Full PBL

10 LOCATION MAP
A topographic map is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional

land surface. Topographic maps are differentiated from other maps in that they show
both the horizontal and vertical positions of the terrain. Through a combination of
contour lines, colors, symbols, labels, and other graphical representations, topographic
maps portray the shapes and locations of mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, cities,
roads, bridges, and many other natural and man-made features.
From the map above, we could see that Samarahan Division contains four
administrative districts, Samarahan, Asajaya, Simunjan and Serian. The location of
our proposed highway map is from Jalan Muara Tuang and will cross Sungai Melaban
[(N5161000 – N5162500), (E2083500 – E2086000)]. It will provide us the shortest
route to cross the rural area which can save some money and time. Besides, the
sleepiness tendency of drivers also can be reduced since some part of our proposed
road will have some horizontal curve and different slope. Hence, the road will give
more advantage if compared to the existing road which is always in the flat condition.
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20 BACKGROUND and SPECIFICATIONS
2.1 Introduction
Kota Samarahan Division is one of the eleven administrative in

Sarawak. Kota Samarahan used to be part of the First Division of Sarawak but
became a separated division in 1985. Samarahan Division has a total area of
4,967.4 square kilometers. Samarahan Division contains four administrative
districts, Samarahan, Asajaya, Simunjan and Serian. It is located about 30 km
south east of Kuching. The total population is 204 900 (year 2000 census). The
population is ethnically mixed, with mostly Bidayuh, Iban, Chinese and Malay
predominating. The lands in Samarahan are mostly non-hilly, flat and low-
lying. Most of the soils are peat soils which are ideal for coconut, oil palm and
pineapples plantation.
Samarahan and its surrounding areas has long been replaced by one of
a rapidly developing growth centre which now draws its energies from
interplay of rural and urban forces. The changing landscape of Samarahan,
which has been seen in the past 10 years and the emerges of several
institutions of higher learning for an example Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Abdul Razak Teacher’s Training College and
Industrial Training Institute Samarahan (ILP), new commercial area, low cost
housing scheme, and large commercial agricultural development, is largely
attributed to good infrastructure and proximity to Kuching.
2.2 Objective
The objective of this project is to design and construct an alternative route

from Samarahan area to Kuching town to fulfill the current and future traffic
demand as well as to provide a better and comfortable route for users. With the
current road that connects Samarahan and Kuching, it will not be able to
provide smooth transaction for the users as demand for infrastructure increase
as the rapid development of Samarahan.
Furthermore, the current condition of the existing road is not in good. As

we can observe, there are many cracks and holes on the road surface that make
the traffic not smooth. As time comes, the existing road will fail to handle a
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heavy and constant traffic. Therefore, an alternative route is required to
provide a safer, faster as well as more comfortable journey to the users.
Besides that, more development can be done at Samarahan area.
2.3 Design Policy
The characteristic of the proposed road that are designed is based on

following as a guideline to design a standard road:-
i) Geometric design of Roads by Road Engineering Association of

Malaysia (Arahan Teknik Jalan - JKR)
ii) Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM)
Based on some consideration factors, we had chosen to design a rural

highway as the basic design guidelines.
2.4 Design Standard

Classification R5 - Rural highway
Trip Length Long-Medium
Network National network
ADT All Traffic Volume
Access Control Partial Access Control
2.5 Design controls
Terrain Flat Rolling

Classification Rural highway
Design Speed 90 km/h 80 km/h
ADT All Traffic Volume
K 15%
D 65%
DHV 400
The physical design of a new highway is controlled by following factors:-
a) Topography
Topography is an important factor that affects the geometric design of

a road. Based on our map, most of the terrain that found is flat terrain. There is
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a minor part of the map which is rolling terrain. Therefore, we were
accoutering a rolling terrain in this design. A rolling terrain is where the
topographical condition natural slopes consistently rise above and falls below
the road or street grade and where occasional steep slopes offer some
restrictions to normal horizontal and vertical roadway alignment. The natural
ground cross slopes in a rolling terrain are generally between 3 – 25%.
b) Design Speed
Design speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of a highway when conditions are so favorable that the
design features of the highway govern. From the Table 2, 90 km/h and 80
km/h is the minimum design speed that depends on the terrain and functional
class of the highway which is flat and rolling terrain. This design speed was
considered preferable to a higher value in order to provide greater flexibility in
selecting a route
c) Traffic Volume
The ADT is the volume that results from dividing a traffic count
obtained during a given time period by the number of days in that time period
which is 21, 107 traffic volume for year 2008.
d) Vehicle Characteristics
The highway that we design will accommodate all classes of vehicles.
Design vehicles for the selected highway including passenger cars,
motorcycles, lorries, trailers and bus.
2.6 Design Elements
Design level of service Type C

Volume capacity 0.70 – 0.80
Superelevation Rate, e (max.) 0.1% (Rural Highway)
Minimum stopping sight distance 170 m for 90km/hr , 140 m for
80km/hr
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Minimum passing sight distance (2 lane – 2 610 m for 90km/hr , 550m for
way) 80km/hr
Maximum grade, except at intersection 7.5% for 90km/hr, 7% for 80km/hr
Maximum vertical curve, K value (crest) 49
Maximum vertical curve, K value (sag) 32
Maximum fill height 4m
Maximum cut depth at centre line 2.5 m
Minimum radius 210- 230 m for 80 km/h
2.7 Lane requirements

The lane requirements for the proposed road;
Lane width 7m for 2 lane in one way
Marginal strips 0.50m
Shoulder width 3m
2.5m for both sides for roadway /1m for
Drainage width
median
Median width/type 5m/ type F (with kerbed)
Road layer 1.5m
Pavement types Flexible pavements- Asphaltic concrete
Pavement Surface
Intermediate
type
Cross slope rate 2.5 – 3.5 %
3.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENATL FEATURES
Major environmental features are one of the factors that need to be considered before
designing a road. Some of them cannot be simply demolished since there are some
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sensitive issue which might be related to these features. Each of these features is
playing some important roles to develop a balance system. Hence, it is recommended
to maintain the features as close as their original. Based on the map provided, our
major environmental features are lake, pond, rivers, forest, and cultivation.
The level of some surface areas which the road will be constructed is different
from one another. There is one region where the level is too high and the next of it is
too low such as from 8 to 3. Therefore, some parts of the area need to apply the cut
and fill method which involves the earthwork computation. The area of cut should
equal to the area of fill. If the amount of fill is insufficient, some amount of soil need
to be considered to fill the existing level. However, this method should be avoided
since the costs involved for the cut and fill will usually expensive. The end parts of
our suggested area are in a flat surface which means that the road will be in a long and
flat condition.
The road that we proposed will cross one environmental feature which is two
rivers near to the residential area. Hence, a bridge is suggested to connect one area to
the other area. Since some parts roads will block a part of the footpath, we suggest
that the footpath should be demolished. This will not give a big problem to the cost
since it is cheap if compared with demolishing some houses in the residential area.
Our proposed road can be considered as the best option since it is not affect too many
environmental features and we can almost maintain the original surrounding
condition.
4.0 ALTERNATIVES ROUTES
There are three routes of road suggested which we bring to our consideration.
We name it as route A, B and C.
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Alternative Route A
When considering the Route A, it needs to pass through some contours which will be
in rolling terrain ranging from 15 to 10. The cut and fill is more on that particular of
area as most of area surface are not flat. This route will need us to demolish the
footpath and build two bridges to cross the two rivers. The last part of this route will
be in long and flat surface. Four to five vertical curves are needed if we select this
route which is more than the two other routes and number of horizontal curves is two.
We are not selecting this route because the cost that will involved in the process of cut
and fill is high and the route is longer than the Route B.
Alternative Route B
By comparing with the Route A, Route B is more practical since the route does not
pass through any mountainous area. The work amount of cut and fill will be lesser
than the Route A for the majority of surface areas are flat. Excavation and
embankment will be more on the area where the bridges are built. One bridge is
needed and demolishes some parts of the footpath to construct the road. The final part
of the road will also be flat and long. Two horizontal and vertical curves will be
designed for this route. An advantage of choosing this route is it has the shortest
length of route among all the available routes. Hence, it will save some cost if
compared to the other two routes. Another advantage of this route is it will not pass
through the residential and private area which makes the routes more appropriate to be
selected.
Alternative Route C
As for Route C, the construction of road will involve some residential area. This will
give us some works to settle since some of the houses or building need to demolish in
order to construct a proper road. Some junction will exist after constructing the road
and the foot path also need to demolish too. The amount of cut and fill for the road is
more than the Route B but lesser than the Route A. Number of vertical curve is three
and two for horizontal curve. Since the route does not cross any river, no bridge will
need to construct for that area. We are also not selecting this route because of the
route length is more than the other two routes.
5.0 SCREENING OF ALTERNATIVES
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Proposed
Route Route A Route B Route C
Characteristic
Design Length 3420 m 3330 m 3650 m
Design Speed 80 km/h 80 km/h 80 km/h
No. of river crossed 2 2 0
No. of junction will 1 1 2
exist
No. of bridge to be 2 1 0
construct
No. of horizontal 2 2 2
curve
No. of vertical curve 4-5 2 3-4
Highest contour level 15 8 15
Curve type Simple curve Simple curve Simple curve
From the table, we can see that the most economical option is the Route B. It has the
shortest length of route to be constructed to connect one area to the other area. There
are only 1 bridge that need to build, is considered as the best option if compared to the
Route C which we will need 2 bridges and need to go through the residential area.
Number of vertical curve for the route is less and the highest value of contour also the
lowest among all the routes. Therefore, it is reasonable to design a road using this
route for the Samarahan area.
6.0 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Horizontal alignment is about designing the directional transition of the highway in a

horizontal plane. The objectives of horizontal alignment design is to provide a smooth
transition between two straight road sections to ensure road user’s safety while
traveling at a design speed. A basic horizontal alignment consists of a horizontal arc
and two transition curves forming a curve, which joins two straights. In some
situations, the transition curve may have zero length. It is called simple curve.
6.1 Minimum Radius
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The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given speed arid is
determined from the maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum allowable
side friction factor. The minimum safe radius (Rmin) can be calculated from the
standard curve formula.
Minimum radius, Rmin = v2127 (e+fs)
= 802127(0.1+0.14)
= 209.97
= 210m or 230m taken from table Arahan Teknik Jalan JKR
6.2 Horizontal Curve

