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MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF

CARBON FIBER, ALUMINIUM POWDER


AND SILICON POWDER USING WITH
EPOXY COMPOSITE
ABSTRACT

 Hybrid Composite material have evoked a keen interest in recent times for
potential applications in aerospace and automotive industries owing to their
superior strength to weight ratio and temperature resistance. The widespread
adoption of particulate metal matrix composites for engineering applications
has been hindered by the high cost of producing components.

 Achieving a uniform distribution of reinforcement within the matrix is one


such challenge, which affects directly on the properties and quality of
composite material.
This paper discuss the mechanical behaviour of Aluminium powder, silicon
powder, and carbon fiber with epoxy composite material and to evaluate the
Hardness, Impact Strength of the Composite Material
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials
that results in better properties than those of the individual components used alone.
In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical, physical,
and mechanical properties. The two constituents are reinforcement and a matrix.
The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and stiffness,
combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials, allowing for a
weight reduction in the finished part.

The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases, the
reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement is
usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate composites have dimensions that are
approximately equal in all directions. They may be spherical, platelets, or any other
regular or irregular geometry. Particulate composites tend to be much weaker and
less stiff than continuous fiber composites, but they are usually much less
expensive. Particulate reinforced composites usually contain less reinforcement (up
to 40 to 50 volume percent) due to processing difficulties and brittleness. A fiber
has a length that is much greater than its diameter. The length-to-diameter (l/d)
ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly.

Continuous fibers have long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have
short aspect ratios. Continuous-fiber composites normally have a preferred
orientation, while discontinuous fibers generally have a random orientation.
Examples of continuous reinforcements include unidirectional, woven cloth, and
helical winding. While examples of discontinuous reinforcements are chopped
fibers and random mat. Continuous-fiber composites are often made into laminates
by stacking single Sheets of continuous fibers in different orientations to obtain the
desired strength and stiffness properties with fiber volumes as high as 60 to 70
percent. Fibers produce high-strength composites because of their small diameter;
they contain far fewer defects (normally surface defects) compared to the material
produced in bulk.

 Composite is a combination of two or more chemically distinct and insoluble


phases.
 Constituent materials or phases must have significantly different properties
for it to combine them: thus metals and plastics are not considered as
composites although they have a lot of fillers and impurities
 The properties and performance of composites are far superior to those of
the constituents
 Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases (reinforcement)
embedded in a continuous phase (matrix)

Examples: –

 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)


 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized composite)

Some examples of composite materials:

 ply wood is a laminar composite of layers of wood veneer,


 Fiber glass is a fiber-reinforced composite containing stiff, strong glass
fibers in a softer polymer matrix and concrete is a particulate composite
containing coarse sand or gravel in a cement matrix (reduced 50%).
CLASSIFICATION

BASED ON THE TYPE OF MATRIX MATERIAL

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)


 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
 Carbon/Carbon Composites (C/Cs)

BASED ON THE GEOMETRY OF REINFORCEMENT

 Particulate reinforced Composites


 Whisker/Flakes reinforced composites
 Fiber reinforced composites

Hybrid:

A composite laminate comprising of laminae of two or more composite material


systems or a combination of two or more different fibers such as C and glass or C
and aramid into a structure

I) POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

(PMCs) Are prominent class of composites compared to other composite materials


in commercial applications

Fiber Materials: Boron, Graphite, Carbon

Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are the main
commercial fibers
Matrix Materials:
Thermoplastic, Epoxy and Thermo-set materials.
 Thermoplastics offer the advantages of good mechanical and tribological
properties.
 Epoxy resin remains the most important matrix polymer.

II) METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCS)

 MMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of non metallic


reinforcements incorporated into the metallic matrix.
 MMCs are widely used in engineering applications where the operating
temperature lies in between 250 ºC to 750 ºC.

Matrix materials:

Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Magnesium and Super alloys.

Reinforcement materials:

Silicon carbide, Boron, Molybdenum and Alumina

iii) CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCS)

CMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of metallic/non-


metallic reinforcements incorporated into the ceramic matrix CMCs are widely
used in engineering applications where the operating temperature lies in between
800ºC to 1650ºC
iv) CARBON/CARBON COMPOSITES (C/CS)

C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme temperature
ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn fabric, 3-D
woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.

Applications:

C/C composites meet applications ranging from rockets to aerospace because of


their ability to maintain and even increase their structural properties at extreme
temperatures.

Advantages:

 Extremely high temperature resistance (1930°C – 2760°C).


 Strength actually increases at higher temperatures (up to 1930°C).
 High strength and stiffness.
 Good resistance to thermal shock.

