to several negative social and psychological effects
that among others include physical, emotional, sexual abuse
and exploitation. Such an ugly situation can only be reversed by
the involvement of Disaster Managers.

There are also a couple of rescuers, foster relatives and adopters

who tend to become too harsh, rude, uncompromising and
76
therefore hostile to the surviving generation more so the
children. This is indeed a bad event that must be discouraged
and stopped and this leads to the need to have Disaster Managers
in place.

Disaster events usually cause injuries, distress, torture, illness

and even death of people in vulnerable areas. Therefore, Disaster
Managers rise up to the scene to take care of those in great
pain, to burry the corpses and to calm down the survivors. In
this case, children are also taken care of by these good hearted
people. Hence, a good rationale for their participation in child
care during emergencies.

STRATEGIES FOR CHILD CARE IN EMERGENCIES

Whenever and wherever catastrophic events strike, women,

the elderly, the feeble, the physically challenged and children
are some of the victims that become so vulnerable to such
events. Therefore, Disaster Managers including medical and
non medical personnel, social workers and Child Rights
Protectionists are obliged to step in to rescue the situation so
that the disaster events are either contained or they do not
claim life of too many people. This is achieved through
consciously designing and implementing a handful of
strategies and some of these are:-

1. The home

It is arguably true that “East or West, home is always best.”

Thus, caring for children at home would prove to be the other
strong strategy Disaster Managers can adopt, encourage and
utilize to care for children during emergencies. This is so
because children who are being cared for in homes of their
77
parents, guardians, relatives and care givers are believed to be
leading a harmonious and joyous life compared to their counter
parts leaving in orphanage centers and the like where care or
protection may be minimal in most cases.

It is arguably true that home is a viable institution that neither

hurts, harms, exploits, neglects, nor abuses children whom it is
responsible for. Home accords children love they really need for
their steady growth, it is concerned about their well being, care
and protection from bad or foreign influence. It is a shield that
accords them a sense of belongingness, love, affection and
protection.

The UNCRC argues that “the family is the natural environment

for the growth and well being of its members.” This explains
why this institution considers it its responsibility to provide and
deliver the necessary services a child requires for its eventual
growth, development and good upbringing by providing the best
kind of education, psychosocial support and kept free from
leading either a juvenile or a vagabond life style.

2. Government Involvement

It is arguably true that even the best plans and strategies for
disaster management would remain mere decoration and nice
peaces of paper in government offices if the central or local
government systems were left out. Under normal circumstances,
government has the overall responsibility of ensuring the safety
and satisfactory care of all people including children and at all
times. Therefore, the plans and efforts of the Disaster Managers
may prove more productive with the involvement of the long and
rich arm of government.

78
With government intervention, Disaster Managers may succeed
in recommending government to promulgate an enabling
legislative framework which if implemented, will go along way
in helping the disaster affected communities to recover quickly
from the painful effects of the disaster event itself. For example,
since the survivors may be left without any tangible means of
income and livelihood coupled with the destruction of the
educational and other essential facilities, the Government then,
in its policy framework, may come up with policies on;

• Free and compulsory Universal Primary Education

(UPE),

• Free and compulsory Universal Secondary Education

(USE) as the cases are already in Uganda, Kenya and
until most recently, Tanzania, during the Fifth Phase of
the country’s presidential regime headed by Dr. John
Joseph Pombe Magufuli.

• Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) as the case is in

Zanzibar and Tanzania Mainland.

Government can also through the Legislature enact policies on:-

• The Environment Protection. In Uganda for example, the

National Environment Act, 1995 is in place and it is a
very good sample that can be adopted by other disaster
prone areas in the world.

• The National Environment (Hilly and Mountainous Area

Management Regulation. Also, the Republic of Uganda
had this regulation passed way back in 2010.

79
 • The Wetland Management Policy can also be passed and
implemented. This bars communities from putting to use
in form of dwelling, practicing agriculture in wetlands.
This is because these are in most cases low lands that are
prone to disasters like floods. Many people lose their
lives and property during rainy seasons in low land areas
of Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar. This is one of the
reasons why there is an exercise of demolition of houses
of people in Dar es Salaam who put up dwelling
structures and business entities in low land areas. This is
technically referred to as “Bomoa Bomoa.”

In the low lands, the passage of rain water is blocked either by

litter or by houses or by business units erected therein by
members of the general public. Therefore, during heavy
downpour, running and flooding water finds its way into
dwelling places of the communities, hence, causing death of
many people including the elderly, women and children who can
neither swim nor run a way for safety of their dear lives!

However, if such useful policy frameworks are to yield the

expected results from both the ordinary citizens and the
government in power, full board legal and financial support have
to accompany the policies, lest, communities could be provided
with poor quality educational services that would in the long run
compromise the gist and quality of education in the
implementing areas.

Therefore, it is recommended that if such good policy

frameworks are to survive the test of time, then, implementation
should not totally be left to the government, after the disaster
recovery period, since communities are expected to have
returned to their normal life, society should also participate in the
80
unpacking of such handy policy programs. This could be easy
through initiating and implementing strategies like cost sharing
virtually across the educational and health sectors. Specifically,
community involvement would be to appreciate and implement
government policy developments such as;

• Higher Education Loan system (through which students

secure financial support to finance their studies but pay
back after completion of their studies and especially on
getting employment)

• Cost sharing for health scheme (here, there is an agreed

upon portion of the cost of service the ordinary citizen is
to pay as the rest is footed by the government. It could be
50% on either party)

• Limiting number of children and wives. This is aimed at

ensuring that government is not over strained in the case
of big families. The best example of such a Policy
Development can be drawn from the Republic of
Indonesia, where government determined that;

“Untuk menerima Biasiswa, keluarga

harus bersatu Swami, bersatu Istri dan
berdua anak.” (In order to qualify for
government bursary for education, a
family shall have One husband, one wife
and only two children.) The educational and
health needs of this small family are taken
care of by the central government.

81
In order to register success in regard to this policy development,
the Local Government Authorities with the Disaster Managers in
the Republic of Indonesia implement it through effective
registration of the beneficiaries at District Level called
Kapupaten.