In our proposed road, simple horizontal curves are being designed. A simple
horizontal curve consists of a part of a circle tangent to two straight sections on the
horizontal alignment. The radius of a curve preferably should be large enough that
drivers do not feel compelled to slow their vehicles. Besides, it is important to relate
the design speed and curvature and their joint relations with superelevation and side
friction. The design of two of the horizontal curves is shown below:
Lc
θ/ θ/2
6.2.1 Curve 1 (calculation)
Design speed = 80km/h

Maximum superelevation rate, e = 0.10 (Rural roads)
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Coefficient of side friction, fs = 0.14
Minimum radius, Rmin = v2127 (e+fs)
= 802127(0.1+0.14)
= 209.97
Design simple curve of radius 280m.
θ = 55º
Lc = Rθπ180 = 280(55)π180 = 268.78 = 269m
T = Rtan(θ/2) = 280tan(55º/2) = 145.76 = 146m
Chainage
Chainage PI = 0+550 m
Chainage PC = Chainage PI - T
= (0+550) – 146 m
= 0+404 m
Chainage PT = Chainage PC + Lc
= (0+404) + 296 m
= 0+673
Length of sub- chord
Initial sub- chord = (0+410) - (0+404)m
= 6m
General sub- chord = 10m
Final sub- chord = (0+673) – (0+670)m
= 3m
Tangential angle
α = 90π × Chord LengthR
Initial α = 90π × 6280 = 0º36’50”
General α = 90π × 10280 = 1º1’23”
Final α = 90π × 3280 = 0º18’25”
Individual length of chord, d = 2Rsinαcum
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Checking
Summation of chord length, ∑L =6+10+10+…+10+10+3
=269 m
= Lc
Checking for the angle:
θ2 = 55°2 = 27º30’00” = Cumulative tangential angle at PT
Applying these to the whole curve, the tabulated results are shown in table form:
Point Chainage Chord Individual Cumulative Individual
(m) Length tangential angle tangential length of
(L) (α) angle (αcum) chord (d)
PC 0+404 0 0º0’0’’ 0º0’0’’ 0.000
C1 0+410 6 0º36’50’’ 0º36’50’’ 6.002
C2 0+420 10 1º1’23’’ 1º38’13’’ 16.002
C3 0+430 10 1º1’23’’ 2º39’36’’ 25.997
C4 0+440 10 1º1’23’’ 3º40’59’’ 35.984
C5 0+450 10 1º1’23’’ 4º42’22’’ 45.960
C6 0+460 10 1º1’23’’ 5º43’45’’ 55.920
C7 0+470 10 1º1’23’’ 6º45’8’’ 65.863
C8 0+480 10 1º1’23’’ 7º46’31’’ 75.785
C9 0+490 10 1º1’23’’ 8º47’54’’ 85.683
C10 0+500 10 1º1’23’’ 9º49’17’’ 95.553
C11 0+510 10 1º1’23’’ 10º50’40’’ 105.393
C12 0+520 10 1º1’23’’ 11º52’3’’ 115.199
C13 0+530 10 1º1’23’’ 12º53’26’’ 124.969
C14 0+540 10 1º1’23’’ 13º54’49’’ 134.698
C15 0+550 10 1º1’23’’ 14º56’12’’ 144.385
C16 0+560 10 1º1’23’’ 15º57’35’’ 154.026
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C17 0+570 10 1º1’23’’ 16º58’58’’ 163.617
C18 0+580 10 1º1’23’’ 18º0’21’’ 173.157
C19 0+590 10 1º1’23’’ 19º1’44’’ 182.641
C20 0+600 10 1º1’23’’ 20º3’7’’ 192.066
C21 0+610 10 1º1’23’’ 21º4’30’’ 201.431
C22 0+620 10 1º1’23’’ 22º5’53’’ 210.731
C23 0+630 10 1º1’23’’ 23º7’16’’ 219.964
C24 0+640 10 1º1’23’’ 24º8’39’’ 229.127
C25 0+650 10 1º1’23’’ 25º10’2’’ 238.217
C26 0+660 10 1º1’23’’ 26º11’25’’ 247.231
C27 0+670 10 1º1’23’’ 27º12’48’’ 256.166
PT 0+673 3 0º18’25’’ 27º31’13’’ 258.830
Figure 6.1 Horizontal Curve 1
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6.2.2 Curve 2 (calculation)
Design speed = 80km/h

Maximum superelevation rate, e = 0.10 (Rural roads)
Coefficient of side friction, fs = 0.14
Minimum radius, Rmin = v2127(e+fs)
= 802127(0.1+0.14)
= 209.97
Design simple curve of radius 280m.

θ = 30º
Lc = Rθπ180 = 280(30)π180 = 146.61 = 147m
T = Rtan(θ/2) = 280tan(30º/2) = 75.03 = 75m
Chainage
Chainage PI = 1+180 m
= (1+180) – 75 m
= 1+105 m
= (1+105) + 147 m
= 1+252 m

= 5m
General sub- chord = 10m
Final sub- chord = (1+250) – (1+252)m

= 2m
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Tangential angle
Initial α = 90π × 5280 = 0º30’42”
General α = 90π × 10280 = 1º1’23”
Final α = 90π × 2280 = 0º12’17”
Checking
Summation of chord length, ∑L =5+10+10+…+10+10+2

=147 m
= Lc

θ2 = 30°2 = 15º00’00” = Cumulative tangential angle at PT

(m) Length tangential angle tangential length of
(L) (α) angle (αcum) chord (d)
PC 1+105 0 0º0’0’’ 0º0’0’’ 0.000
C1 1+110 5 0º30’42’’ 0º30’42’’ 5.001
C2 1+120 10 1º1’23’’ 1º32’5’’ 15.000
C3 1+130 10 1º1’23’’ 2º33’28’’ 24.999
C4 1+140 10 1º1’23’’ 3º34’51’’ 34.999
C5 1+150 10 1º1’23’’ 4º36’14’’ 44.998
C6 1+160 10 1º1’23’’ 5º37’37’’ 54.997
C7 1+170 10 1º1’23’’ 6º39’0’’ 64.996
C8 1+180 10 1º1’23’’ 7º40’23’’ 74.995
C9 1+190 10 1º1’23’’ 8º41’46’’ 84.994
C10 1+200 10 1º1’23’’ 9º43’9’’ 94.994
C11 2+210 10 1º1’23’’ 10º44’32’’ 104.993
C12 2+220 10 1º1’23’’ 11º45’55’’ 114.992
C13 2+230 10 1º1’23’’ 12º47’18’’ 124.991
C14 2+240 10 1º1’23’’ 13º48’41’’ 134.990
C15 2+250 10 1º1’23’’ 14º50’4’’ 144.990
PT 2+252 2 0º12’17’’ 15º2’21’’ 146.990
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Figure 6.2 Horizontal Curve 2
6.3 Sight Distance
Sight distance is the length of carriageway that the driver can see in both the
horizontal and vertical planes. Ability of a driver to see ahead is important for drivers’
safety and efficient operation of a road. Sight distance must be sufficient so that
drivers can control the speed of the vehicles to avoid crushing on an unexpected
obstacle on the travelled way. Two types of sight distance are stopping distance and
passing distance.
6.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is the length required to enable a vehicle traveling
at or near the design speed to stop before reaching an object in its path. Minimum
stopping sight distances are shown in the table below:
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Design Speed Minimum Stopping Sight Distance
(km/ hr) (m)
120 285
100 205
80 140
60 85
50 65
40 45
30 30
20 20
Source: Arahan Teknik Jalan JKR
For design speed of 80km/h, the minimum stopping sight distance required is 140m.
Stopping Sight Distance for Horizontal Curve
SSD = 0.278tv + v2254(f ± G)
= 0.278 (2.5) (80) + 802254(0.14)
= 236 m where
SSD = stopping sight distance (m)

v = initial speed (km/hr)
t= perception/reaction time (seconds)
f = stopping friction coefficient (dimensionless)
G = roadway grade (dimensionless)
Curve 1 & Curve 2
M = R (1- cos 90SSDπR ) = 280 [1- cos 90(236)π(280) ]
= 24.5 m
Where
M = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping sight distance
6.3.2 Passing Sight Distance
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On two-lane highways, drivers should be provided at intervals safe
opportunities to pass slow-moving vehicles. Failure to do so increases the risk of head
on collisions and tends to decrease highway traffic capacity. To permit safe passing, a
driver must be able to see far enough ahead to be certain that there is no danger of
collision with an oncoming vehicle or an obstruction in the highway. Passing sight
distance for use in design should be determined on the basis of the length needed to
safely complete a normal passing maneuver. The table below shows the minimum
passing sight distance ( 2-lane -2 way ):
Design Speed Minimum Passing Sight Distance

(km/ hr) (m)
120 800
100 700
80 550
60 450
50 350
40 300
30 250
20 200
Source: Arahan Teknik Jalan JKR
For design speed of 80km/h, the minimum passing sight distance required is 550m.
6.4 Superelevation
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On curves with superelevation, the roadway cross-section must be changed
from a normal crown to a superelevated section gradually over a relatively a long
distance. This distance consists of two parts, which are tangent runout and
superelevation runoff. For simple curve with no spiral, tangent runout is on tangent.
For superelevation runoff, 2/3 of superelevation runoff is on tangent and 1/3
superelevation runoff is on curve.
Length of superelevation runoff,
Lr = [3.6eG] α
= [3.6 (0.10)0.005](1.5)
= 108m
Where e = full elevation
G = relative gradient
α = adjustment factor
Length of tangent runout,