Uses of composites

The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as well
as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and reinforcement
material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the requirements of a
particular application. Composites also provide design flexibility because many of
them can be moulded into complex shapes. The downside is often the cost.
Although the resulting product is more efficient, the raw materials are often
expensive.
Merits of composite materials composites

Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or aluminium

 High specific strength and


 High specific stiffness Long fatigue life
 High creep resistance Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low density
 Low thermal conductivity
 Better wear resistance Improved corrosion resistance
 Better temperature dependent behavior

APPLICATIONS

Space craft: Antenna structures, solar reflectors, Satellite structures, Radar,


Rocket engines, etc.

Aircraft: Jet engines, Turbine blades, Turbine shafts, Compressor blades, Airfoil
surfaces, Wing box structures, Fan blades, Flywheels, Engine bay doors, Rotor
shafts in helicopters, Helicopter transmission structures, etc.

Miscellaneous: Bearing materials, Pressure vessels, Abrasive materials,


Electrical machinery, Truss members, Cutting tools, Electrical brushes, etc.

Automobile: Engines, bodies, Piston, cylinder, connecting rod, crankshafts,


bearing materials, etc.
Chapter-2
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter-2

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

The history of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites can be traced back to
the advent of synthetic polymers in the early twentieth century. In 1850s, shellac
was compounded with wood flour. Research on natural fiber composites has
existed since the early 19th century but has not received much attention until late
in the 1980’s.During 1920s, 1930s and early 1940s, a good deal of research was
carried out on natural fiber reinforced composites. Caldwell and Clay carried out
their research work on natural fiber reinforced composites for lighter materials to
be used in aircraft primary structures.

Composites, primarily glass but including natural reinforced composites are


found in countless consumer products like boats, agricultural machinery and cars.
A major goal of natural fiber composites is to alleviate the need to use expensive
glass fiber, which has a relatively high density and is dependent on non-renewable
sources. Recently, car manufacturers have been interested in incorporating natural
fiber composites into both interior and exterior parts. This serves a two-fold goal of
the companies that is to lower the overall weight of the vehicle thus increasing fuel
efficiency and to increase the sustainability of their manufacturing process. Many
companies such as Mercedes Benz, Toyota and DaimlerChrysler have already
accomplished this and are looking to expand the uses of natural fiber composites.

The mechanical behviour of jute and kenaf fiber reinforced polypropylene


composites has been studied by Schneider and Karmaker Pothan et al. reported that
kraft pulped banana fiber composite has good flexural strength. Luo and Netravali
studied the mechanical properties like tensile and flexural strength of the green
composites with different pineapple fibre percentage and compared with the virgin
resin. Belmeres et al. reported that sisal, henequen, and palm fibre have similar
physical, chemical, and tensile properties. A systematic study on the properties of
henequen fiber has been made by Cazaurang et al. And reported that fibers have
mechanical properties suitable for reinforcement in thermoplastic resins. Various
aspects of banana fiber reinforced polymer composites have been studied by
various investigators. Cazaurang et al. have done a detailed study on the properties
of henequen fibre and concluded that these fibres have mechanical properties
suitable for reinforcing thermoplastic resins.

The mechanical properties of jute faber reinforced polyester composites


were evaluated by Gowda et al. It is reported from their study that they have better
strengths as comparison to wood based composites. The use of cotton fibre
reinforced epoxy composites along with glass fibre reinforced polymers was done
by Khalid et al. The effect of various loading rate on mechanical properties of
jute/glass reinforced epoxy based hybrid composites has been studied by Srivastav
et al. showed that chemical treatments (alkali, benzoyl chloride, KMnO4and silane
treatment) of banana fiber based polypropylene composites improved the thermo
physical properties (thermal conductivity and diffusivity) in each case. Kushwaha
et al. have found the optimum alkali percentage for best results and have discussed
the effects of chemical treatments on mechanical properties bamboo fiber
composites. Hongwei Ma et al. effect of silane coupling under different types of
radiation on the structural properties of bamboo fiber reinforced poly (lactic acid)
bio composites.
Chapter-3

MATERIALS AND
METHODS
Chapter-3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS

Natural fibers include those made from plant, animal and mineral sources. Natural
fibers can be classified according to their origin.

 Animal fiber

 Mineral fiber

 Plant fiber
1. ANIMAL FIBER

Animal fiber generally comprise proteins; examples mohair, wool, silk, alpaca,
angora.

Animal hair (wool or hair)

Fiber taken from animals or hairy mammals. E.g. Sheep‟s wool, goat hair
(cashmere, mohair), alpaca hair, horse hair, etc.

Silk fiber:

Fiber collected from dried saliva of bugs or insects during the preparation of
cocoons. Examples include silk from silk worms.

Avian fiber

Fibers from birds, e.g. feathers and feather fiber.

2. MINERAL FIBER

Mineral fibers are naturally occurring fiber or slightly modified fiber procured
from minerals. These can be categorized into the following categories:

Asbestos

The only naturally occurring mineral fiber. Varietions are serpentine and
amphiboles, anthophyllite.