Last but not the least, the Government Intervention strategy

would target the Development Partners that it would effectively
coordinate to provide adequate, timely and the most needed or
desired services to the affected communities. In this case
therefore, Government Departments such as the Social Welfare
and the Probation Office should work together in extending
support to vulnerable and “at risk children.” In short, hospitals,
schools, Community Based Organisations (CBOs), Faith-based
donor communities would be approached to offer this very
importance support for the affected communities generally and
affected children specifically.

3. Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

It is arguably true that whereas natural disasters occur due

to the forces of nature and therefore man has little to do to
either stop or avert their occurrence, many man made
disasters can be avoided, averted and their effects unto
man and the ecology minimized. This is through a robust
campaign and strategy aimed at managing disasters
before, during and after their occurrence. This strategy
has the potential to ensure minimum effects of
catastrophic events unto man including children
specifically and the ecology generally.

This strategy equips Disaster Managers with abilities and

competencies to gather data about the nature of an
82
impending calamity as well details or magnitude of the
hazard in order to forge the most effective plan of action
aimed at reducing effects of such an impending hazard.

Risk reduction necessitates that Disaster Managers

promulgate policies that would aid communities avoid
serious impact of disasters such as relocation of the
communities living in disaster as well as life threatening
zones. These may include low land areas that are
vulnerable to floods. Blocked water systems may need to
be unblocked so that heavy rain water can flow smoothly
without flooding in people’s houses and destroying the
environment. Following the Zanzibar May 2015 floods,
the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar (RGZ
commonly known as SMZ) came out to rescue the masses
from the effects of this famous catastrophic event. Figure
5.2 is depictive of the government’s support to the
affected communities where the First Lady paid a visit to
the affected communities resettled at Mwanakwerekwe C
Secondary School.

83
Source: http://www.zanzinews.com/2015/05/mama-
mwanamwema-shein-awafariji.html at 4:13 pm
Figure 5.2: First Lady of Zanzibar pays a visit to the affected
communities resettled at Mwanakwerekwe C Secondary School.
Institutional building could be the other measure for
containing the adverse effects of disasters. Institutional
building may among other things involve training
sufficient manpower (Disaster Managers) and putting in
place policies and structures in a firm that could be to
counter disaster events when they strike so that
vulnerability is not so high. This would also be a very
handy measure during disaster preparedness. It is
interesting to note that as a way of building capacity for
disaster preparedness, a number of Universities around
the world have designed as part of their curricular,
Disaster Management and Child Care study programs at
84
 all levels; Certificate, Diploma, Bachelors and
Postgraduate levels. Such institutions among others
include Coventry University (CU) in Coventry, West
Midlands, United Kingdom, Zanzibar University (ZU) in
Tanzania, University of Colombia (UC) and University of
Gadjah Mada (GMU) in Yogyakarta – Indonesia.

Also, in order to minimize the effects of disasters unto

man including children and the ecology, through this
strategy, Disaster Managers provide and deliver basic
needs and services to the victims. Such services include
medicines, clean water, foodstuff, warm clothing and
blankets in case the disaster is floods. Figure 5.3 is
depictive of the Disaster Management Cycle whose
phases if consciously and strictly utilized, tremendously
reduces the effects of disaster events unto man and the
ecology.

Source: www.4uth.gov.ua/Saturday 29.11.2014 at 8.55 a.m.

Figure 5.3: Disaster Management Cycle

85
4. Establishment of a Local Disaster Risk Reduction
Framework

Another strategy that can be handy in the work of the Disaster

Managers may be the eventual establishment of a Local Disaster
Risk Reduction Framework (LDRR) in all areas that are prone to
disasters in the countries susceptible to disasters. Automatically,
this is pegged unto the general framework of DRR which has
been analysed before this strategy. In order for it to be effective,
it is advisable that it should be ran, monitored and supervised by
the Local Government Authorities.

The Framework should be promulgated at the National level by

the Central Government through the respective disaster
monitoring and management units of government that should
involve Ministerial Policy Committee of Cabinet responsible for
LDRR Policy formulation and management.

Then, the Inter Agency Technical Committee or the National

Platform for Disaster Management- In charge of LDRR Policy
implementation and the National Emergency Coordination and
Operations Unit which is Coordinating LDRR emergency
response at the national and then district levels should be
involved.

Last but not the least, from the District levels, the framework
should spill down to the Sub County more especially to the Sub
County Disaster Management Committee which directly
supervises the Parish and Village Disaster Management
Committees for the final stage of the implementation phase. This
strategy does not only reduce the effects of disasters unto
communities, but also, rescues children and all those who are at
risk in the vulnerable areas.
86
5. Participation of Multi-sectoral Agencies

It is arguably true that most communities do not have adequate

resources to deal with emergencies in their midst single
handedly. Therefore, effective management of disasters calls for
the attention and involvement of a multiple of stakeholders
whose co-ordinational role is vital in the reduction or aversion of
the effects of catastrophic events unto children, elderly, the
feeble, the physically challenged and women.
These carry out their activities carefully and consciously in a
coordinated manner by putting children at the fulcrum and/or
center of all their activities. These among others include giving
priority to the needs, requirements, demands and interests of the
children at risk or those already affected by the disasters.

These must ensure that children are not discriminated at all on

the basis of gender, colour, religion, financial status of the
original care givers, but to be supported equally during
emergencies. The support is aiming at reducing or averting the
effects of the disaster event unto such children, minimizing
abuse, neglect and maximizing plans for protecting them from
harm, abuse, neglect or exploitation.

There are a number of facilities that should be focused at when

using this strategy either to minimize or avert the effects of
disasters unto children in emergencies. The support urgently
needed in times of emergency has a bearing on Educational and
Health Care facilities and support.

As regards the Educational Support; it should be noted that

during times of crisis, the community infrastructure in most
cases is destroyed or disorganized. This requires of the Disaster
Managers therefore to revise means of ensuring easy access to
87
formal and non formal education and vocational training for the
survivors. The door should be wide open for the benefit of all
children regardless of their social-economic status. The support
among other things should include bursaries, scholastic materials
such as uniform, stationary and accommodation. In Zanzibar, the
SOS Children’s Village Headquarter is a good example of
educational facilities. Figure 5.4 is depictive of the facility at
stake.