Lt = eNCed × Lr
= 0.020.10 × 108
= 21.6
= 22m
Where eNC = normal cross slope rate
ed = design superelevation rate
Lr = length of superelevation runoff
6.4.1 Curve 1
The rate of superelevation for curve 1 on every chainage is shown in the graph below.
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There are three methods of profile design in attaining superelevation:
a. revolving the pavement about the centerline profile

b. revolving the pavement about the inside edge profile
c. revolving the pavement about the outside edge profile
Here, method of revolving the pavement about the centerline profile is being used.
More detailed superelevaton diagrams on road superelevation profile at different

chainage are drawn. Figure 1 shows the superelevation profile before and entering the
curve. Figure 2 shows the supereleation profile of road when and after exiting the
curve.
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6.4.2 Curve 2
The rate of superelevation on every chainage is shown in the graph below.
More detailed superelevaton diagrams on road superelevation profile at different

chainage are drawn. Figure 1 shows the superelevation profile before and entering the
curve. Figure 2 shows the supereleation profile of road when and after exiting the
curve.
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22
23
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7.0 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The topography of the area which the road traverses has a major impact on the design
of vertical alignment. Based on the map, the topography of the proposed road is widely flat
terrain which has not much vertical curve that need to be designed.
7.1 Grades and Grade Control

Grade of a road is the vertical rise (or fall) per unit of horizontal distance. It may be
expressed as a percentage or as the ratio of one unit vertical to x units horizontal (4% or 1
in 25). Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts and changes from
minus to a plus grade should be placed in fills.
7.1.1 Maximum Grades

Criteria for maximum grades are based mainly on studies of the operating
characteristics of typical heavy trucks. Although design values have been determined and
agreed upon for many highway features, few conclusions have been reached on roadway
grades in relation to design speed. As we can see from Table 8, since our design speed is
80 km/h, the maximum grades permitted are around 4 -7 % for various combinations of
functional classification and terrain for Standard Roads.
7.1.2 Minimum Grades

Minimum grades are primarily related to the need for adequate drainage. For
uncurbed pavements that are adequately crowned to drain laterally, relatively flat or even
level profile grades may be used. With curbed pavement, the minimum longitudinal grade
in usual cases should be 0.5 percent. Usually in this type of case, a minimum of 0.3% to
0.5% grade is used.
7.2 Vertical Curve
Vertical curves are used to effect gradual changes between tangent grades at their
point of intersection. They have the properties of a simple parabolic curve - the vertical
offsets from the tangent grade vary with the square of the horizontal distance from the
curve end (point of tangency). Vertical curves that are offset below the tangent are crest
vertical curves. Those that are offset above the tangent are sag vertical curves. In
designing a vertical curve, the factors that we should consider are:-
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i. Provision of minimum stopping sight distance
ii. Adequate drainage
iii. Comfortable in operation
iv. Pleasant appearance
7.2.1 Calculation
PVC (0+000)
3m G1
G2
PVI (0+100) PVT (0+200)
10m 7m
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SAG VERTICAL CURVE
SAG VERTICAL CURVE

From the diagram, L = 200m.
SSD = 0.278tV+ V2254(f±G)

Here: G1 = -3%, G2 = 0, V = 90km/h, t = 2.5sec, and f = 0.29
SSD = 0.278×2.5×90 + 902254(0.29±0)

= 172.515m
∴ SSD < L = 172.515m < 200m.
Therefore;
Station of PVC = 0+000m
Station of PVI = 0+100m
Station of PVT = 0+200m
Elevation of PVC = 10m
Elevation of PVI = 7m
Elevation of PVT = 7m
xm = g1 LA where A = 3% @ 0.03 y = Ax2200L

= 3% ×2003% = 3×2002200×200
= 200m = 3m
Ex = EPVC +G1x +Ax22L
= 10 + (-0.03)(200) + 0.03×20022×200
= 7m.
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Calculation for sag vertical curve
Station x EPVC + G1x y = Ax22L Ex

0+000 0 10 0 10
0+010 10 9.7 0.0075 9.7075
0+020 20 9.4 0.03 9.43
0+030 30 9.1 0.0675 9.1675
0+040 40 8.8 0.12 8.92
0+050 50 8.5 0.1875 8.6875
0+060 60 8.2 0.27 8.47
0+070 70 7.9 0.3675 8.2675
0+080 80 7.6 0.48 8.08
0+090 90 7.3 0.6075 7.9075
0+100 100 7 0.75 7.75
0+110 110 6.7 0.9075 7.6075
0+120 120 6.4 1.08 7.48
0+130 130 6.1 1.2675 7.3675
0+140 140 5.8 1.47 7.27
0+150 150 5.5 1.6875 7.1875
0+160 160 5.2 1.92 7.12
0+170 170 4.9 2.1675 7.0675
0+180 180 4.6 2.43 7.03
0+190 190 4.3 2.7075 7.0075
0+200 200 4 3 7
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8.0 COORDINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
Horizontal and vertical alignment should complement each other and be considered in
combination. Topography and right-of-way are usually the controlling features
affecting the coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment. The combination of
design elements must meet the minimum requirements of either the horizontal or
vertical design element, whichever controls the sight distance.
Generally, horizontal and vertical alignment are designed separately to meet certain
criteria and then brought together, assuming that design consistency will be
maintained. The following should be considered in the coordination of horizontal and
vertical alignment.
i) Balance
Curvature and grades should be in proper balance.
ii) Coordination
Vertical curvature superimposed upon horizontal curvature generally results in a
more pleasing appearance and reduces the number of sight distance restrictions.
iii) Crest Vertical Curves and Sag Vertical Curves

Sharp horizontal curves should not be introduced at or near the low point of
pronounced crest or sag vertical curves. For crest curves, this is undesirable
because the driver cannot perceive the horizontal change in alignment, especially
at night when the headlight beams project straight ahead the space.
iv) Passing Sight Distance

In some cases, the need for frequent passing opportunities and a higher percentage
of passing sight distance may supersede the desirability of combining horizontal
and vertical alignment. In these cases, it may be necessary to provide long tangent
sections to secure sufficient passing sight distance.
v) Intersections
At intersections, horizontal and vertical alignment should be as flat as practical to
provide designs which produce sufficient sight distance and gradients for vehicles
to slow or stop.
vi) Divided Highways

On divided facilities with wide medians, it is frequently advantageous to provide
independent alignments for the two 1-way roadways. Where traffic justifies a
divided facility, a superior design with minimal additional cost generally can
result from the use of independent alignments.
vii) Residential Areas
29
Design the alignment to minimize nuisance factors to neighborhoods. Minor
adjustment to the horizontal or vertical alignment may increase the buffer zone
between the highway and residential areas.
viii) Aesthetics
Design the alignment to enhance the attractive scenic views of rivers, rock
formations, parks, golf courses, etc. The highway should head into rather than
away from those views that are considered to be aesthetically pleasing. The
highway should fall towards those features of interest at a low elevation and rise
towards those features which are best seen from below or in silhouette against the
sky.
9.0 CROSS SECTION
30
The cross section of the road is very important in designing a road. It is important in
for assumption for the measurements of earthwork. Cross section calculation shows us
the approximate values that we need to excavate or embank in order to reach a certain
level of the proposed road. Cross section reviews the design of the elements of the
road such as traveled ways, shoulders, drainage and so on.
While designing the proposed road, the side slope that chosen for the cross section is
3:1 which based on JKR Standard. The number of lanes that we designed is 2 way 4
lanes. According to the JKR Standard, the carriageway of the road is 7m for 1 way 2
lane. As a result, the total carriageway is 14 m for 2 way 4 lane. 0.5 m is taken as the
marginal strips.
The shoulder is usually slightly narrower than a full traffic lane in order to let the
water flows to the drainage. The slope of the shoulder is 5 %. The width for the
shoulder that designed is 3 m.
Area of the cross section is calculated by using cross-multiplied area method. The
areas that are calculated will determine whether excavation or embankment is needed.
The area is calculated by coordinate of the proposed road and coordinate of the
existing ground.
Figure 9.1 is the detailed cross section of our proposed road.
31
(CROSS SECTION)
32
Station 0 + 000
Station 0 + 000
Profile elevation 0 10
Side Slope X:1 3
Top of Proposed earth surface:

Lt pt on fill slope -25 19.26
Lt shoulder -10 9.675
Lt edge pvt -7 9.825
Lt bot. edge -7 8.325
Ctr bot. edge 0 8.5
Rt bot. edge 7 8.325
Rt edge pvt 7 9.825
Rt shoulder 10 9.675
Rt pt on fill slope 25 19.26
Existing Ground: -40 10

-20 10
0 10
20 10
40 10
35
-11 10
-100 Lt shoulder -10 9.675 -106.425
-67.725 Lt edge pvt -7 9.825 -98.25
-68.775 Lt bot. edge -7 8.325 -58.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 8.5 -59.5
59.5 Rt bot. edge 7 8.325 0
58.275 Rt edge pvt 7 9.825 68.775
98.25 Rt shoulder 10 9.675 67.725
116.1 12 10 100
0 0 10 120
-110 -11 10 0
-14.375 34.05
Area Cut 24.2125
36
Station 0 +100
-11 7.1
Station 100 -71 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -73.425
profile elevation 0 8 -46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
Side Slope X:1 3 0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
Top of Proposed earth surface: 37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
Lt pt on fill slope -25 11.675 68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
Lt shoulder -10 6.675 73.425 11 7.1 71
Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 0 0 7 77
Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -77 -11 7.1 0
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -25.05 25.05
Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 Area Cut 25.05
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
Existing Ground: -40 9.9 Station 0+200

-20 7.5
0 7 Station 0+ 200
20 7.35 profile elevation 0 7
40 7.69
Side Slope X:1 3

36
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -105 -14 7.9 0
Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 -41.025 41.025
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 Area Cut 41.025
Existing Ground: -40 9 Station 0+300