Ceramic fibers:

Glass fibers (Glass wood and Quartz), aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron
carbide.
Metal fibers

Aluminum fibers

3. PLANT FIBER

Plant fibers are generally comprised mainly of cellulose: examples include cotton,
jute, flax, ramie, sisal and hemp. Cellulose fibers servers in the manufacture of
paper and cloth. This fiber can be further categorizes into following.

Seed fiber:

Fibers collected from the seed and seed case e.g. cotton and kapok.

Leaf fiber

Fibers collected from the leaves e.g. sisal and agave.

Skin fiber

Fibers are collected from the skin or bast surrounding the stem of their respective
plant. These fibers have higher tensile strength than other fibers. Therefore, these
fibers are used for durable yarn, fabric, packaging, and paper. Some examples are
flax, jute, banana, hemp, and soybean.

Fruit fiber

Fibers are collected from the fruit of the plant, e.g. coconut (coir) fiber.

Stalk fiber

Fibers are actually the stalks of the plant. E.g. straws of wheat, rice, barley, and
other crops including bamboo and grass. Tree wood is also such a fiber. The
natural fibers can be used to reinforce both thermosetting and thermoplastic
matrices. Thermosetting resins, such as epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, phenolic,
etc. are commonly used today in natural fiber composites, in which composites
requiring higher performance applications. They provide sufficient mechanical
properties, in particular stiffness and strength, at acceptably low price levels.
Considering the ecological aspects of material selection, replacing synthetic fibers
by natural ones is only a first step. Restricting the emission of green house effect
causing gases such as CO2 into the atmosphere and an increasing awareness of the
finiteness of fossil energy resources are leading to developing new materials that
are entirely based on renewable resources.

Applications of natural fiber composites

The natural fiber composites can be very cost effective material for following
applications: Building and construction industry: panels for partition and false
ceiling, partition boards, wall, floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, mobile or
pre-fabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural calamities such as
floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc. Storage devices: post-boxes, grain storage silos,
bio-gas containers, etc. Furniture: chair, table, shower, bath units, etc. Electric
devices: electrical appliances, pipes, etc. Everyday applications: lampshades,
suitcases, helmets, etc. Transportation: automobile and railway coach interior,
boat, etc. Toys

SELECTION OF MATERIALS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are
 Carbon fiber
 Aluminium powder
 Silicon carbide powder
 Epoxy

1. CARBON FIBER

CARBON FIBERS, after a 40 year period of development and use in specialized


applications, are now on the brink of broad commercialization. Their use is
growing rapidly, fueled by significant price reductions during the 1990s and
increasing availability. Changes in the performance/ price ratio have resulted in the
increased penetration of composites into applications formerly held by metals and
has enabled their use in other applications previously not possible with existing
materials. Additionally, market conditions increasingly favor designs for
commercial products that are lighter, stronger, faster, and more fuel efficient
designs that are possible with carbon fibers. No longer relegated to aerospace,
carbon fiber composites are now being adopted in fields such as automotive, civil
infrastructure, offshore oil, and paper production.
HISTORY

The earliest commercial use of carbon fibers is often attributed to Thomas Edison’s
carbonization of cotton and bamboo fibers for incandescent lamp filaments (Ref 1).
However, practical commercial use of carbon fibers for reinforcement applications
began in the late 1950s with the pursuit of improved ablative materials for rockets
(Ref 2). Union Carbide marketed a carbonized rayon based fabric in the early
1960s (Ref 3). DuPont’s work with “black Orlon” in the late 1950s showed that
acrylics could be thermally stabilized, while Shindo in Japan and Watt et al. in the
United Kingdom demonstrated that, by using tension through the carbonization
process, high mechanical properties could be realized (Ref 4). Activity increased
rapidly during the 1960s and 1970s to improve the performance/price ratio of
carbon fibers. Much of this effort focused on evaluation of various precursors,
since carbon fiber can be made from almost anything that yields a quality char
upon pyrolysis. Donnet and Bansal (Ref 5) present a good overview of various
researchers’ efforts to evaluate different precursors, including PAN
(polyacrylonitrile), pitch, rayon, phenol, lignin, imides, amides, vinyl polymers,
and various naturally occurring cellulosic materials.