Source: Field Data collected on Wednesday 20th January, 2016 at

2.07 pm.

Figure 5.4: SOS Children’s Village in Unguja – Zanzibar

In regard to the Health Sector, the much more needed support,

the affected community may be desirous of, is the one aimed at
addressing the negative effects of the disaster unto children, the
elderly, the feeble, the physically challenged specifically as well
as other members of the community in general.

In this case therefore, the Disaster Managers advance some

Primary Healthcare packages in form of child immunization,
88
health and nutrition, enable the masses access treatment for
opportunistic infections including but not limited to diarrhea,
typhoid, malaria, as well as diseases associated with the deadly
HIV/AIDS scourge, antiretroviral therapies of dangerous
diseases such as Ebola and Marburg as well as dangerous viruses
such as the ZIKA virus. The latter is rampant in Brazil as of
today.

Disaster Managers especially the Medical Personnel are expected

to provide and deliver sexual and reproductive health programme
as well as safe drinking water and sanitation to the affected
communities since their original sources of clean and safe water
might have either been contaminated, toxicated or destroyed in
case the catastrophic event was a flood like the one of the month
of May, 2015 in Zanzibar as also reflected in Figure 5.5.

Source: http://lukemusicfactory.blogspot.com/2015/05/baadhi-
ya-maeneo-mengine-yalikumbwa-na.html accessed on
05/05/2015 12:30pm
Figure 5.5: Some of the areas affected by the May, 2015 Floods
in Zanzibar that destroyed a number of infrastructure
89
6. Intervention of Development Partners

This is yet another strategy Disaster Managers can utilize

effectively to come to the rescue of the vulnerable children and
other people who may be affected by disasters. They augment
the effort of government put in to support children in
emergencies. There is a multiple of such institutions for the
cause of humanity. Examples are:-

• United Nations Organisation (UNO)

• United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
• United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF),
established on 11 December, 1946. In 1953, it was
mandated to handle women issues by the United Nations
session that also shortened its name to United Nations
Children’s Fund, but it retained its original acronym.
• Action Aid International (AAI)
• Save the Children International (SCI)
• World Bank (WB)
• World Health Organisation (WHO)
• Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)
• International Labour Organisation (ILO)
• African Development Bank (ADB)
• Asian Development Bank (ADB)
• Faith Based Organisations (FBOs) also may be involved.
These include but not limited to; Red Cross (RC), Red
Crescent (RCr), Kuwait Fund (KF), African Muslims
Agencies (AMA), Munazzamat Da’wa Al Islamiyya
(MDI), Darul Imaan Charitable Association (DICA),
Islamic Zakat Fund –Malawi (IZF-Malawi), World
Association of Muslim Youths (WAMY), Mother’s Union
(MU), Father’s Union (FU).
90
It is crucial to note that, these institutions play a pivotal and
strategic role in augmenting government effort to rescue and
restore to normal life the disaster affected areas. They actually
carry out various developmental programs including but not
limited to:-

• Peace Keeping (mobilizing peace keeping forces from

world’s bodies like United Nations and African Union to
enforce peace in conflict prone areas like the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Somalia, South Sudan, Syria with the
view of protecting the masses)

• Information sharing (on a number of topical issues

regarding disasters around the world. For example
mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, details
of the type of disaster most likely to occur where and
when including the magnitude or intensity of its damage)

• Child Protection Systems, advocacy and legal support (to

ensure that children are safe, not abused, not neglected,
but are protected from all forms of abuse and torture. That
the culprits are brought to book with minimum delay so
that justice can be done. It should be done timely since it
is argued that justice delayed is justice denied).

• Infrastructural building and Community Rehabilitation

(after disaster occurrence because almost all facilities are
broken down and communities are in disarray, hence,
need to resettle them and return them to normal life
situation and work).

91
• Bursaries and scholarships and Exchange Programs
(These should be organized targeting pupils and/or
students whose care givers have breathed their last in the
disasters or who have been swiped of their fortunes by the
hazards and can not maintain their children in school. The
upper hand therefore for such children would be a very
well come gesture.

• On the other hand, exchange programs would be

encouraged between disaster hit areas and other countries
which are also prone to disasters with the view of
information as well as experience sharing on how
disasters are handled elsewhere. Such arrangement would
help to ensure the creation of a body of knowledgeable
personnel to counter the catastrophic events with ease.

• Conferences and Publications: This strategy would be

useful where Disaster Managers from the areas that are
vulnerable to disasters periodically meet at workshops,
symposia or conferences to discuss and analyse topical
issues on disaster management. At the end of the
periodical sessions, proceedings would be documented,
recorded and published for purposes of knowledge
creation, dissemination and safety in world archives.
• Carrying out impact assessment: Hazards come with
different repercussions world wide. Therefore, there is
need for effective planning for disaster mitigation,
preparedness, response and recovery so that when they
strike, they cause little impact. Impact assessment is
effected by Disaster Managers.

92
 • In addition to this argument, data of the impact
assessment can be presented to both the Developmental
Partners and agencies from the local and international
scenes for purposes of soliciting for the required financial
and technical support. This would be used as a strong
variable to justify this particular strategy used by Disaster
Managers.

7. Involvement of Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

Since time immemorial, Non Government Organisations (NGOs)

have been known for playing a significant role in the welfare of
communities they work for world wide. In the case of children,
they are supporting millions of different categories of children
with different socio-economic malaise the world over.

Their roles among others have always included;

• Supporting families that have non biological and extended

family children. NGOs have taken up the role of care
givers and the children being provided with some decent
accommodation, some bursary, some protection from
abuse and neglect especially in least developed countries.
This has been possible due to their effort to put in place
strategies for Planning at national, regional and
international levels for child care plans and programmes.

• Acquiring alternative living arrangements for children

affected by emergencies. This is through efforts for
reuniting families after disaster events as well as
developing and establishing Family Rehabilitation
Programs. In Zanzibar for example, SOS Children’s

93
 Village has a well established, enriched and facilitated
Family Rehabilitation Program (FRP) which caters for
issues of family rehabilitation during and after family
conflicts including Domestic Violence (DV), Gender
Based Violence (GBV) and the like.