-20 8
0 7.5 Station 0 + 300
20 8 profile elevation 0 7
40 9
Side Slope X:1 3

Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-14 7.9
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
-79 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -93.45
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
-20 9
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
0 8
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
20 8.3
93.45 14 7.9 79
40 8.2
0 0 7.5 105
37
-18 8.9 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-89 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -120.15 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275 Rt shoulder 10 6.675
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5 Rt pt on fill slope 25 11.675
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
Existing Ground: -40 8.5
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
-20 8.2
100.125 15 8.1 81
0 8
0 0 8 120
20 8.5
-144 -18 8.9 0
40 8.2
-83.35 31.325
Area Cut 57.3375
-15 8.05
Station 0+400 -80.5 Lt shoulder -10 5.66 -84.9
-39.62 Lt edge pvt -7 6.16 -61.6
Station 0 + 400 -43.12 Lt bot. edge -7 4.66 -32.62
profile elevation 0 7 0 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.9 -34.3
34.3 Rt bot. edge 7 4.66 0
Side Slope X:1 3 32.62 Rt edge pvt 7 6.16 43.12
61.6 Rt shoulder 10 5.66 39.62
38
84.9 15 8.2 82 -18 20 9 9.3
0 0 8 120 -90 Lt shoulder -10 406.675 -120.15
9.8
-120 -15 8.05 0 -46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
-69.82 71.32 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
Area Cut 70.57 0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
Station 0+500 113.475 17 9.1 91
0 0 9 153
Station 0+ 500 -162 -18 9 0
profile elevation 0 7 -89 74.325
Area Cut 81.6625
Side Slope X:1 3

Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825

-20 9.2
0 9
39
Station 0+600
Station 0 + 600 -18 9

profile elevation 0 7 -90 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -120.15
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
Side Slope X:1 3 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
Top of Proposed earth surface: 38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
Lt pt on fill slope -25 11.675 37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
Lt shoulder -10 6.675 68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
120.15 18 9.1 91
0 0 9 162
-162 -18 9 0
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-82.325 83.325
Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 Area Cut 82.825
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825

-20 9.2
Station 0 + 700
0 9
profile elevation 0 7
20 9.4
40 9.6
Side Slope X:1 3

40
Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -89 81.325
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 Area Cut 85.1625
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825

-20 9
0 9 Station 800
20 9.1 profile elevation 0 7
40 9.3
Side Slope X:1 3

-18 9 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325
-90 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -120.15 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5 Rt shoulder 10 6.675
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0 Rt pt on fill slope 25 11.675
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725 Existing Ground: -40 8.9
113.475 17 9.8 98 -20 8.4
0 0 9 153 0 8.5
-162 -18 9 0 20 8.2
41
40 8
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-16 8.5 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
-85 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -106.8 Rt shoulder 10 6.675
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25 Rt pt on fill slope 25 11.675
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5 Existing Ground: -40 9
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0 -20 8.5
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775 0 8.6
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725 20 8.6
93.45 14 8.4 84 40 8
0 0 9 126
-144 -16 8.5 0
-86.025 53.675
Area Cut 69.85
Station 0+900
Station 0 + 900
Side Slope X:1 3
42
Rt bot. edge -15 7 8.5 5.325
Rt edge
-85pvt Lt shoulder -10 76.675 6.825
-100.125
Rt-46.725
shoulderLt edge pvt -7 106.825 6.675 -68.25
Rt-47.775
pt on fillLt
slope
bot. edge -7 255.325 11.675
-37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
Existing
38.5Ground:
Rt bot. edge 7 -405.325 9.4 0
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 -206.825 8.9
47.775
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 06.675 46.725
8.9
100.12 20 8.4
5 15 40 8.5 8.2 85
0 0 8.6 129
-129 -15 8.5 0
-64.35 64.35
Area Cut 64.35
Station 1+000
Station 1000
Side Slope X:1 3

-17 9
Top of Proposed earth surface: -90 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -113.475
Lt pt on fill slope -25 11.675 -46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
43
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
100.125 15 8.5 85 Existing Ground: -40 5.3
0 0 8.9 133.5 -20 5.2
-151.3 -17 9 0 0 4.3
-91.65 55.5 20 4.1
Area Cut 73.575 40 4.2
Station 1+100 -15 5

-50 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -100.125
Station 1 +100 -46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
Profile elevation 0 7 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
Side Slope X:1 3 38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
Top of Proposed earth
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
surface:
120.15 18 4.1 41
0 0 4.3 77.4
-64.5 -15 5 0
55.175 -31.25
Area Fill 43.21
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
Rt shoulder 10 6.675 Station 1+200
44
Station 1+200 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
Profile elevation 0 7 0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
Side Slope X:1 3
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
126.825 19 4.1 41
Lt pt on fill slope -25 1.675 0 0 4.3 81.7
Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -81.7 -19 3.8 0
Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 56.65 -53.65
Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 Area Fill 55.15
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
Rt pt on fill slope 25 1.675 Station 1+300

-20 3.8 Profile elevation 0 7
0 4.3
20 4.1 Side Slope X:1 3
40 3.9

Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-19 3.8
-38 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -126.825
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
45
Station 1+400
0 4.3
40 4
surface:

-19 3.8 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-38 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -126.825 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
-20 3.5
120.15 18 4.2 42
0 3
0 0 4.3 77.4
20 4
-81.7 -19 3.8 0
40 4
49.975 -56.95
Area Fill 53.46
46
-20 3.5 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325
-35 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -133.5 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5 Rt shoulder 10 6.675
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0 Rt pt on fill slope 25 1.675
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725 Existing Ground: -40 3.7
120.15 18 3.9 39 -20 3.6
0 0 3 54 0 3
-60 -20 3.5 0 20 3.9
74.675 -90.025 40 4.1
Area Fill 82.35
Station 1+500
Station 1+500 -19 3.6

Profile elevation 0 7 -36 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -126.825
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
Side Slope X:1 3 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
Top of Proposed earth 38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0
surface: 37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
Lt pt on fill slope -25 1.675 126.825 19 3.8 38
47
0 0 3 57 20 4.8
-57 -19 3.6 0 40 5.5
83.35 -81.35
Area Fill 82.35
Station 1+600 -20 3.7

-37 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -133.5
Station 0 -46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
Profile elevation 1+600 7 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
Top of Proposed earth 68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
surface: 106.8 16 4.7 47
0 0 4 64
Lt pt on fill slope -25 1.675 -80 -20 3.7 0
Lt shoulder -10 6.675 39.325 -72.025
Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 Area Fill 55.675
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
Station 1+700
-20 3.6 Station 0
0 4 Profile elevation 1+700 7
48
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
Top of Proposed earth 68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
surface: 93.45 14 4.7 47
0 0 4 56
Lt pt on fill slope -25 1.675 -76 -19 3.8 0
Lt shoulder -10 6.675 28.975 -73.35
Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 Area Fill 51.163
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825

0 4
40 5.4
surface:

-19 3.8 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825
-38 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -126.825 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325
49
Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 Station 1+900
-20 3.5 Side Slope X:1 3
0 4
20 4.3 surface:
40 5.3
Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
-20 3.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325
-35 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -133.5 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675
-47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275 Rt pt on fill slope 25 1.675
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0 Existing Ground: -40 3.5
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775 -20 3.7
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725 0 4
113.475 17 4.2 42 20 4.3
0 0 4 68 40 5.3
-80 -20 3.5 0
48 -73.025
Area Fill 60.513
50
-19 3.8 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825
-38 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -126.825 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325
-46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825
38.5 Rt bot. edge 7 5.325 0 Rt shoulder 10 6.675
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775 Rt pt on fill slope 25 1.675
68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
113.475 17 4.2 42 Existing Ground: -40 4.4
0 0 4 68 -20 4.6
-76 -19 3.8 0 0 5
49 -66.35 20 4.6
Area Fill 57.675 40 5.1
Station 2+000 -16 4.7

-47 Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -106.8
Station 2+000 -46.725 Lt edge pvt -7 6.825 -68.25
Profile elevation 0 7 -47.775 Lt bot. edge -7 5.325 -37.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 5.5 -38.5
37.275 Rt edge pvt 7 6.825 47.775
surface: 68.25 Rt shoulder 10 6.675 46.725
106.8 16 4.8 48
Lt pt on fill slope -25 1.675 0 0 4 64
Lt shoulder -10 6.675 -64 -16 4.7 0
51
45.325 -44.325 -39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
Area Fill 44.825 -40.775 -7 5 -35
-60 -12 5 -35
-190.5 -196.35
Area 1 Fill 2.925
Station 2+100 -7 5
-35 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275
Station 2+100 0 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5 -31.5
Profile elevation 0 6 31.5 Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 0
30.275 7 5 35
Side Slope X:1 3 0 0 5 35
-35 -7 5 0
Top of Proposed earth surface: -8.225 8.225
Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675 Area 2 Cut 8.225
Lt shoulder -10 5.675 7 5
Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 35 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5 68.1 12 5 50
Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 35 7 5 60
Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 196.35 190.5
Rt shoulder 10 5.675 Area 3 Fill 2.925