Fig. carbon fiber

Overall carbon fiber demand grew to approximately 1000 metric tons by 1980,
fueled primarily by the aerospace industry, with the sporting goods industry taking
some excess capacity and off-specification fiber. Polyacrylonitrile based carbon
fiber usage had exceeded all other precursors at that time. This was a surprise to
some, since the anticipation in the late 1970s had been that the significantly lower
raw material price and higher char yield of pitch would result in the winning
combination. However, higher processing costs are required to make a spinnable
pitch, so better overall properties for PAN fibers resulted in their dominance.
Rayon was relegated to third place, despite having a lower raw material cost,
because inferior properties and a low char yield (20 to 25%) after carbonization
made for a higher overall cost. Properties can be improved by stress graphitization
at high temperatures, but this increases cost further, making the fiber even less
desirable. Rayon is still used today for insulating and ablative applications but not
for structural applications
MANUFACTURE OF CARBON FIBERS

Precursor sources used, in order of volume, are PAN, pitch, and rayon. Although
the specific processing details for each precursor is different, all follow a basic
sequence involving spinning, stabilization, carbonization, and application of a
finish or sizing to facilitate handling. Discontinuous carbon fiber whiskers are also
now produced in a batch process from hydrocarbon gases using a vapor-liquid-
solid growth mechanism.

PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON FIBERS

Composites made from carbon fiber are five times stronger than grade 1020 steel
for structural parts, yet are still five times lighter. In comparison to 6061
aluminum, carbon fiber composites are seven times stronger and two times stiffer,
yet 1.5 times lighter. Carbon fiber composites have fatigue properties superior to
all known metals, and, when coupled with the proper resins, carbon fiber
composites are one of the most corrosion resistant materials available. Certain
mesophase-pitch-based carbon fibers possess thermal conductivity three times
greater than copper. The electrical conductivity of PAN and pitch-based carbon
fibers is used to dissipate static electricity in a wide variety of computer related
Products. They do not melt or soften with heat, allowing them to be used in such
high temperature applications as rocket nozzles and aircraft brakes. In fact, their
strength actually increases with temperature in non-oxidizing atmospheres. These
unique properties are the result of the fiber microstructure, in both the axial and
transverse directions
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF CARBON FIBERS

Carbon fiber usage is growing in a variety of applications, including aerospace,


sporting goods, and a variety of commercial/industrial applications. Growth is
fastest in the commercial/ industrial applications. In many instances, carbon
composites have displaced metal parts, despite being more expensive on a direct-
replacement purchased cost basis. Where successful, carbon composites have
lowered total system costs through reduced maintenance, faster processing speeds,
and improved reliability. Many new uses under development are enabling,
meaning applications that were not practical with metal or other materials are now
possible with carbon composites.

2. ALUMINIUM POWDER

Aluminium powder is a fine granular powder made from Aluminium. In form of


powders, Aluminium is used for several applications such as manufacture of slurry,
explosive and detonators, thermit process used for manufacture of ferro alloys and
for specialised welding applications such as rails, pyrotechnic to manufacture
crackers, sparkles and other pyrotechnic products; manufacture of aluminium
paste, paints and several powder components used in automobiles. The most
important property of aluminium powder to undergo a vigorous exothermic
reaction when it gets oxidised finds application in pyrotechnic process. In foundry,
aluminium powder is used as a de oxidant and exothermic tapping compounds to
increase the yield of casting.

Fig. aluminium powder

MARKET POTENTIAL

The aluminium powder is a consumable product. Presently there are four major
organised manufacturers of aluminium powder. They are Metal Powder Company,
Thirumangalam, INDAL, Mumbai, Khosla Metal Powder Company, Pune and
Arasan Aluminium Industries, Sivakasi. In addition, there are a number of small
scale industries located in Karnataka, M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat and Delhi with
an installed capacity of 1 tonne per day. In a recent report of DSIR, the total
production of aluminium powder in the country has been estimated at more than
10,000 MT per year. DGTD has estimated the growth of demand between 8 to
10% per annum. In conclusion, it can be said that production of aluminium
powders of various grades and products such as aluminium paste is well
established in the country. The aluminium powder industry is of a remarkable size.
There is a growing market for export of aluminium powder and paste. Good
opportunities exist in the field of setting up new units in small scale sectors with
proven technology and appropriate quality orientation

TECHNICAL ASPECTS

Process of Manufacture

The aluminium powder is manufactured in several forms such as flake-like


particles, granular powder (atomised aluminium) etc. For the production of
aluminium powder, there are several processes, one can use any of them. The
metal is melted in furnaces and the temperature maintained is around 720O to
760OC. Atomised Aluminium is produced by blasting the stream of molten
Aluminium into small particles by air jet. For this purpose, an atomiser is used
which consists of a straight tube with lower end dipped in molten metal and upper
end terminating as a small orifice. A jet of hot air under pressure is passed through
armular opening near the top which impinges on a stream of molten Aluminium
drawn by suction through the orifice. This leads to the formation of small particles
of Aluminium. These particles are drawn by suction, through a collecting duct
placed above the nozzle and finally into a cyclone collecting system. The particle
size can be controlled to some extent by varying nozzle opening air pressure etc.
The different sizes of Aluminium powders are segregated by sieving. Then packing
is done as per market requirement for specific quantity

Quality Control and Standards

The powder produced will meet standard specifications for air atomised powder
and by using proper control equipment consistent quality of the product can be
fully ensured with minimum losses. The quality control standards as per IS-438-
1972 are to be followed.