• The other role the NGOs can effect is to foster the

children who are either left wondering around because of
the disaster event or who are at risk. They will therefore
be assured of some care and protection from these
organizations.

• Affirmative action is yet another role NGOs can play

aimed at elevating the position and status of the children
at risk or those vulnerable to disasters. The girl child may
be singled out in particular for special kind of support or
package because she is very fragile, delicate and
vulnerable to disasters. The female students at Makerere
University Kampala (MAK) are enjoying this kind of
facility where they are offered 1½ additional marks at
admission time because of their vulnerability to
temptations and disasters unlike their counterparts, the
male entrants and these impact negatively to their efforts
to progress steadily in their academic endeavours.

8. Counseling and Guidance

This is yet another vital strategy Disaster Managers and other

service providers can utilize to care for children, the elderly and
the physically challenged during emergencies. This is so because
disaster stricken people are more often than not traumatized,
stressed and depressed. Many fail to cope with the effects of the

94
event including but not limited to loss of their dear ones, loss or
destruction of property and the like.

It is against this background that Disaster Managers need to offer

counseling services to such vulnerable groups of people in order
to develop a stress – free mind. All the three types of counseling
could be adopted depending on the nature of the disaster event
and the category of the disaster victims. In this case therefore,
Individual Counseling, Group Counseling and Multicultural
Counseling techniques could be effected.

9. Establishment of National Child Protection Systems

(NCPS)

Areas or nations that are prone to catastrophic events should

design National Child Protection Systems that would be used
before, during and after disaster events. The system would be
aimed at reducing or averting disaster damage on communities
and children. The NCPS would comprise of both the central and
local government authorities, some security organs including the
army, the police service, the Medical and non medical disaster
managers, Social Welfare Department, the media and the Law
Council that would play a fundamental role in the establishment
and sustainability of the National Child Protection Systems.

Involvement of security agencies would be so helpful in the

quick evacuation process of the would be affected communities
before and during disaster events. This is because they have
military vehicles and helicopter that they would use in the
evacuation efforts and processes. These have capacity to land in
places where even run ways are none existent and some of the
armed vehicles they use have off road facilities.

95
Secondly, during emergencies, the armed forces play the vital
role of coordinating relief greatly desired by the victims during
and after disaster events. This among other things include rescue,
distribution of food supplies, medicines, equipment, personnel
and the disaster managers themselves.
Coordination of the disaster relief may rely more on the Child
Rights Convention Framework to include inter-departmental co-
operation, public awareness through conferences and education,
law reform, policy formulation, research and documentation,
criminalization of culprits, timely processing of cases for non
delayed justice because Justice delayed is justice denied.

10. Intervention of the world of academia on Child Rights

and Child Protection issues

Closely related to the above strategy is the Intervention of the

World of Academia Strategy regarding issues of the child in
emergencies. The world of academia has a strong position power
in addressing issues of children at risk world wide. This is so
because Child Rights and Child Protection abuses are reported
almost on a daily basis globally.

The world of academia can capitalize on this ugly state of affairs

to agitate for a number of measures that may lead to child rights
and child protection in their circles and among others, the
following may be part of the measures:-

• inclusion of joint research budget in their institutional

budgetary proposals for each calendar and financial year
for issues of Child Rights and Child Protection

• inclusion of a training policy for academic staff training

on issues of Child Rights and Child Protection at all levels
96
 of the academics. That is to say at Certificate, Diploma,
Bachelors and Postgraduate Studies levels.

• inclusion of a big portion of Child Rights and Child

Protection syllabii in the curricula of academic programs
across the board at higher learning institutions the world
over. Broad areas that could be considered for inclusion in
the various levels of curricula are; Disaster and Child
Care in emergencies, Disaster Management and Child
Care, Child care and the law, disability and child care.

It should be noted that these measures shall bring to a minimum

level over space and over time the suffering children are
experiencing because of the abuse and neglect by either their
original care givers or the new care takers. The following
statistics is emphatical on the plight of children and therefore
implying that it is high time children were saved from extinction!
In industrialized societies like America, if serious and preventive
efforts are not considered, children may extinct from society.
The following arguments justify this argument:-

• About 40 million children worldwide suffer abuse every

year, with more than 1,500 children dying of abuse in the
United States annually.
WWW.Childhelp.org/child_abuse_facts/accessed/monday
01.06.2015at7.32p.m.

• About 40 million children worldwide suffer abuse every

year, affecting all educational, socioeconomic levels,
ethnicities, cultures and religions.

• Statistics regarding public-health problem in the USA

show that its cost to society is more than $120 billion per
97
 year and that with more than 3 million referrals to state
and local agencies every year, an average of six such
referrals occur every minute. More than 1,500 children
die each year as a result of child abuse. Peacekeeping,
human trafficking, and forced prostitution.

• According to Gita as cited in United Nations (2004) and

(1996), Child sexual abuse by UN peacekeepers reported
a rapid increase in prostitution in Cambodia and
Mozambique after UN peacekeeping forces moved in.
"The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children", former first
lady of Mozambique Graça Machel documented: "In 6 out
of 12 country studies on sexual exploitation of children in
situations of armed conflict prepared for the present
report, the arrival of peacekeeping troops has been
associated with a rapid rise in child prostitution." Gita
Sahgal spoke out in 2004 with regard to the fact that
prostitution and sex abuse crops up wherever
humanitarian intervention efforts are set up. She
observed: "The issue with the UN is that peacekeeping
operations unfortunately seem to be doing the same thing
that other militaries do. Even the guardians have to be
guarded." Gita (2004),
https://en.wikipedia/wiki/united_Nations_peacekeeping/H
uman_rights_in_United_Nations_missions_accessed_mon
day_07.03.2016_5.28pm
• A situational analysis on the African continent is worse
because children in many African countries are lacking
access to good education, good health care. Many
countries force children to join armed conflicts and their
interests are not accorded priority. Figure 5.6 depicts this
ugly scenario of child soldiers.

98
Source:
www.google.co.tz/DRC_childsoldiers/tues/02.06.2015.12.28p.m.

Figure 5.6: Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

• The situation is worsened by the fact the prevalence of

human rights abuse is the order of the day as it is also
practiced by staff serving foreign missions and this
warrants the active involvement of the academia to handle
aggressively. Table 5.1 illustrates confirmed accounts of
crimes and human rights violations committed by United
Nations soldiers, peacekeepers, and employees.