-20 5
0 5 Station 2+200
20 5
40 4.9 Station 2+200
-12 5 Side Slope X:1 3

-50 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
52
Top of Proposed earth surface: -35 -7 5 0
Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675 -8.225 7.525
Lt shoulder -10 5.675 Area Cut 7.875
Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 7 4.9
Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 68.1 12 4.9 49
Rt shoulder 10 5.675 34.3 7 4.9 58.8
Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675 194.95 188.3
Area Fill 3.325
-20 4.9
0 5
20 4.8
40 4.6 Station 2+300
Station 2+300
-49 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
-39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25 Side Slope X:1 3
-40.775 -7 5 -35
-60 -12 4.9 -34.3 Top of Proposed earth surface:
-189.5 -195.65 Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675
Area Fill 3.075 Lt shoulder -10 5.675
\\ Lt edge pvt -7 5.825
-7 5 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325
-35 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5 -31.5 Rt bot. edge 7 4.325
31.5 Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 0 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825
30.275 7 4.9 34.3 Rt shoulder 10 5.675
0 0 5 35 Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675
53
-20 4.9
0 5
20 4.8
40 5 Station 2+400
Station 2+400
-49 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
-40.775 -7 5 -35
-60 -12 4.9 -34.3 Top of Proposed earth surface:
Area 1 Fill 3.075 Lt shoulder -10 5.675
-7 5 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325
-35 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5
30.275 7 4.9 34.3 Rt shoulder 10 5.675
-35 -7 5 0
-8.225 7.525 Existing Ground: -40 4.9
Area 2 Cut 7.875 -20 4.7
0 5
7 4.9 20 4.6
34.3 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775 40 4.5
58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
68.1 12 4.8 48
-12 4.8
33.6 7 4.9 58.8
-48 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
194.25 187.3
-39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
Area 3 Fill 3.475
-40.775 -7 4.9 -34.3
54
-58.8 -12 4.8 -33.6 Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675
-187.3 -194.25 Lt shoulder -10 5.675
Area 1 Fill 3.475 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825
-7 4.9 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5
30.275 7 4.9 34.3 Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675
0 0 5 35
-35 -7 4.9 0 Existing Ground: -40 4.5
-7.525 7.525 -20 4.8
Area 2 Cut 7.525 0 5
20 4.7
7 4.9 40 4.5
34.3 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
68.1 12 4.7 47 -12 4.9
32.9 7 4.9 58.8 -49 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
193.55 186.3 -39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
Area 3 Fill 3.625 -40.775 -7 5 -35
-60 -12 4.9 -34.3
-189.5 -195.65
Area 1 Fill 3.075
Station 2+500 -7 5
-35 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275
30.275 7 4.9 34.3
-35 -7 5 0
55
-8.225 7.525 -20 5
Area 2 Cut 7.875 0 5
20 5
7 4.9 40 4.9
34.3 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
68.1 12 4.8 48 -12 5
33.6 7 4.9 58.8 -50 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
194.25 187.3 -39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
Area 3 Fill 3.475 -40.775 -7 5 -35
-60 -12 5 -35
-190.5 -196.35
Area 1 Fill 2.925
Station 2+600 -7 5
-35 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275
30.275 7 5 35
-35 -7 5 0
Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 7 5
Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 35 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5 58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 68.1 12 5 50
Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 35 7 5 60
Rt shoulder 10 5.675 196.35 190.5
Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675 Area 3 Fill 2.925
56
Area 1 Fill 3.475
Station 2+700 -7 4.9

-34.3 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275
Station 2700 0 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5 -31.5
30.275 7 4.9 34.3
-35 -7 4.9 0
Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 7 4.9
Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 34.3 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 68.1 12 4.8 48
Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 33.6 7 4.9 58.8
Rt shoulder 10 5.675 194.25 187.3
Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675 Area 3 Fill 3.475
-20 4.7
0 5
20 4.8 Station 2+800
40 4.9
Station 2+800
-12 4.8
-48 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1 Side Slope X:1 3
-39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
-40.775 -7 4.9 -34.3 Top of Proposed earth surface:
-58.8 -12 4.8 -33.6 Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675
-187.3 -194.25 Lt shoulder -10 5.675
57
Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 7 4.9
Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 68.1 12 4.8 48
Rt shoulder 10 5.675 33.6 7 4.9 58.8
Area Fill 3.475
-20 4.8
0 5
20 4.8
40 4.9 Station 2+900
Station 2+900
-49 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
-40.775 -7 4.9 -34.3
Area Fill 2.975 Lt shoulder -10 5.675
-7 4.9 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325
-34.3 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5
30.275 7 4.9 34.3 Rt shoulder 10 5.675
-35 -7 4.9 0
-7.525 7.525 Existing Ground: -40 4.8
Area Cut 7.525 -20 4.5
0 5
58
20 4.5 Station 3+000
40 4.9
Station 3+000
-12.2 4.7
-47 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -69.235 Side Slope X:1 3
-39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
-58.56 -12.2 4.8 -33.6 Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675
-186.06 -194.685 Lt shoulder -10 5.675
Area 1 Fill 4.313 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825
-7 4.8 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5
30.275 7 4.8 33.6 Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675
0 0 5 35
-35 -7 4.8 0 Existing Ground: -40 4.8
-6.825 6.825 -20 4.7
Area 2 Cut 6.825 0 5
20 5
7 4.8 40 4.9
33.6 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
69.235 12.2 4.7 47 -48 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.6675
32.9 7 4.8 58.56 -39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
193.985 186.06 -40.775 -7 4.9 -34.3
Area 3 Fill 3.963 -59.29 -12.1 4.8 -33.6
-187.79 -194.818
Area 1 Fill 3.514
59
-7 4.9 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5
30.275 7 5 35 Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675
0 0 5 35
-35 -7 4.9 0 Existing Ground: -40 4.9
-7.525 8.225 -20 5
Area 2 Cut 7.875 0 5
20 4.7
7 5 40 4.6
35 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725
68.1 12 5 50 -12 5
35 7 5 60 -50 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
196.35 190.5 -39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
Area 3 Fill 2.925 -40.775 -7 5 -35
-60 -12 5 -35
-190.5 -196.35
Area 1 Fill 2.925
Station 3+100 -7 5
-35 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275
30.275 7 4.9 34.3
-35 -7 5 0
Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 7 4.9
60
34.3 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775 -12.1 4.8
58.25 Rt shoulder 10 5.675 39.725 -48 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.6675
68.1 12 4.8 48 -39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
33.6 7 4.9 58.8 -40.775 -7 4.9 -34.3
194.25 187.3 -59.29 -12.1 4.8 -33.6
Area 3 Fill 3.475 -187.79 -194.818
Area Fill 3.514
Station 3+200 -7 4.9

-34.3 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275
30.275 7 5 35
-35 -7 4.9 0
Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675 Area Cut 7.175
Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 7 5
Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 35 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 68.1 12 5 50
Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 35 7 5 60
Rt shoulder 10 5.675 196.35 190.5
Rt pt on fill slope 25 0.675 Area Fill 2.925
-20 4.7
0 5
20 5 Station 3+300
40 4.9
Station 3+300
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31.5 Rt bot. edge 7 4.325 0
Side Slope X:1 3 30.275 7 5 35
0 0 5 35
Top of Proposed earth surface: -35 -7 5 0
Lt pt on fill slope -25 0.675 -8.225 8.225
Lt shoulder -10 5.675 Area Cut 8.225
Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 7 5
Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5 35 Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 40.775
Rt edge pvt 7 5.825 68.1 12 5 50
Rt shoulder 10 5.675 35 7 5 60
Area Fill 2.925
-20 5
0 5
20 5
40 4.9
-12 5
-50 Lt shoulder -10 5.675 -68.1
-39.725 Lt edge pvt -7 5.825 -58.25
-40.775 -7 5 -35
-60 -12 5 -35
-190.5 -196.35
Area Fill 2.925
-7 5
-35 Lt bot. edge -7 4.325 -30.275
0 Ctr bot. edge 0 4.5 -31.5
62
10.0 EARTHWORK COMPUTATION
Earthwork computation is one of the important aspects in designing a road in order to determine the amount of the earthwork that
necessary on a project. Earthwork computations are includes excavation of the existing ground and embank till the level of the proposed
road.
Earthwork computation can be determined by calculating the area of the cross section of the road in every 100 m in order to know the
area calculated is cut or fill. Cut and fill are the terms that usually used to indicate the area should be excavate or embank.
After determining the area of cut and fill of the cross section, Mass Haul Diagram is plotted. Mass Haul Diagram is a diagram that
indicates the cumulative volumes of cut and fills along the alignment. The rising of the line indicates excavation while the descending
lines indicates embankment that needed.
Therefore, based on the earthwork computation for our proposed road is almost equal since the final coordinate is greater 2% from the
initial ordinate. Therefore, excess soil is not needed since the amount of soil that we cut is slightly greater than the amount that we need
to fill.
63
64
Area of cross section (Sq m) Average area (Sq m) Volume
Station EMB x 1.1 Excess Mass curve ordinate
EXC EMB EXC EMB EXC EMB
0+000 24.375 0 0
24.7125 0 2471.25 0 -2471.25 -2471.25
0+100 25.05 0
33.0375 0 3303.75 0 -3303.75 -5775
0+200 41.025 0 0
49.1815 0 4918.15 0 -4918.15 -10693.15
0+300 57.338 0 0
54.469 0 5446.9 0 -5446.9 -16140.05
0+400 51.6 0 0
66.6315 0 6663.15 0 -6663.15 -22803.2
0+500 81.663 0 0
82.744 0 8274.4 0 -8274.4 -31077.6
0+600 83.825 0 0
82.494 0 8249.4 0 -8249.4 -39327
0+700 81.163 0 0
75.5065 0 7550.65 0 -7550.65 -46877.65
0+800 69.85 0 0
67.1 0 6710 0 -6710 -53587.65
0+900 64.35 0 0
68.9625 0 6896.25 0 -6896.25 -60483.9
1+000 73.575 0 0
36.7875 23.7655 3678.75 2376.55 -1302.2 -61786.1
1+100 0 43.21 47.531
0 54.098 0 5409.8 5409.8 -56376.3
1+200 0 55.15 60.665
0 59.7355 0 5973.55 5973.55 -50402.75
1+300 0 53.46 58.806
0 74.6955 0 7469.55 7469.55 -42933.2
1+400 0 82.35 90.585
0 102.2175 0 10221.75 10221.75 -32711.45
1+500 0 103.5 113.85
0 80.6905 0 8069.05 8069.05 -24642.4
1+600 0 55.675 61.2425
0 63.9034 0 6390.34 6390.34 -18252.06
1+700 0 51.163 56.2793
0 61.4218 0 6142.18 6142.18 -12109.88
65
66
11.0 PAVEMENT DESIGN
The road pavement is the actual surface on which the vehicles will travel. The
purposes of the pavement are to provide friction for the vehicles and to transfer
normal stresses to the underlying soils. The condition and adequacy of the highway is
often judged by the smoothness or roughness of the pavement. The pavement life is
substantially affected by the number of heavy load repetitions applied such as trucks,
buses trailers and equipment.
There are several types of pavement design that commonly used in the constructions
of the roadway which is
i) Flexible Pavement
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) and also known as bituminous concrete). A
flexible pavement structure that consists of the following layers – the sub-
base, base course, intermediate course, surface course, and where
determined necessary, a friction course.
ii) Rigid Pavement

A rigid pavement is constructed of Portland cement concrete (PCC) that
will be placed at the sub base. PCC pavement can be constructed either
plain and jointed or continuously reinforced.
iii) Composite Pavement