Pollution Control

This item is not exempted by the Pollution Control Board. Therefore, a clearance
certificate is required from the Pollution Control Board as per their requirements.
Necessary pollution control measures are to be incorporated in the control profile.

Energy Conservation

The requirement of energy is given under the head “Utility”. As manufacture of


this product requires furnace oil, the need for energy conservation is important. In
furnace, for supply of furnace oil, efforts are to be made for maximum utilisation
of energy with respect to the maximum capacity of furnace and the burners are to
be used of standard quality

PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY

Properties value

Elastic Modulus 69000 N/mm2

Poisson's Ratio 0.33

Thermal Expansions Co-efficient 2.4x10-5 /K

Thermal Conductivity 170 w/mk

Specific Heat 1300 J/kg k


3. SILICON CARBIDE POWDER

Another product that you can purchase Tritrust Industrial is Silicon Powder. A lot
of manufacturers and industries use silicon alone or combined with other
ingredients. The mineral is known for its thickening and moisture absorbing
properties. These characteristics make the mineral useful in cosmetics,
construction, and even foods. The name silicon is derived from silex, which is a
Latin word that means hard stone or flint. Silicon was discovered by Jons Jacob
Berzelius in 1824. It is the second most abundant element on the planet after
carbon. It is found in the wild as a silicate that is part of various clays, soils, and
rocks. Silicon is obtained by reducing silica sand with carbon in an electric
furnace. And in order to get the purest form of silicon powder, it goes through zone
refining. It is prepared through the decomposition of ultrapure trichlorosiliane. The
process is completed with recrystallization.

Fig. Silicon carbide powder


There are two allotropic forms of silicon crystalline and brown silicon. The former
is grey while the latter is brown and more widely used. Silicon in solid state is
insoluble towards water, acids, and oxygen but is soluble in hot alkalis. Silicon is a
common metal powder on the planet. It is a component of quartz and sand among
other minerals. Producers, such as Tritrust Industrial, obtain silicon through mining
and grinding the substance to turn it into fine silicon powder. There are some
companies that offer synthetic silicon that is produced with silica sand. Various
industries use silicon. The semiconductor industry use pure silicon for its
semiconducting properties. It is also used as an alloying agent in the manufacture
of various alloys. Silicon is also used in glass manufacturing. Silicon is also one of
the most inexpensive materials that have great optical, electrical, thermal, and
mechanical properties. Ultra high purity form of the element can be combined with
gallium, arsenic, phosphorous, or boron to create silicon that can be used in solar
cells, transistors, rectifiers, and devices.

Microscopic diatoms, which are hard-shelled skeletal remains of plants, have


silica dioxide. They are often found in fresh and salt water beds. This type of
silicon is known as amorphous silica. They can be grounded into fine powder or
what is known as silica flour. This type of silicon can be used in both food and
non-food products. Glass or quartz powders are silicon sand heated to extreme
temperatures and melted. Manufacturers and artisans use the molten material by
molding it into shape. When the temperature cools down, the substance becomes
glass. Other products that contain silicon powder include paints, polyvinyl chloride
glue, corrosive resistant coatings, and plastics. Silicon is used as hardening or
thickening agent. There are some detergents and cleansers on the market that use
silicon powder to scrub the surfaces via mechanical abrasion. Detergents with the
metal powder are used for washing dishes or clothes. The mineral is also found, in
general, powdered cleaners. There is some toothpaste that has diatomaceous earth
silica as one of the ingredients to provide abrasive action. Because of the abrasive
nature of silicon, it can cause skin irritations and rashes when used in hand
sanitizers. There are also some cosmetic products that contain silicon powder that
is used to absorb oils of the skin. The mineral is known to be to be hypoallergenic
and helps reduce age indicators such as wrinkles and facial lines. There are some
consumers who buy silicon powder to add to their garden soil or lawns in order to
increase their moisture retention. There are also some people who believe that the
metal powder can deter pests but inhaling the substance can result to lung
inflammation or even cancer. Food and pharmaceutical companies often use silicon
powders for its moisture absorption property. Food grade powder is commonly
used in coffee creamers, seasonings, and other powdered food products. Silica gel
packs are placed in medication bottles to absorb moisture. Silicon is also utilized to
make silicones that are useful in various industries. Silicone oil is used as a
lubricant and added to some hair conditioners and cosmetic products. Silicone
rubber is utilized as a waterproof sealant for windows, roofs, pipes, and in
bathrooms.

