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Hybrid Composite material have evoked a keen interest in recent times for
potential applications in aerospace and automotive industries owing to their
superior strength to weight ratio and temperature resistance. The widespread
adoption of particulate metal matrix composites for engineering applications
has been hindered by the high cost of producing components.
The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases, the
reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement is
usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate composites have dimensions that are
approximately equal in all directions. They may be spherical, platelets, or any other
regular or irregular geometry. Particulate composites tend to be much weaker and
less stiff than continuous fiber composites, but they are usually much less
expensive. Particulate reinforced composites usually contain less reinforcement (up
to 40 to 50 volume percent) due to processing difficulties and brittleness. A fiber
has a length that is much greater than its diameter. The length-to-diameter (l/d)
ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly.
Continuous fibers have long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have
short aspect ratios. Continuous-fiber composites normally have a preferred
orientation, while discontinuous fibers generally have a random orientation.
Examples of continuous reinforcements include unidirectional, woven cloth, and
helical winding. While examples of discontinuous reinforcements are chopped
fibers and random mat. Continuous-fiber composites are often made into laminates
by stacking single Sheets of continuous fibers in different orientations to obtain the
desired strength and stiffness properties with fiber volumes as high as 60 to 70
percent. Fibers produce high-strength composites because of their small diameter;
they contain far fewer defects (normally surface defects) compared to the material
produced in bulk.
Examples: –
Hybrid:
Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are the main
commercial fibers
Matrix Materials:
Thermoplastic, Epoxy and Thermo-set materials.
Thermoplastics offer the advantages of good mechanical and tribological
properties.
Epoxy resin remains the most important matrix polymer.
Matrix materials:
Reinforcement materials:
C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme temperature
ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn fabric, 3-D
woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.
Applications:
Advantages:
Uses of composites
The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as well
as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and reinforcement
material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the requirements of a
particular application. Composites also provide design flexibility because many of
them can be moulded into complex shapes. The downside is often the cost.
Although the resulting product is more efficient, the raw materials are often
expensive.
Merits of composite materials composites
Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or aluminium
APPLICATIONS
Aircraft: Jet engines, Turbine blades, Turbine shafts, Compressor blades, Airfoil
surfaces, Wing box structures, Fan blades, Flywheels, Engine bay doors, Rotor
shafts in helicopters, Helicopter transmission structures, etc.
The history of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites can be traced back to
the advent of synthetic polymers in the early twentieth century. In 1850s, shellac
was compounded with wood flour. Research on natural fiber composites has
existed since the early 19th century but has not received much attention until late
in the 1980’s.During 1920s, 1930s and early 1940s, a good deal of research was
carried out on natural fiber reinforced composites. Caldwell and Clay carried out
their research work on natural fiber reinforced composites for lighter materials to
be used in aircraft primary structures.
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
Chapter-3
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS
Natural fibers include those made from plant, animal and mineral sources. Natural
fibers can be classified according to their origin.
Animal fiber
Mineral fiber
Plant fiber
1. ANIMAL FIBER
Animal fiber generally comprise proteins; examples mohair, wool, silk, alpaca,
angora.
Fiber taken from animals or hairy mammals. E.g. Sheep‟s wool, goat hair
(cashmere, mohair), alpaca hair, horse hair, etc.
Silk fiber:
Fiber collected from dried saliva of bugs or insects during the preparation of
cocoons. Examples include silk from silk worms.
Avian fiber
2. MINERAL FIBER
Mineral fibers are naturally occurring fiber or slightly modified fiber procured
from minerals. These can be categorized into the following categories:
Asbestos
The only naturally occurring mineral fiber. Varietions are serpentine and
amphiboles, anthophyllite.
Ceramic fibers:
Glass fibers (Glass wood and Quartz), aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron
carbide.
Metal fibers
Aluminum fibers
3. PLANT FIBER
Plant fibers are generally comprised mainly of cellulose: examples include cotton,
jute, flax, ramie, sisal and hemp. Cellulose fibers servers in the manufacture of
paper and cloth. This fiber can be further categorizes into following.