Table 5.1 illustrates confirmed accounts of crimes and human

rights violations committed by United Nations soldiers,
peacekeepers and employees.

99
 A comparison of incidents involving United Nations
peacekeepers, troops, and employees.

United Nations Sexual

Conflict Murder2 Extortion/Theft3
Mission abuse1
United Nations
Second
Mission in the
Congo 150 3 44
Democratic
War
Republic of Congo
Somali United Nations
Civil Operation in 5 24 5
War Somalia II
Sierra
United Nations
Leone
Mission in Sierra 50 7 15
Civil
Leone
War
United Nations
Eritrean-
Mission in
Ethiopian 70 15 0
Ethiopia and
War
Eritrea
Burundi United Nations
Civil Operation in 80 5 0
War Burundi
Rwanda United Nations
Civil Observer Mission 65 15 0
War Uganda-Rwanda
Second
Liberian United Nations
30 4 1
Civil Mission in Liberia
War
Second United Nations 400 5 0
100
 A comparison of incidents involving United Nations
peacekeepers, troops, and employees.

United Nations Sexual

Conflict Murder2 Extortion/Theft3
Mission abuse1
Sudanese Mission in Sudan
Civil
War
Côte
United Nations
d'Ivoire
Operation in Côte 500 2 0
Civil
d'Ivoire
War
2004
United Nations
Haitian
Stabilization 110 57 0
coup
Mission in Haiti
d'état
United Nations
Kosovo Interim
800 70 100
War Administration
Mission in Kosovo
Israeli– United Nations
Lebanese Interim Force in 0 6 0
conflict Lebanon

Source:https://en.wikipedia/wiki/united_Nations_peacekeeping/
Human_rights_in_United_Nations_missions_accessed_monday_
07.03.2016_5.28pm

• In the case of Tanzania, the situation is equally wanting in

regard to cases of Child Rights and Child Protection
which attract the attention of the academia agitating for
101
 inclusion of Child Rights and Child Protection issues in
the curricula of academic programs like Law, Law and
Sharia, Social Work, Public Administration, Tourism and
other relevant academic programs.

• This is so because there are frequent reports of cases of

abuse of rights of people with albinism who are killed and
sacrificed by people seeking for either wealth or political
gain. This may explain why Ntambara (August 10, 2013),
argues that “The trend of children’s rights being violated
is increasing despite the Law of the Child Act that was
instituted in 2009.” Figure 5.7 provides very good
examples of the type of abuse people with albinism
experience.

Source:http://search.tb.ask.com/search/AJimage.jhtml?searchfor
=killing+of+albino+in+Tanzania

Figure 5.7: Abuse of people with albinism

102
• There are so many children unto whom permanent
harm is inflicted in the country either by their step
mothers, or by their original or care givers. For
example, there are frequent reports in Tanzania of
cases such as:-

“Inasikitisha! Mtoto
Alivyonyongwa na Baba wa
Kambo” which may mean “It is
surprising! A child is killed by his
step father.”

Also, “Watoto wawili wa kike

wabakwa” meaning “two
female babies were raped.”
• Rape, defilement and other sexual abuses against girls
do exist. There are also many cases of child labour,
torture and abuse in the country. Table 5.2 is
depictive of this scenario as reported by the Legal and
Human Rights Center as well as the Zanzibar Legal
Services Center (2012:346 -348), the Human Rights
Center and The Child Protection Unit at the
Department of Social Welfare which received a
number of complaints relating to child abuse in the
year 2011. The cases were:-

103
Table 5.2: Cases and complaints on Child Abuse in Zanzibar in
2011

Age of Gender of Type of Abuse

S/N Victim Victim
1 11 F Rape
2 13 F Rape
3 14 F Rape and Pregnancy
4 16 F Rape and Pregnancy
5 16 F Rape
6 5 F Rape
7 17 F Rape and Pregnancy
8 2 F Rape
9 15 F Rape
10 14 F Rape
11 6 M Sodomy
12 5 M Sodomy
13 14 F Rape
14 12 F Rape
15 7 M Sodomy
16 5 F Physical Abuse
17 4 F Rape
18 8 M Rape
19 17 F Rape
20 14 F Rape
21 6 M Rape
22 4 F Rape
23 17 F Rape
24 7 F Rape
25 16 F Rape
26 3 M Rape
27 16 F Rape
104
 28 18 M Rape
29 15 F Rape
30 11 M Rape
31 9 M Rape
32 15 F Rape
33 13 M Physical Abuse
34 16 F Rape
35 14 F Rape
36 14 F Rape
37 19 F Rape
38 12 F Rape
39 17 F Rape
40 17 F Rape
41 17 F Physical Abuse
42 15 F Rape
43 12 M Physical Abuse
44 12 F Rape
45 14 F Physical Abuse

Source: Child Protection Unit, 2011

There is also more evidence of the cases of child sexual abuse
that require the attention of the academic world to intervene.
They are cited by the Legal and Human Rights Center as well as
the Zanzibar Legal Services Center (2012:349), the Human
Rights Center and The Child Protection Unit at the Department
of Social Welfare. It is reflected in Table 5.3.

105
Table 5.3: Number of cases on child rights violation in Zanzibar

District Rape Early Sodomy Total

Pregnancy
Urban 5 - 5 10
West 13 5 1 19
Central 3 1 - 4
South 2 - - 2
North A 1 - 1 2
North B 1 - - 1
Chake 6 5 2 13
chake
Mkoani 4 1 - 5
Micheweni 5 2 - 7
Total 47 16 10 73

Source: Budget Speech of MoSWYWCD, 2011/2012 as also

cited by the ZLSC and LHRC (2012:346)

It should be noted that sexual violence refers to any act, attempt,

or threat of a sexual nature that results or is likely to result into
physical, psychological and emotional harm. Physical violence
against children can impair their physical, cognitive and
emotional development.

Table 5.3 shows that out of the several child abuse cases, rape
tops the list with 47 cases. This is indeed very absurd and
academia should rise up to work with the medics and police
service in the country to rescue or avert this ugly trend of events!