PROPERTIES

Properties value

Poisson’s Ratio 0.14

Coefficient of Thermal 4.0


Expansion
Thermal Conductivity 120 W/m•°K

Specific Heat 750 J/Kg•°K


EPOXY RESIN

Epoxy Resins Epoxy resins have been commercially available since the early
1950’s and are now used in a wide range of industries and applications.
Epoxies are classified in the plastics industry as thermosetting resins and they
achieve the thermo set state by means of an addition reaction with a suitable curing
agent. The curing agent used will determine whether the epoxy cures at ambient or
elevated temperatures and also influence physical properties such as toughness and
flexibility
PROPERTIES OF EPOXY

The primary reason for epoxy’s popularity is its superb mechanical strength.
Welding is often the only alternative. Epoxy is nearly always cheaper and faster
than welding. Epoxy also has excellent resistance to chemicals. After setting, there
is no worry of a chemical reaction that will weaken the seal. It also resists heat.
That resistance makes it ideal for electronics and electrical systems and other
industrial applications. Those who use epoxy are aware of the superb mechanical
strength and low curing contraction. They also know the epoxy resins are well-
balanced industrial materials and suited to a broad range of applications. Engineers
are faced with concerns about heat dissipation, electrical insulation, adhering
dissimilar substrates, light weighting, sound dampening, vibration, and reduction
corrosion. Appearance has to be considered, as well as, assembling costs. Epoxy is
an adhesive formulation that meets all of those concerns. Its thermal and electrical
properties, strength, and durability are what epoxy is noted for. Those properties
along with the resistance to immersion and hostile chemical vapor are the reason
epoxy often is chosen by engineers.

Performance Properties

Performance properties held by epoxy are:

 Biocompatibility
 Environmentally friendly
 Flame resistant
 Food Safe

It has excellent gap filling properties. Epoxy is resistant to cold, radiation, and
steam. The superior performance of epoxy remains when exposed to adverse
environmental conditions.

METHODS

DIE MAKING
The tooling involved in plastic molding is quite similar to that of stamping dies.
The principal difference is that stamping requires force, while molding does not. In
plastic molding, two units are required whose design is such that, when brought
together, they make up a system of closed cavities linked to a central orifice.
Liquid plastic is forced through the orifice and into the cavities, or molds, and
when the plastic solidifies, the molds open and the finished parts are ejected.
MAKING PROCESS

Caron fiber, Aluminium and silicon powder knitted fabric with are used in this
study. Hardener used is polyamide hardener. The epoxy resin and hardener are
mixed in the ratio of 2:1 and stirred thoroughly. Release agent used was mansion
polish. Experimental methods Most mentioned method to clean fibers found in
literature is distilled water cleaning and then alkaline treatment (NaOH). The
concentration of NaOH used is 5%. The fibers are washed with fresh water
thoroughly. The fibers are then soaked in NaOH solution for 8 hours. The fibres
were then washed several times with fresh water to remove the residual NaOH
sticking to the fibre surface and neutralized by Acetic acid finally washed again
with water. The fibers were then dried at room temperature for 10 hours. Removal
of lignin, hemicellulose, silica and pith from the fiber to have better impregnation
between fiber and matrix and improving fiber surface roughness to have a better
interaction are the main objectives of fiber chemical treatment.
MIXING PROCESS

Two part epoxy compounds are normally supplied in separate A - B containers,


either both full or in a pre-measured kit. Under the Resin lab designation; Part A is
the epoxy resin and the Part B is the polyamine hardener, with some systems the
Part B may be an anhydride. Epoxy resins are normally clear to slightly amber,
high viscosity liquids which may be filled with mineral fillers to improve
performance and lower cost. These sometimes can settle to the bottom of the
container and must be stirred to a homogeneous consistency before adding the
hardener. Epoxy resins can cause mild skin irritation and a form of dermatitis upon
repeated contact. It is important to limit skin contact with any epoxy resin or
hardener. Therefore, we recommend that you wear rubber gloves when mixing and
using the epoxy compounds.

Hardeners: Part B, the hardener, is typically a polyamine or mixture of


polyamines and has can have strong ammonia-like smell. Most are considered
DOT Corrosive materials and should be respected as such. They are typically light
colored to dark amber liquids. The hardener, like the resin, can be filled with metal
or mineral fillers to improve performance or lower costs. And just like the resin,
these fillers may settle over time and must be stirred to a homogeneous consistency
before mixing with the resin. Some epoxy hardeners are based on anhydrides rather
than amines. These hardeners are more likely used in electrical potting and
encapsulation applications and are likely to be heat cured in nature. Both
polyamines and anhydrides are somewhat sensitive to moisture.
Keep containers Tightly sealed and when used in meter-mix-dispense equipment it
is best to use a dry nitrogen purge or a dessicating air drier on the vent. Static
Mixing Guidelines Resin lab Technical Data Sheets include this general guide for
ranking the ability of a product to function acceptable in a range of applications. In
general best case is a 1/1 ratio with even viscosity, worst case is a 10/1 ratio with a
wide viscosity difference. The type of cartridge can also have a dramatic effect on
dispense quality, especially when used in a pulsing mode. Larger and thin walled
cartridges can induce a lead / lag effect where A and B show an extreme ratio
change in a very short period do to the expansion and relaxation of the cartridge
barrel. The thicker walled cartridges show much less tendency to produce this lead
lag effect which is a primary cause on intermittent tacky areas on small pottings or
castings