Seed fiber:
Fibers collected from the seed and seed case e.g. cotton and kapok.
Leaf fiber
Skin fiber
Fibers are collected from the skin or bast surrounding the stem of their respective
plant. These fibers have higher tensile strength than other fibers. Therefore, these
fibers are used for durable yarn, fabric, packaging, and paper. Some examples are
flax, jute, banana, hemp, and soybean.
Fruit fiber
Fibers are collected from the fruit of the plant, e.g. coconut (coir) fiber.
Stalk fiber
Fibers are actually the stalks of the plant. E.g. straws of wheat, rice, barley, and
other crops including bamboo and grass. Tree wood is also such a fiber. The
natural fibers can be used to reinforce both thermosetting and thermoplastic
matrices. Thermosetting resins, such as epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, phenolic,
etc. are commonly used today in natural fiber composites, in which composites
requiring higher performance applications. They provide sufficient mechanical
properties, in particular stiffness and strength, at acceptably low price levels.
Considering the ecological aspects of material selection, replacing synthetic fibers
by natural ones is only a first step. Restricting the emission of green house effect
causing gases such as CO2 into the atmosphere and an increasing awareness of the
finiteness of fossil energy resources are leading to developing new materials that
are entirely based on renewable resources.
The natural fiber composites can be very cost effective material for following
applications: Building and construction industry: panels for partition and false
ceiling, partition boards, wall, floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, mobile or
pre-fabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural calamities such as
floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc. Storage devices: post-boxes, grain storage silos,
bio-gas containers, etc. Furniture: chair, table, shower, bath units, etc. Electric
devices: electrical appliances, pipes, etc. Everyday applications: lampshades,
suitcases, helmets, etc. Transportation: automobile and railway coach interior,
boat, etc. Toys
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are
Carbon fiber
Aluminium powder
Silicon carbide powder
Epoxy
1. CARBON FIBER
The earliest commercial use of carbon fibers is often attributed to Thomas Edison’s
carbonization of cotton and bamboo fibers for incandescent lamp filaments (Ref 1).
However, practical commercial use of carbon fibers for reinforcement applications
began in the late 1950s with the pursuit of improved ablative materials for rockets
(Ref 2). Union Carbide marketed a carbonized rayon based fabric in the early
1960s (Ref 3). DuPont’s work with “black Orlon” in the late 1950s showed that
acrylics could be thermally stabilized, while Shindo in Japan and Watt et al. in the
United Kingdom demonstrated that, by using tension through the carbonization
process, high mechanical properties could be realized (Ref 4). Activity increased
rapidly during the 1960s and 1970s to improve the performance/price ratio of
carbon fibers. Much of this effort focused on evaluation of various precursors,
since carbon fiber can be made from almost anything that yields a quality char
upon pyrolysis. Donnet and Bansal (Ref 5) present a good overview of various
researchers’ efforts to evaluate different precursors, including PAN
(polyacrylonitrile), pitch, rayon, phenol, lignin, imides, amides, vinyl polymers,
and various naturally occurring cellulosic materials.
Overall carbon fiber demand grew to approximately 1000 metric tons by 1980,
fueled primarily by the aerospace industry, with the sporting goods industry taking
some excess capacity and off-specification fiber. Polyacrylonitrile based carbon
fiber usage had exceeded all other precursors at that time. This was a surprise to
some, since the anticipation in the late 1970s had been that the significantly lower
raw material price and higher char yield of pitch would result in the winning
combination. However, higher processing costs are required to make a spinnable
pitch, so better overall properties for PAN fibers resulted in their dominance.
Rayon was relegated to third place, despite having a lower raw material cost,
because inferior properties and a low char yield (20 to 25%) after carbonization
made for a higher overall cost. Properties can be improved by stress graphitization
at high temperatures, but this increases cost further, making the fiber even less
desirable. Rayon is still used today for insulating and ablative applications but not
for structural applications
MANUFACTURE OF CARBON FIBERS
Precursor sources used, in order of volume, are PAN, pitch, and rayon. Although
the specific processing details for each precursor is different, all follow a basic
sequence involving spinning, stabilization, carbonization, and application of a
finish or sizing to facilitate handling. Discontinuous carbon fiber whiskers are also
now produced in a batch process from hydrocarbon gases using a vapor-liquid-
solid growth mechanism.