Further still, there is documented evidence of cases of child

rights and child protection in Unguja that call for the immediate
106
involvement of the academia to handle. The Legal and Human
Rights Center as well as the Zanzibar Legal Services Center
(2012) present this detailed situational analysis as reflected in
Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Sexual Abuse Cases Reported at Police Stations

within Urban West Region of Unguja in 2011

POLI ABDUC RA SOD PREGN INDEC GA DEFI TOT

CE TION PE OMY ANCY ENT NG LME AL
STAT ASSA RA NT
ION ULT PE
Made 15 2 1 12 44 - 2 76
ma
Bubu 35 14 10 37 40 1 - 136
bu
Ng’am 25 23 5 24 40 1 - 117
bo
Mazizi 12 6 6 19 25 - - 68
ni
Malin - 3 4 1 - - - 8
di
Kwer 16 9 6 7 17 2 4 59
ekwe
Total 103 57 32 100 166 4 6 464

Source of data: Women and Children Protection Desk, 2011

Table 5.4 depicts a huge kind of data on sexual abuse cases in

Unguja which totals to 464 different cases by 2011. This is not a
mean degree of violence of human rights. It requires the
immediate attention and action of the world of academia to
contain the situation.

107
The ZLSC and LHRC (2012: 350) have summarized the cases of
sexual abuses which were reported from May to December 2011
to the One Stop Center that was established with the financial
support from Save the Children International and the
MoSWYWCD in 2011 as reflected in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5: Sexual Abuse cases in Unguja

S/No Type of cases Number of cases

1 Pregnancy 133
2 Rape 214
3 Gang Rape 4
4 Indecent Assault 13
5 Sodomy 22
Total 386

Source: Women and Child Protection Unit, 2011

The cases seen in Table 5.5 totaling 386 indicate an absurd

scenario in such a very small area of Unguja which more over at
one time in history, it was one of the large Zanzibar that was
known as “Mecca Ndogo” literally translated as “the smaller city
of Mecca.” Therefore, if this was the case in here, one wonders
what the situation looks like in other areas not worthy the name
and rich religious history of Unguja.

• Reports on Natural Disasters claiming lives of people

(children inclusive) also do exist. For example, the
disappearance a number of ferries that has added to the
number of children dieing with their parents and
guardians, the MV Spice Islander that sank into the
waters of the Indian Ocean and never was it recovered

108
 is a vivid example. It is reported that On 10 September
2011, the MV Spice Islander I, a passenger ferry
carrying over 2,000 passengers, sank off the coast of
Zanzibar. It was traveling between Unguja and Pemba,
when it capsized. Early estimates put the death toll at
around 200, but a report published by the Tanzanian
government in January 2012 claimed that over 1,500
people had been killed.
https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinking/_of_the_MV_Spice
_Islander_1_accessed_monday_07.03.2016_11.45_am

• Existence of cases of HIV/AIDS infected persons

including children is the other evidence that calls for
the intervention of the world of academia in issues of
child rights (CR) and child protection (CP) in most
societies world wide. Many orphans are left without
any help. Their future is doomed and many societies
are not caring for their health and educational needs!

11. Implementation of International Legal Instruments for

Child Protection

This is yet the other dependable and strong strategy that can be
utilized to protect children who are at risk or who are vulnerable
to disaster events most especially war or armed conflicts.
Numerous international legal frameworks and mechanisms could
be adopted and implemented and these among others may
include;

• Legal Framework Number 1674 (2006) focusing on the

protection of civilians in armed conflict. The spirit of this
framework is ensuring that the elderly, the feeble, the

109
 women and children and protected during times of
conflict.

• Legal Framework Number 1612 (2005) focused on the

implementation of a strategies for monitoring, reporting
on and reprimanding whosoever may commit grave
mistakes and violations against children during periods of
disputes and conflicts.

• Legal Framework Number 1539 (2004). Focused on the

use, recruitment, abuse, rape and killing of children
especially the girl child during armed conflicts. Many are
used as sexual objects in the army especially during times
of war.

• Legal Framework Number 1460 (2003). This framework

focused on putting an end to the recruitment of children as
combatants during armed conflicts. It also agitates for the
evaluation of the magnitude of violations and abuses
children experience either directly or indirectly during
times of armed conflicts.

• Legal Framework Number 1379 (2001). The major aim of

this framework was to assist the children affected by the
HIV/AIDS scourge as well as reprimanding all those
parties that may be involved in the recruitment of usage of
children in battle fields or hostilities.

• Legal Framework Number 1314 (2000) aimed at

excluding from amnesty arrangements anyone who was
found guilty of crimes against humanity especially the
torture of children.

110
• Legal Framework Number 1261 (1999). This was the
instrument that brought and/or put to an end the
recruitment and use of children below the age of eighteen
into the army.

• The International Labour Organisation Convention 182 of

1999. This was emphatical on the worst forms of Child
Labour. One must not engage the under age in any type of
employment from where one gets some fortune. Article
No. 2 states that “…the term “child” shall apply to all
persons under the age of 18.

• The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court

(ICC) of 1998. This is a legal framework adopted as a
useful tool putting a stop to all forms of child abuse,
especially the conscription, enlistment, or use in hostilities
of children under the age of 15 years. The Rome Statute
considers it as war crime.

• The Security Council desires that all peace processes,

peace agreements, post-conflict recovery and
reconstruction efforts and plans must accord special
attention and interest to the special needs of the feeble,
women and children. These among others include their
protection, humanitarian assistance, education, training
and ending of impunity.

• Humanitarian Law, especially the Four Geneva

Conventions of 1949 that set out standards for the
protection of civilians during armed conflicts.

111
 • The Human Rights Law especially the (The United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child; UNCRC
(1989) that sets out comprehensive economic, social and
cultural rights as well as civil and political rights of
children.

• The Convention on the Status of Refugees (1951). This

with its 1967 Protocal provides for the rights of protection
for children refugees in times of emergencies as well as
during armed conflicts that may occur in any part of the
world.

• The African Charter of the Rights and Welfare of the

Child (ACRWC). This considered and established
eighteen (18) as the minimum age for all compulsory
military recruitment and participation in hostilities and
armed conflicts.