This rating scale is a general guideline to give the user an expected level of success
in a typical bench-top dispensing scenario. Important process variables to consider
are: Cartridge type and size, wall thickness; manual or pneumatic gun type; static
mixer design and dimensions; product viscosity spread and ratio; shot size, shot
frequency, flow rate; temperature range during use. This scale also address’s
product stability in a cartridge. Factors such as filler content and settling rate,
storage temperature and cartridge orientation are important factors which affect
this. It is important for the user to define the optimum static mix for each
dispensing process, a change in any of the above variables can affect the mix
quality. Dispensing the product on a flat surface using the dispensing pattern can
help show the quality of mixing in terms of thoroughness and lead/lag consistency.

SURFACE PREPARATION

If the surfaces that you intend to adhere together are not prepared properly, the best
adhesive in the world will not hold them together. The major problems in adhesive
delamination are dirt and oil. Whenever possible, the surfaces to be adhered should
be abraded with sand paper or by sand or shot blasting before the adhesive is
applied. Oil on the surface of steel or even oil from fingerprints can ruin a bond. If
the surface to be bonded is painted, the bond of the paint to the substrate will be a
limiting factor in the overall bond quality. Plastic surfaces should be abraded and
when possible flame treated or corona treated to remove any plasticizer from the
surface and provide an oxygen rich surface environment for the adhesive. Mixing:
When hand mixing the epoxy resins and the hardeners, it is best to pour the resin,
the Part A, into the mixing vessel first. The product should be weighed to the
nearest gram or to the nearest 0.5%, whichever is more precise.

Next, the Part B is added using the same weighing procedure. Mix the two
components using a stir stick or a paint mixer in a drill or drill press. Mix the
product for at least 3 minutes by the clock. scraping the sides and bottom of the
mix vessel frequently. [Remember, it's just like baking a cake!] After the products
have been thoroughly mixed, the mixture should be poured into the mold or used in
the adhesive step. Often, the end product must be totally free of voids and bubbles.
If this is the case, the mix must be vacuumed before being poured into the mold.
This is done by putting the mix vessel into a vacuum chamber and pulling a
vacuum of at least 28" Hg. This will usually degas the product within 5 minutes.
The reaction mixture will bubble and froth. You should have a mix container at
least 4 times the volume of the liquid in the container for vacuum degassing.
Therefore, 1 quart of the liquid product will require a 1 gallon bucket to degas the
mixture. If you intend to vacuum degas a product, make sure that you tell Star
Technology about your wishes. We will need to formulate to product with a
delayed gel time and extra air release additives to allow sufficient time to
accomplish the process.

REACTION RATES

Now is probably a good time to talk about the reaction rate of the mixture and what
effects it. Reaction rates are usually stated at a certain temperature and at a certain
mass of material. If you are working with a larger mass, the reaction time will be
shorter. Lower masses and thin films will be much longer. If the reaction starting
temperature is higher, the reaction rate will be faster. A rule of thumb is that for
every 10 degrees C that you increase the temperature of the reactants, the reaction
rate will double the gel time will be cut in half. That is why larger masses will
react more quickly than small masses. As the reaction proceeds, it generates its
own heat. The heat builds up inside the mixing vessel and the reaction goes faster,
which makes more heat, which makes the reaction go even faster
Hand Lay-Up

PROCESS

Gel coat is first applied to the mold using a spray gun for a high quality surface.
When the gel coat has cured sufficiently, roll stock fiber glass reinforcement is
manually placed on the mold. The laminating resin is applied by pouring, brushing,
spraying, or using a paint roller. FRP rollers, paint rollers, or squeegees are used to
consolidate the laminate, thoroughly wetting the reinforcement and removing
entrapped air. Subsequent layers of fiber glass reinforcement are added to build
laminate thickness. Low density core materials such as end-grain balsa, foam, and
honeycomb, are commonly used to stiffen the laminate. This is known as sandwich
construction.

MOLDS
Simple, single cavity molds of fiber glass composites construction are generally
used. Molds can range from small to very large and are low cost in the spectrum of
composites molds.
MATERIALS PREPARATIONS

The carbon fiber, aluminium and silicon powder which is taken as


reinforcement in this study is collected from local sources. The epoxy resin and the
hardener are supplied. Wooden mould having been first manufactured for
composite fabrication. The fiber material is mixed epoxy resin by simple
mechanical stirring and the mixture was poured into various moulds, keeping in
view the requirement of various testing conditions and characterization standard.