A composite pavement consists of one or more HMA pavement courses
over a PCC base.
11.1 Calculation
67
Given data for flexible pavement design:
• Reliability R =99%
• Standard Deviation So =0.3
• ESAL Yearly = 500,000
• Effective roadbed soil Resilient Modulus MR=10,000psi
• ∆PSI =1.5
• HMA Elastic modulus =400,000
• Untreated granular base course CBR =60
• Untreated granular subbase course CBR =25
• Design the road using AASHTO layered analysis method 1993 for the 15
years design period. Traffic growth in percentage = 3%
The steps involved in designing a flexible pavement using the AASHTO design
equations are as follows:
1) Select a level of reliability and the overall standard deviation
Reliability R =99% (Given)
2) Overall standard deviation

Standard Deviation So =0.3 (Given)
3) Determine the pavement structural number

Structural number (SN) is an index value that combines layer thicknesses,
structural layer coefficients, and drainage coefficients. The structural number
above the subgrade, subbase, and base layers are determined.
68
Figure 1.1 Design chart for pavements based on using mean values for each input
Using monograph,
Structural Number, SN3 = 4.75 in
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4) Structural layer coefficients
Figure 1.3 Chart for estimating structural layer coefficient of dense-graded asphalt
concrete based on the elastic (resilient) modulus
Hot Mix Asphalt elastic modulus EAC = 400,000lb/in2

Structural layer coefficient, a1 = 0.42
70
Figure 1.4 Correlation charts for estimating resilient modulus of bases
Untreated Granular base course CBR = 50
Mr (for SN2) = 14,000 lb/in2
71
Figure 1.4 Variation of granular subbase coefficient a3 with various subbase strength
parameters
Untreated Granular Subbase Course CBR = 20
Mr = 14,000 lb/in2
5) Drainage coefficient
m2 = m3 = 1.0
6) Determine the layer thickness

From Figure 1.1,
SN1 = 3.4
SN2 = 4.3
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SN1 ≤ a1D1
3.4 ≤ 0.42D1
D1 ≥ 8.095
D1 = 8.5 in (Rounded to the next 0.5 in)
SN2 ≤ a1D1 + a2D2m2

4.3 ≤ 0.42 (8.5) + 0.124D2 (1.0)
D2 ≥ 5.887
D2 = 6 in (Rounded to the next 1 in)
SN3 ≤ a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3

4.75 ≤ 0.42 (8.5) + 0.124(6) (1.0) + 0.103D3 (1.0)
D3 ≥ 4.233
D3 = 5 in (Rounded to the next 1 in)
Layer thickness:
D1 = 8.5 in = 21.59 cm
D2 = 6 in = 15.24 cm
D3 = 5 in = 12.7 cm
Total Pavement thickness = 21.59 cm+15.24 cm+12.7 cm

Dt = 49.53 cm
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12.0 BRIDGE
A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical
obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges
may vary depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where
the bridge is constructed.
There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges,
suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and truss bridges. The type of the bridge that
will be building at the proposed highway project is the suspension bridge. This type of
bridge is consisting of two main components. The first components are the deck and
the second components are the caisson mechanism that transfers the load to the
appropriate direction.
The deck component held the road pavement and drainage which it can be easily see
when a user used the bridge. The second component which is the caisson component
is the main parts that make the bridge. The caisson components need to be design
perfectly and it also have small deflection in term of structure because the caissons
hold the cable that act just like human vain in our body. Basically if the cable fail to
hold the load that were produced from the deck component, the bridge will simply
fail.
The propose bridge later that will be build having the estimation value of contract
approximately RM 1,000, 000.00. This value were pick because due to the economic
crises now which affected the price of construction material. The structure will have
the time estimation of 19 week to finish. If some problems exist during the building
process, the expansion time lines were used. The structures have the extension
timeline to build of 80 days. If the structure still not finishes after the 80 days of
timeline expansion, a fine was pays to the project owner in order to coop with the loss
that they have. The value of fine that is needed to pay will be discussed later with the
project owner.
They are 3 types of design that were made during the brainstorming process with the
client. The overview of the design can be summarized as table below:-
Isometric view
74
Design 1
Design 2
Design 3
75
The type of bridge that was chosen by the client is the third one due to the geographic
conditions of the site. The bridge will connect simultaneity two rivers using four
column designs. The first two column (refer to the picture above) will be sitting on the
first river and the last two column will be sitting at the second river. The bridge
abutment will be build near both rivers. The column of the abutment that will be the
starting point and the end points of the caisson will be build using the deep earth
technique near the river.
The overview bridge design that the client chose are as follow;
The top view
The side view
The front view
Detail of the Chosen Bridge
The specifications of the bridge are as follow
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– Height = 6 meter from the ground level (height of water level are 5 meter)
– Width = as same as the width of the road
– Length = 120 meter
– Type of embankment = deep embankment
– Cable dimension = 250 millimetre consist of 6 millimetre cable tie in together
– Cable material = high anti rust polycarbonate steel
– Distance of embankments from the road = 6 meter
– Location in maps = chainage 0 +700 to 0 +092
The cable that will be installing at the bridge is the same cables that were used by the
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan. This cable is special because it consists of stack of 6
millimetres that were tie using ribbon tie technique. The cables were covered using
high polymer rubber that will cover the cable from rust and weather effect.
Detail Explanation
A bridge's structural efficiency may be considered to be the ratio of load carried to

bridge mass, given a specific set of material types. This bridge later than were applied
a progressive addition of load at the centre of the span in order to test it to destruction.
The bridge taking the greatest load is by this test the most structurally efficient.
Bridges employing only compression are relatively inefficient structurally, but may be
highly cost efficient where suitable materials are available near the site and the cost of
labour is low. For long spans like the suspension bridge that were choose by the
client, trusses or box beams are usually most economical, while in some cases, the
appearance of the bridge may be more important than its cost efficiency and this
depend by the client itself.
This bridge will have the lifespan of 50 year. During the lifespan, the bridge will carry
some changes and evolution depending to the need.
13.0 CULVERT
A culvert is a conduit used to enclose a flowing body of water. It may be used to

allow water to pass underneath a road, railway, or embankment for example. Culverts
can be made of many different materials; steel, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and concrete
are the most common. Formerly, construction of stone culverts was common.
Culverts come in many shapes and sizes, including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed,
pear-shaped, and box. They vary from the small drainage culverts found on highways
77
and driveways to large diameter structures on significant waterways or supporting
large water control works. The latter can comprise large engineering projects.
There are three primary materials that culverts are made out of: steel, precast concrete
and polymer (plastic). They can also be built as a hybrid between steel and concrete,
for example an open-bottom corrugated steel structure on concrete footings, or a
corrugated steel structure with a concrete "collar" around the ends.
Design Detail
The culvert that was chosen is the box culvert due to the easy installation process. The
dimension of culvert is three meters times three meters. This dimension were choose
because the water level of the drainage are one meters and the estimation of rising
water level are 0.5 meters. This is basically small increasing because the amount was
depending on the water level of Sungai Melaban.
This culvert will be build from pre cast concrete and steel that will be piece together
at the factory nearby. The finishing pre cast concrete later will be move to the site
using crane and a machine called worm movers. A worm movers were basically a
carrier machine similar to what National Agencies of Space and Aviation (NASA) at
Huston America were used to transport the spaceship to the launch pad.
The isometric view of culvert design is as follow;
78
This culvert design was classified as head loss culvert design. A minimum energy loss
culvert or waterway is a structure designed with the concept of minimum head loss.
The flow in the approach channel is contracted through a streamlined inlet into the
barrel where the channel width is small, and then it is expanded in a streamlined outlet
before being finally released into the downstream natural channel. Both the inlet and
outlet must be streamlined to avoid significant form losses. The barrel invert is often
lowered to increase the discharge capacity.
EXTEND VIEW OF CULVERT DESIGN
Position View
Top
view
79
Side
view
Front
view
– Note that this drawing were not to scale
Detail Specification
The propose culvert design that will be build were estimate to have the value of
contract approximately RM 400, 000.00 for 2 unit. The structure will have the time
estimation of 8 week to finish in term of making the prefabricated concrete slap in
factory. If some problems exist during the building prefab process, the expansion time
lines were used. The structures have the extension timeline to build of 30 days. If the
structure still not finishes after the 30 days of timeline expansion, a fine was pays to
the project owner in order to coop with the loss that they have. The value of fine that
was needed to pay will be discussed later with the project owner.
The specifications of the culvert are as follow;
– Height = 3 meter
– Width = 3 meter
– Length = 25 meter
– Material for pre cast concrete = standard Portland cement
80
– Location of the culvert installation = Chainage 0 + 900 and Chainage 1 + 400
The pre cast concrete were handling by Utama Concrete Industries that were located
at Kuching. The small factory will be build based on Jabatan Kerja Raya specification
in order to reduce the green house effect in making the concrete. A officer from
Ministry of Health Department will be ask to accumulate the health level in the
factory in order to prevent any disease that causing by the cement chemical
The precast concrete slap will later be assembled at the site by a company named
Chengal Jati Construction Sdn. Bhd. The precast were assembling using the technique
that was popular by the housing estate in USA named the snap technique. The Snap
technique was basically like assembling a Lego set but in way bigger in term of sizes.
14.0 DRAINAGE
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from an
area. Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water
supplies.
Detail Design
In this drainage system that will be build, the construction worker will laid along a
trench which would then be filled with coarse granular material: gravel, sea shells,
stone or rock. The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is
then covered by soil. Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flows within the
stone to an outfall. If a high groundwater conditions exist during the installation
process, a perforated plastic (PVC or PE) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to
increase the volume of water transported in the drain.
Over the past 30 years geotextile and PVC filters have become the most commonly
used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory
controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty
soil conditions. But due to lack of factory in Malaysia, this material is almost hard to
make as a major construction material and this may affect the estimation price of
structure which is RM 500, 000. If this material is easy to find in Malaysia, the price
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will possibly drop in significant way and the extra money from the estimation price
can be used as the maintained cost for the first 5 year.
An emphasis on curbed sidewalks allows water to flow more freely into the areas of
permeable surface on the side of the streets. The curbs that were chosen to be
installing is the mountable curb. This type of curb can be easily installed by using a
mountable screw which later will be mounting to the road. Because of the plantings
the runoff water from the urban area does not all directly go into the ground but it can
also be absorbed into the surrounding environment as the source of water to the plant.
According to the monitoring by Seattle Public Utilities, they report at 99 percent
reduction of storm water leaving the drainage project and this is seem everywhere in
Malaysia including the Highway project at Peninsular Malaysia.
The site engineer from the Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) is responsible for drainage in
construction projects because there are the people that will be decide whether the
design meet the JKR standard or not. They set out the plans from all the roads, Street
gutters, drainage, culverts and sewers if it were part of the design that involved in
construction operations and then they will test and inspect the design. During the
construction of the work on site, he/she will set out all the necessary levels that will be
used in construction later.
The type of soil that the worker will be faces during the drainage construction id the
wetland soils. The wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture purpose.
This is a must because the road later will be evolve as a major road and the land
surrounding the road will be used as the planting field if they are housing area. In the
northern Europe, glaciations created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with
humus to make marshes. Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches
to make muck lands, which are primarily used for high value crops such as
vegetables. In Malaysia, this glaciations process would possibly not be happening.
This was replacing by the nature which are the water level. If the water level at a
certain point increase, they would possibly create a small lake just like the glaciations
process
In moist warm climates like in Malaysia, soils may be adequate for cropping with the
exception that they become waterlogged for brief periods each year which result from
season of heavy rains. Soils that are predominantly clay which is the major type of
soils in Kota Samarahan will pass water very slowly downward, meanwhile plant
roots suffocate because the excessive water around the roots eliminates air movement
82
through the soil and this can be prevent if a proper drainage improvement program
were made.
15.0 JUNCTION
A road junction is an intersection where vehicular traffic going in different directions
can proceed in a controlled manner designed to minimize accidents. Based on our
83
proposed road, a junction is design in order to enter our proposed road. There are
many types of junction that exist. Basically, a T- junction is proposed at the beginning
of our proposed highway. A T-shaped junction combines entrance and exit ramps into
a single structure that allows entrance and exit to the left (inside) lanes of the
highway. It is intended to avoid traffic congestion caused by large numbers of high-
occupancy vehicles crossing several lanes near exits.
From JKR Standards, R = 40 m
Design simple junction of radius 40m.