12. Special Facilitation for those working in life threatening

areas

This strategy may be found pretty useful because many people

the world over are working in life threatening environments
which put their lives and the life of many people, children
inclusive at risk. Therefore, to rescue people (children) in these
areas, a lot of motivation and inspiration to the employees is
urgently needed to enable them carry on rendering their services
therein with a strong background of motivation and insurance.
Among the areas where people are rendering service and they are
between life and death are disaster prone areas. It should be
recalled that a disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that
seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society and

112
causes human, material and economic or environmental loss that
exceeds the community's or society's ability to cope using its
own resources.

Disasters like floods, terrace rain, heavy wind, storm, volcanic

eruption, snow, boat capsizing, airplane crush, armed conflict
and many others have claimed lives of the human capital world
wide, many employees have been crippled, many have had their
working capabilities diminished. Work facilities and assets such
as offices, factories, workshops and industries have also either
been destroyed or demolished. People are therefore scared off
working in environments prone to these events, communities and
children therefore suffer. Figure 5.8 is illustrative of the effects
the American bombings on Hiroshima and Nagashaki in Japan.
War ended several decades ago, but, up to now, the effects
thereof are still being experienced by the Japanese, children
inclusive!

113
https://www.google.co.tz/search?q=hiroshima+atomic+bomb,
Japan 25. 01.2016 6: 40 pm.

Figure 5.8: Effects of American atomic bomb on Hiroshima in

Japan

Civil wars, political disagreements, political instability and crime

rate worldwide are also prominent and strong areas of turmoil.
Society is becoming a living hell, threatening people’s lives and
this is on a world scale. They reduce and undermine working
capability and effective production. Hence, leading to scenarios
of unemployment!

Diseases like Ebola, cholera, yellow fever, viruses like ZIKA hit
communities and weaken the economic sector, lead to loss of
revenue and people’s income since people are no longer
productive, life is destroyed and day today production activities
are hampered with. Masses therefore express fear working in
114
such calamitous environments. For example, in Central Africa
and Equatorial Guinea in 2014 when the Ebola virus attacked the
area, death of local and foreign staff was registered.

For example, 11 doctors died of Ebola in Liberia. Amongst those

who died in this life threatening working environment, were Dr.
John Taaban Dada, Dr. Daniel Muhunza Mutooro and Dr.
Michel Mawanda. The latter was from Uganda. According to
ILO report, Ebola killed more than 6,900 staff from countries
like Sera Leone, Liberia and Guinea.

In this connection, Walter in the Annual of Global Peace

Operations (2008:70) argues that;

“since 1948, over 2,400

peacekeepers have made the
“supreme sacrifice” while serving
in UN operations. Thus, the UN has
suffered a historic average of 40
fatalities of uniformed and civilian
peacekeepers a year. A more
precise analysis reveals significant
variations and trends that may help
identify the causes and hopefully,
help prevent future loses.

With the end of the Cold War and

the advent of modern multi-
dimensional peacekeeping, the
number of deployed peacekeepers
jumped from the traditional level of
about 10,000 to a peak almost eight
times that number. Unfortunately,
115
 the number of fatalities experienced
an even greater jump. The year
1993 was the worst year for
peacekeeping fatalities in UN
history. In the dangerous operations
in Somalia, Bosnia and Cambodia
and other UN locations, 225
personnel lost their lives, about half
from malicious acts... ”

Under this strategy still, issues of Social instability are also

captured. These are recorded and reported in many areas the
world over most especially where the rule of law and
constitutionalism have broken down. There are strives and chaos
in societies that are mismanaged by naïve political managers.
Social instability is becoming the order of the day. This
automatically hinders effective participation and accountability
among of the staff in life threatening working environments.

Social and political instability thus take root and perpetuate

themselves, resulting in the increased vulnerability of poor
people. The associated risks can lead to disruption of operations
and in extreme cases, the collapse of services altogether, where
individuals and communities are forced to leave their homelands
due to violence or political intimidation. This is more prominent
in countries like Burundi, Syria, South Sudan, Somalia, Iraq,
DRC and others.

It is against this background that implementation of this strategy

is timely but, its success goes hand in hand with heavy insurance
and fat hardship allowance as facilitating factors that would give
hope to the personnel involved as well as their family members
so that in case of any calamity, they do not lead a helpless and
116
hopeless life as the bread winner is either killed or crippled while
serving in such life threatening environments.

117
REFERENCES

Anderson M.G. (2013). Landslide Risk Reduction in Developing

Countries: Perceptions, Successes and Future Risks
for capacity building. Landslide Science and
Practice 247-256.

ARC foundation modules (all are cross-cutting and identify why

Child Protection in Emergencies Coordinator’s
Handbook children are more vulnerable in
emergencies)

Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 28, the Rights to

Education, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden,
Netherlands

Emergencies: A Discussion Paper, FSC.org, London.

Emergencies: An inter-agency modular training package,

Gita (2004),
https://en.wikipedia/wiki/united_Nations_peacekeeping/Human_
rights_in_United_Nations_missions_accessed_monday_07.03.20
16_5.28pm

Gmeiner, H. 2013. The foundation of SOS Children’s Villages,

File://A:\SOS-Ennerdale.htm (21 February 2013).

http://lukem usic factory.blogsport.com / baadhi ya- maeneo-

mengine- yalikumbwa na mafuriko/
htm/05/05/2015/12.45pm.

118
http://search.tb.ask.com/search/AJimage.jhtml?&searchfor=imag
es+of+Ebola+victim+being+buried+Monday+28.12.2015+3.00am
http://sunnah.com/adab/18/ahadith/on/child/rights/child/protection

http://sunnah.com/adab/18/book+of+elderly+accessed+sunday+1
0.01.2016+7.44pm.

http://sunnah.com/search/q-alcohol/monday/11.1.2016/4.29am

http://www.google.com/url?/disaster-relief-recovery-monday-
28.12.2015-2.42am

http://www.google.com/url?/tag/capsize/sunday/27.12.2015/12.1
0pm.

http://www.google.com/url?/tanzanian-president-john-magufuli-
cleans-streets-on-independence-day-to-fight-cholera-
kipindupindu-thursday10.12.2015/8.08pm

http://www.redcross.ca/article.asp?id=012396&tid=001

http://www.zanzinews.com/2015/05/mama-mwanamwema-
shein-supporting-and-conforting-the-victims-of-the-floods

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Tohoku_earthquake_andtsun
ami/friday25.12.2015/10.27am

https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinking/_of_the_MV_Spice_Islander_
1_accessed_monday_07.03.2016_11.45_am

ILO CONVENTION NO. 182 on the worst Forms of Child

Labour, 1999, adopted on 17th June 1999.