The composite sample of different composition are prepared .the composite


of mixing ratio carbon fiber 10 %, aluminium powder 20%, silicon powder
20% with mixing of epoxy resin 50%. The different type of fiber is used, while
keeping the length of the glass fiber constant. The detailed composition and
designation of composite materials. A releasing agent is used on the mould release
sheets to facilitate easy removal of the composite from the mould after curing. The
entrapped air bubbles are removed carefully with a sliding roller and the mould is
closed for curing at a temperature Of 30 degree C for 24 hours at a constant load of
50kg .after curing the specimen of suitable dimension is cut using a diamond cutter
for mechanical test as per the ASTM standards.
Chapter-4
MECHANICAL PROPERTY
TESTS
CHAPTER-4

MECHANICAL PROPERTY TESTS

HARDNESS TEST

This gives the metals ability to show resistance to indentation which show it’s
resistance to wear and abrasion. Hardness testing of welds and their Heat Affected
Zones (HAZs) usually requires testing on a microscopic scale using a diamond
indenter. The Vickers Hardness test is the predominant test method with Knop
testing being applied to HAZ testing in some instances. Hardness values referred
to in this document will be reported in terms of Vickers Number, HV.
TOUGHNESS TEST
The principal measurement from the impact test is the energy absorbed in
fracturing the specimen. Energy expended during fracture is sometimes known as
notch toughness. The energy expended will be high for complete ductile fracture,
while it is less for brittle fracture. However, it is important to note that
measurement of energy expended is only a relative energy, and cannot be used
directly as design consideration. Another common result from the Charpy test is by
examining the fracture surface. It is useful in determining whether the fracture is
fibrous (shear fracture), granular (cleavage fracture), or a mixture of both.

Fracture toughness test


The fracture toughness of the composite specimens was measured using Fracture
Tester (MTS 810 material test system). The specimens were cut according to
dimensions as specified by the ASTM E1820; this test method is for the opening
mode (Mode I) of loading. The objective of this test method is to load a fatigue pre
cracked test specimen as shown in Figure 8 to induce either or both of the
following responses:
 Unstable crack extension, including significant pop-in, referred to as
“fracture instability” in this test method;
 Stable crack extension, referred to as “stable tearing” in this test method.
Toughness determined at the point of instability. Stable tearing results in
continuous fracture toughness versus crack extension relationship (R-curve) from
which significant point-values may be determined. Stable tearing interrupted by
fracture instability results in an R-curve up to the point of instability. This
investigation split into two major computation scopes to estimate the fracture
toughness and energy release rate: it include the experiment data for fiber
reinforcement epoxy composites specimens. Meanwhile, the compact tension (CT)
specimen was instructed according to the ASTM E 1820 standard for the fracture
toughness measurement. The thickness was 10mm for all the specimens, while the
initial notch length to specimen was between 10mm and the notch tip was
sharpened with a razor blade to simulate a sharp crack.
APPLICATION
Chapter-5
APPLICATION

 Corrosion resisting areas

 Tidal power plant components


CONCLUSION
Chapter-6

CONCLUSION

The fiber composite mechanical behavior was performed.


 Then the study in weight reduction of composite for carbon fiber aluminium
powder and silicon carbide powder composite materials has been done.
 On the basis of that study, the analysis of both cast fiber composite materials
are analyzed in the automobile application of which is used in corrosion
resisting areas
 From the analysis we got the hardness and impact values for fiber composite
materials weight and cost is less.

 So from these analysis mechanical behavior results.


REFERENCE
Chapter-7

REFERENCE

 Holbery, J., Houston, D., Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer


Composites in Automotive Applications, JOM, 2006, 11, 80-86.
 Bledzki, A. K., Faruk, O., Sperber, V. E., Cars from Bio-Fibres,
Macromolecular Material Engineering, 2006, 291, 449–457.
 Mohantya, A. K., Misraa, M., Hinrichsen, G., Bio fibres,
Biodegradable Polymers and Bio composites: An Overview,
Macromolecules and Material Engineering, 2000, 276/277, 1-24.
 Bledzki, A. K., Gassan, J., Composites Reinforced with Cellulose
Based Fibres, Progress in Polymer Science, 1999, 24, 221–274.
 Saheb, D. N., Jog, J. P., Natural Fiber Polymer Composites: A
Review, Advances in Polymer Technology, 1999, 18 (4), 351363.
 Li, X., Tabil, T. G., Panigrahi, S., Chemical Treatments of Natural
Fiber for Use in Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: A Review,
Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 2007, 15, 25–33

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