θ = 90º
Lc = Rθπ180 = 40(85)π180 = 59.34 m = 59 m
T = Rtan(θ/2) = 40 tan (85º/2) = 37 m
Chainage PI = 0+000 m(proposed road) = 10+ 000m (from the existing road)
= (10+000) – 37 m
= 9+963 m
= (9+963) +59 m
= 10+022 m = 0+022m (proposed road)

=7m
General sub- chord =5m
Final sub- chord = (10+022) – (10+020)m
= 2m
Tangential angle
Initial α = 90π × 740 = 5º 0’ 48”
General α = 90π × 1040 = 7º 9’ 43”
84
Final α = 90π × 240 = 1º 25’ 57”
Applying these to the whole curve, the tabulated results are shown in table form:

(m) Length tangential angle length of
tangential chord (d)
(L) (α)
angle (αcum)
PC 9+963 0 0º 0’ 0’’ 0º 0’ 0’’ 0

C1 9+970 7 6.991
5º 0’ 48” 5º 0’ 48”
C2 9+980 10 12º 10’ 31’’ 16.872
7º 9’ 43”
C3 9+990 10 19 º 20’ 14’’ 26.49
7º 9’ 43”
C4 10+000 10 26º 29’ 57’’ 35.695
7º 9’ 43”
C5 10+010 10 33º 39’ 40’’ 44.342
7º 9’ 43”
C6 10+020 10 40º 49’ 23’’ 52.298
7º 9’ 43”
PT 10+022 2 42º 15’ 20’’ 53.795
1º 25’ 57”
Checking
Summation of chord length, ∑L =7+10+10+10+10+10+2
=40 m
= Lc
θ2 = 85°2 = 42º 15’ 20’’= Cumulative tangential angle at PT
85
Figure 15.0 Proposed Junction
16.0 MACHINERY, TOOLS and EQUIPMENTS
86
There are variety of machinery and equipments that are being used during the
construction of the designed road, especially for the earthwork where
embankments and excavations are needed. These machines and equipments
are necessary to make work easier and help to smoothen the work of
construction. Machines that are usually used during construction are;
i. Bulldozer
Bulldozers are primarily used for pushing soil or leveling ground. These
bulldozers are usually equipped with substantial metal plate. It is used to push
large quantities of soil and sand during construction. Bulldozers are large and
powerful vehicles which is used to clear areas of obstacles and for breaking
sand and soil.
ii.Dump Truck
87
Dump trucks are wheeled vehicles and capable to move much faster. Dump
trucks are used to transfer loose materials such as sand, gravel or dirt for
construction from one place to another.
iii.Shovel
Shovel is a machine used for lifting and moving loose materials such as coal,
gravel, soil or sand. This machine is also used to fill up the dump trucks.
88
iv.Rollers
Roller is an engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete or

asphalt in the construction of roads. There are variety types of roller; these
include vibratory roller, sheep foot rollers and grid rollers. Vibratory
rollers are the most common roller as they double the effect of compaction
effectively.
v.Tampers
Tampers are machine with a long handle and a flat metal head used to exert a
specified amount of impact force to flatten ground, gravel or other types of
materials. Tampers must be approved by the engineer and shall be removed
89
from the job if a tamper do not obtain the specified results. There are variety
type of tampers; mechanical tampers, rammers and pneumatic tampers.
17.0 SUMMARY OF LIKELY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
90
Road constructions have significant effect on both nearby communities and natural
environment. During the road construction, there would be problems arise from the
nearby communities such as noise and air pollution. Road construction will also cause
disturbance to the surrounding environment such as disturbance of the soil condition
which could also affect the condition of the ground water and nearby rivers and the
life of the animals and plants. Since road construction is a long process, it is wise to
consider the effect on the surroundings.
During construction process:
i. Air pollution
During construction, there would be lots of dust released due to the
breaking of soil and coarse aggregate and sand. Dust effect the quality of
the air and reduce the eye visibility level especially when there are a lot of
heavy machinery travelling along the dusty site. These dusts could also
cause asthma to certain people.
ii.Noise pollution
Noise pollution is produced by construction equipment such as the
tampers. Construction noise in the nearby community may not pose a
health risk or damage people’s sense of hearing but it can affect the
people’s quality of life. Noise pollution can contribute to the degradation
of some people’s health that can cause people to be irritated and stressed
and can interrupt their ability to sleep. Noise from construction related
activities can also affect the life of the animals living in the area in a
variety of ways.
iii.Land
It is the nature of construction to be fixed and to form part of the land and
indeed to be dependent upon the land in one way or another for its
intended function. This is true especially in transport projects like road
constructions. The exploration of land for construction could exploit the
nearby communities’ needs or demands at the particular location. This is
because, to build a road, most of the existing ground will need to be cut
and filled in order to get the required proposed ground level.
iv.Water pollution
91
The constructions of bridge across the river could also affect the water
quality as there would be some soil and construction materials may flow
into the river and into the ground water too.
After construction process:
i. Air pollution
The hazardous gases produced by the materials used to construct the road
and the gases released by the vehicles will surely affect the quality of the
air. Moreover, there are many trees that are being cut down and these
hazardous gases could not be changed to oxygen again.
ii.Land contamination
Land contamination could occur as a result of dumping hazardous wastes
at the construction site. This activity is usually done during off-duty hours.
Land contamination is undetectable and could affect the nearby rivers and
also affect the health of the people using the contaminated water source.
iii.Water pollution
Water after the storm, discharges from roads and highways are most likely
to have significant effect on localized areas if proper drainage is not
designed.
A hazard has the potential to have an adverse effect but the degree of risk
from the hazard also depends upon the circumstances. These circumstances
compromise not only the existing location environment but also the created
project environment. The risk from the hazard is controlled by risk
management which is intended to improve the pollution created to an
acceptable level. Therefore, engineers and contractors in charge must identify
the potential pollutions, evaluate the consequences of the pollution, identify
the response mechanism and choose a response regarding the type of
pollutions.
18.0 COST AND BUDGETING
92
Surveying
Surveying and staking costs vary depending on the type and size of the job, access,
terrain and location of the job. There is method of estimating the production which is
by estimating the number of stakes that can be set hourly and per kilometres. The
efficiency of the staking process will be determined the production rate which will
affect the cost for surveying purpose and it is approximately RM40.
Mechanized Clearing
Clearing time is depending upon the size of the tractor and the number and size of the
trees. Usually it accomplished in a number of ways which including men with power
saws. There is a method for estimating the total time per hectare required to clear,
grub and pile on gentle terrain with a tractor and shearing blade.
Tc = (X/60) (AB + M1N1 + M2N2 + M3N3 + M4N4 + DF)
Earthwork
The earthwork cost is estimated by the number of cubic meters of common material
and rock that must be moved to construct the road. The earthwork production rate is
calculated as the cubic meters per hour which can be excavated and placed divided by
the number of cubic meters per km to be excavated. Road construction can estimate
the number of meters per hour that equipped to build road based upon local
experience after looking at the topography. Production rates for bulldozers and
hydraulic excavators are available.
Excavation rates in rock are varying with the size of job, hardness of rock and other
local conditions. There is a local market price for blasting. Estimates of blasting
production can be made by knowing the size of equipment and the type of job.
Finish Grading
93
Subgrade of the finish grading can be estimated by determining the number of passes
a grader must make for a certain width subgrade and the speed of the grader. This
number can be converted to the number of hours per hectare of subgrade.
Surfacing
The costs of surfacing are a function of the type of material, quantity of material per
square meter, and the length of haul. The local information is the best guide in
constructing surfacing costs due to the wide range of conditions that can be
encountered.
Natural gravel from the streams may need loading with front end loaders to dump
trucks, transporting, spreading and may not be compacted. Laterite may be ripped by
crawler tractor, loaded by front end loader, transported, spread and grid rolled with a
sheeps foot roller to produce a sealed running surface.
The costs for each of these operations can be developed by estimating the equipment
production rates and machine rates.
Drainage
Type of drainage installed is varying with the costs. The costs of drainage dips,
culverts, and bridges are expressed as a cost per lineal foot which can be applied in
road estimating. Local values for cost per lineal foot for culverts and different types of
bridges are usually available. The bridge that we build along our road is 6 m from the
ground level, 14 m width and 120 m length. The expenses for the bridge are
approximately RM 1 million. This expenses are including man work, materials and
others. As for the culvert, height is 3 m, width 3 m and length 25 m. The expenses of
the culvert are RM 200,000 per unit. In our design, we need 2 units of culverts.
Lamp post
Lamp Post is very important as it is safety factor for all the road users at night and
raining days. Adequate lighting provides better sighting and avoid incident and
accidents.
Lamp post is estimated by numbers needed to place along the road. Other extra costs
will be charge for the machines and man works.
94
Traffic lights
Traffic light is very essential road furniture as it control the road traffic so that
accident and others unwanted incident will not happen. Thus, by placing few traffic
lights at every corner of the T junction can prevent the cars accidents at the junction.
Trees
Trees are needed at the roadside. It not only can absorb the carbon dioxide from the
car exzos and provide oxygen. By the way, it also beautify the environment and
supporting the ‘Green House’ plan.
Maintenance
Maintenance cost is estimated based on the design period of the road which is about
20 years. The cost can be reduced by increasing quality of the design and construction
process. High construction quality, best management system and good specifications
will provide easier maintenance response and need a small maintenance cost.
Estimation of total cost