119
International Federation of Social Work (IFSW) 10/24/2011
Declaration of Ethical Principles of Social Work

IRC, UNICEF, CCF, UNHCR, Terre des Hommes.

ISDR. (2007). The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015:

Building the resilience of nations and communities
to disasters. Extract from the final report of the
world conference on disaster risk reduction
(A/CONF.206/6).

Issa Yussuf, The Tanzania Daily News (Dar-es-Salaam) 5 May

2015 many left Homeless after Isles downpour.
Legal and Human Rights Center and Zanzibar Legal Services
Center (2012) Tanzania Human Rights Report
2011, Togo systemic Investment, Dar-es-Salaam.
McEntire D.A. (2001). Triggering agents, vulnerabilities and
disaster reduction: towards a holistic paradigm.
Disaster prevention and management. 10 (3):189-
196.
Mieke, Verheyde, (2006), A Commentary on the United Nations
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005).
Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis.
Island Press, Washington, DC.; USA.

Muhammad Taqi-Ud-Din and Muhammad Muhsin Khan (1983),

The Noble Qur’an, English Translation, King Fahd
Complex, Madina.

120
Munich Re, NatCatservice:
http://www.unisdr.org/2005/wcdr/thematic-
sessions/presentations/session2-8/munichre.pdf (Accessed June
24, 2014).

Nick, W. Carter (1992), Disaster Management: A Disaster

Manager’s Handbook, Asian Development Bank,
Manila, Philippines.

Ntambara, Abraham (August 10, 2013) Violation of Children’s

Rights in Tanzania remains a problem in we write
forrights in Health, Human Rights, Law
Enforcement, Rights of the Child, Sexual Assault,
Tanzania.
Palliyaguru R., Amaratunga D., and Baldry D. (2014).
Constructing a holistic approach to disaster risk
reduction: the significance of focusing on
vulnerability reduction. Disasters 38 (1): 45-61.

Protection Systems in Emergencies through Community-Based

Mechanisms: A Discussion Paper, FSC.org,
London.

Retrieved on 20/11/07 from:

Save the Children (2007), Introduction to Child Protection in

Save the Children Fund (2005), Facing the Crisis: Supporting

Children through Positive Care Options, FIRST
RESORT SERIES, London

Save the Children Fund (2010), Child Protection Systems in

121
Save the Children Fund (2010), Misguided Kindness: Making
the rights decisions for Children in Emergencies,
SCF UK, London.

Save the Children Fund (2010), Misguided Kindness: Making

the rights decisions for Children in Emergencies,
SCF UK, London

Save the Children Fund (2010), Strengthening National Child

Soanes, Catherine, Sara, Hawker and Elliott, Julia (2007),

Paperback Oxford English Dictionary, Indian
Edition, Oxford University Press, New Delhi

Sudibyakto, M.S and Nsubuga Haroonah, (June 1997), National

Disaster Mitigation and Management in Indonesia,
in the Indonesia Journal of Geography, Vol. 29, No
73, -pp. 37-48, Gadjah Mada University Press,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW), (1973),
the largest Professional Association of Social
Work in North America.

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW), (1973),

the largest Professional Association of Social
Work in North America.
UNDP. (2007). Human Development report 2007/2008. Fighting
climate change: Human solidarity in a divided
world. New York; USA.

122
UNICEF (2002), Core Commitments to Children in
Emergencies.

UNISDR. (2013a). Disaster impacts/2000-2013.

http://www.preventionweb.net/files/31737_201303
12disaster20002012copy.pdf (Accessed June 24,
2014).

Virtual University for Small States of the Commonwealth

(Commonwealth of Learning) (d-n), Introduction
to Disaster Management, available at
http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc/2-5/ca/

Walhastrom M., (2013). Progress and challenges in global

disaster risk reduction. Int. J. Disaster Risk Sc. 4(1)
48-50.

Walter A. Dorn (2008, p.70) Center on International

Cooperation, in Annual Review of Global Peace
Operations 2008, Lynne Rienner Publishers,
Boulder and London

Wood, K. (2005), Vulnerability of Women in Disaster Situations.

Workplan, ToR for Child Protection sub-cluster
coordinators,

www.bing.com/modern+channels+communication/5/1/2016/11:43 am

WWW.Childhelp.org/child_abuse_facts/accessed/monday01.06.
2015at7.32p.m.

www.col.org/vussc+Saturday+26.2.2016+12.24pm.

123
WWW.CPWG.net – including documents such as the CPWG
ToR,

www.documentingreality.com/major-lower-leg-injury-being-hit-
by=bus/friday/25.12.2015/12.04pm

www.google.co.tz/floods+in+zanzibar/wed.6.5.2015 2.00 p.m.

www.google.co.tz/germanwings+plane+crash+24.03.2015

www.images.search.yahoo.com/EbolaVirus/friday
25.12.2015/5.50 and

www.google.co.tz/Ebola+Victim/friday/25.12.2015/6.03p.m.

www.imgfeatures.com/burundi+crisis/friday/25.12.2015/5.17pm

www.soschildren’svillage and www.sos-

childrenvillages.org.accessed on Friday 21.11.2014 at 10.21a.m.

www.telegraph.co.uk/volcaniceruption/friday/25.12.2015/11.41am

www.tercerainformacion.es/burundi_crisis.jpg/friday/25.12.2015
/5.23pm

www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights-accessed-
Tuesday-1.12.2016-11.38am.
www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights-accessed-
Tuesday-1.12.2016-11.38am.
www.unicef.org/disabilities/index_69386.html

124
www.youtube.com/earthquake/friday/25.12.2015/11.04am
Zanzibar Revolutionary Government Monograph, Stopping
Violence Against Children: A National Plan to Respond to
Violence Against Children in Zanzibar 2011-2015

125