Our proposed highway length is 3300 metre. The activities and works involved in this
project are site investigation, soil testing, mix design and material testing, site
clearance, earthwork, road construction, machinery and tools, surfacing and drainage.
95
Activities / Works Dimension Time Unit Rate Estimated Cost
(RM) (RM)
Site Investigation 2 weeks 1000 per 14000
(surveying & data day
gathering)
Soil Testing 1 weeks 250 per day 1750
Mix Design & 2 weeks 250 per day 3500
Material Testing
Site Clearance 3300m × 20m = 10 per m2 660000
66000m2
Earthwork 2033.765m3 30 per m3 61012.95

Road construction 3300m × 14m = 45 per m2 2079000
46200m2
Machinery and 2 months 30000per 60000
Tools month
Surfacing 3300m × 14m = 20 per m2 924000
46200m2
Drainage 3300m(2 200 per m 660000
drainage)
Bridge ( including 1000000
material cost and
workmanship)
Maintenance 600000
Road furniture
Lamppost ( both 66 roots per side 265 per 34890
side) root
2 feet height X 23760
Tree 2.5m 9 per unit
1200
Traffic Lights 400 per
unit 400000
Culvert 200000 per

unit
TOTAL 6523113.95
96
19.0 CONCLUSION
A Rural highway - Standard R5 road is proposed at the Kota Samarahan area. The
total length of this highway will be 3300 m. There are only 2 horizontal curves and 1
vertical curve along the highway since the topography of our map majority is flat
area.
Besides that, one bridge will be build at the chainage 0 +700 to 0 +092. The type of
bridge that we proposed is suspension bridge which has a more apparent look
compare to other types of bridge. Culvert is also needed in order to cross two small
river that located at the chainage 0 + 900 and chainage 1 + 400. All of the proposed
design is done according to the Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) Standard.
The design of the proposed road is done by using AutoCAD and Sketchup software
which is widely used at this field. AutoCAD enables more flexible design and easier
for the user to modify when changes is need. Therefore, it makes the design work is
much easier.
While building a new road to the user, the environment aspects is very important in
order to give a save environment to the citizens will the road is constructing. Steps
should be taken in order to reduce the impact before and after the construction
process.
97
18.0 APPENDICES
All 10,00 3,000 1,000

Area Projected ADT Trafic >10,000 0 to to to <150
Volume 3,000 1,000 150
RURAL Road
Expressway R6
Category
Highway R5
Primary Road R5 R4
Secondary Road R4 R3
Minor Road R2 R1
URBAN Expressway U6
Arterials U5 U4
Collector U5 U4 U3
Local Street U4 U3 U2 U1
TABLE 1: SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARD
Design Speed (kph)

Design Terrain
Category of Road
Standard Mountainou
Flat Rolling
s
R6 Expressway 110 100 80
Highway 100 90 70
R5
Primary Roads 100 90 70
Primary Roads 90 80 60
R4
Secondary Roads 90 80 60
R3 Secondary Roads 80 60 50
R2 60 50 40
Minor Roads
R1 50 50 30
TABLE 2: DESIGN SPEED FOR RURAL ROADS
Level of Remarks
98
Service
Free flow with low volumes, densities and high speeds. Drives can maintain their
A
desired speeds with little or no delay.
Stable flow. Operating speeds beginning to be restricted somewhat by traffic
B
conditions. Same slight delay.
Stable flow. Speeds and manoeuvrability are more closely controlled by higher
C
volumes. Acceptable delay.
Approaching unstable flow. Tolerable operating speeds which are considerably
D
affected by operating conditions. Tolerable delay.
Unstable Flow. Yet lower operating speeds and perhaps stoppages of momentary
E
duration. Volumes are at or near capacity congestion and intolerable delay.
Forced Flow. Speeds and volume can drop to zero. Queues of vehicles backing up
F
from a restriction downstream.
TABLE 3: LEVELS OF SERVICE
Volume/ Capacity
Road Category Design Level Service
Ratio
Expressway C 0.70 - 0.80
Highway C 0.70 - 0.80
Primary Road D 0.80 - 0.90
Secondary Road D 0.80 - 0.90
Minor Road E 0.90 - 1.00
TABLE 4: DESIGN LEVEL OF SERVICE AND VOLUME/ CAPACITY

RATIO (RURAL)
Design Speed Min Stopping Sight Dist.

(kph) (m)
110 250
100 205
99
90 170
80 140
70 110
60 85
50 65
40 45
30 30
TABLE 5: MINIMUM STOPPING DISTANCE
Design Speed Minimum Passing Sight

(kph) Dist. (m)
110 730
100 670
90 610
80 550
70 490
60 410
50 350
40 290
30 230
TABLE 6: MINIMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES (2-LANE – 2 WAY)
Design Speed Minimum Radius (m)

(kph) e = 0.06 e = 0.10
110 560 500
100 465 375
90 335 305
80 280 230
70 195 175
60 150 175
100
50 100 85
40 60 50
30 35 30
TABLE 7: MINIMUM RADIUS
Design Speed (km/h)

Types of Terrain 60 70 80 90 100 110
Flat 5 5 4 4 3 3
Rolling 6 6 5 5 4 4
Mountainous 8 7 7 6 6 5
TABLE 8: MAXIMUM GRADES FOR R5 STANDARD ROADS
21.0 REFERENCES
.
1. Geometric design of Roads by Road Engineering Association of

Malaysia (Arahan Teknik Jalan - JKR)
2. Road Engineering Association of Malaysia ( REAM )
3. Introduction to Transportation Engineering . By: James H.Banks
4. Highway Engineering Handbook: Building and Rehabiliting the
Infrastructure. By: Ranger L. Brockenbrou
101
5. http://www.vulcanhammer.net
6. http://www.NetRegs.net
7. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ index.html
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarahan_Division
9. http://www.answers.com/topic/topographic-map
10. http://www.maitland.nsw.gov.au/UserFiles/File/PlanningDev/pubs/005
Ch5pavementdesign.pdf
11. http://www.dur.ac.uk/~des0www4/cal/roads/pavdes/maindes.htm
102

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10 LOCATION MAP

A topographic map is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional

Kota Samarahan Division is one of the eleven administrative in

The objective of this project is to design and construct an alternative route

Furthermore, the current condition of the existing road is not in good. As

2.3 Design Policy

The characteristic of the proposed road that are designed is based on

i) Geometric design of Roads by Road Engineering Association of

Based on some consideration factors, we had chosen to design a rural

2.4 Design Standard

2.5 Design controls

Terrain Flat Rolling

The physical design of a new highway is controlled by following factors:-

Topography is an important factor that affects the geometric design of

2.6 Design Elements

Design level of service Type C

2.7 Lane requirements

3.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENATL FEATURES

4.0 ALTERNATIVES ROUTES

5.0 SCREENING OF ALTERNATIVES

6.0 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Horizontal alignment is about designing the directional transition of the highway in a

6.1 Minimum Radius

6.2 Horizontal Curve

6.2.1 Curve 1 (calculation)

Design speed = 80km/h

Figure 6.1 Horizontal Curve 1

Design speed = 80km/h

Design simple curve of radius 280m.

Length of sub- chord

Final sub- chord = (1+250) – (1+252)m

Summation of chord length, ∑L =5+10+10+…+10+10+2

Checking for the angle:

Point Chainage Chord Individual Cumulative Individual

6.3 Sight Distance

6.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance for Horizontal Curve

SSD = 0.278tv + v2254(f ± G)

= 0.278 (2.5) (80) + 802254(0.14)

SSD = stopping sight distance (m)

Curve 1 & Curve 2

M = R (1- cos 90SSDπR ) = 280 [1- cos 90(236)π(280) ]

M = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping sight distance

6.3.2 Passing Sight Distance

Design Speed Minimum Passing Sight Distance

Length of superelevation runoff,

Where e = full elevation

Length of tangent runout,

a. revolving the pavement about the centerline profile

More detailed superelevaton diagrams on road superelevation profile at different

The rate of superelevation on every chainage is shown in the graph below.

More detailed superelevaton diagrams on road superelevation profile at different

7.1 Grades and Grade Control

7.1.1 Maximum Grades

7.1.2 Minimum Grades

7.2 Vertical Curve

ii. Adequate drainage

iii. Comfortable in operation

iv. Pleasant appearance

PVI (0+100) PVT (0+200)

SAG VERTICAL CURVE

SSD = 0.278tV+ V2254(f±G)

SSD = 0.278×2.5×90 + 902254(0.29±0)