Composites made from carbon fiber are five times stronger than grade 1020 steel
for structural parts, yet are still five times lighter. In comparison to 6061
aluminum, carbon fiber composites are seven times stronger and two times stiffer,
yet 1.5 times lighter. Carbon fiber composites have fatigue properties superior to
all known metals, and, when coupled with the proper resins, carbon fiber
composites are one of the most corrosion resistant materials available. Certain
mesophase-pitch-based carbon fibers possess thermal conductivity three times
greater than copper. The electrical conductivity of PAN and pitch-based carbon
fibers is used to dissipate static electricity in a wide variety of computer related
Products. They do not melt or soften with heat, allowing them to be used in such
high temperature applications as rocket nozzles and aircraft brakes. In fact, their
strength actually increases with temperature in non-oxidizing atmospheres. These
unique properties are the result of the fiber microstructure, in both the axial and
transverse directions
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF CARBON FIBERS
2. ALUMINIUM POWDER
MARKET POTENTIAL
The aluminium powder is a consumable product. Presently there are four major
organised manufacturers of aluminium powder. They are Metal Powder Company,
Thirumangalam, INDAL, Mumbai, Khosla Metal Powder Company, Pune and
Arasan Aluminium Industries, Sivakasi. In addition, there are a number of small
scale industries located in Karnataka, M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat and Delhi with
an installed capacity of 1 tonne per day. In a recent report of DSIR, the total
production of aluminium powder in the country has been estimated at more than
10,000 MT per year. DGTD has estimated the growth of demand between 8 to
10% per annum. In conclusion, it can be said that production of aluminium
powders of various grades and products such as aluminium paste is well
established in the country. The aluminium powder industry is of a remarkable size.
There is a growing market for export of aluminium powder and paste. Good
opportunities exist in the field of setting up new units in small scale sectors with
proven technology and appropriate quality orientation
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Process of Manufacture
The powder produced will meet standard specifications for air atomised powder
and by using proper control equipment consistent quality of the product can be
fully ensured with minimum losses. The quality control standards as per IS-438-
1972 are to be followed.
Pollution Control
This item is not exempted by the Pollution Control Board. Therefore, a clearance
certificate is required from the Pollution Control Board as per their requirements.
Necessary pollution control measures are to be incorporated in the control profile.
Energy Conservation
Properties value
Another product that you can purchase Tritrust Industrial is Silicon Powder. A lot
of manufacturers and industries use silicon alone or combined with other
ingredients. The mineral is known for its thickening and moisture absorbing
properties. These characteristics make the mineral useful in cosmetics,
construction, and even foods. The name silicon is derived from silex, which is a
Latin word that means hard stone or flint. Silicon was discovered by Jons Jacob
Berzelius in 1824. It is the second most abundant element on the planet after
carbon. It is found in the wild as a silicate that is part of various clays, soils, and
rocks. Silicon is obtained by reducing silica sand with carbon in an electric
furnace. And in order to get the purest form of silicon powder, it goes through zone
refining. It is prepared through the decomposition of ultrapure trichlorosiliane. The
process is completed with recrystallization.
PROPERTIES
Properties value
Epoxy Resins Epoxy resins have been commercially available since the early
1950’s and are now used in a wide range of industries and applications.
Epoxies are classified in the plastics industry as thermosetting resins and they
achieve the thermo set state by means of an addition reaction with a suitable curing
agent. The curing agent used will determine whether the epoxy cures at ambient or
elevated temperatures and also influence physical properties such as toughness and
flexibility
PROPERTIES OF EPOXY
The primary reason for epoxy’s popularity is its superb mechanical strength.
Welding is often the only alternative. Epoxy is nearly always cheaper and faster
than welding. Epoxy also has excellent resistance to chemicals. After setting, there
is no worry of a chemical reaction that will weaken the seal. It also resists heat.
That resistance makes it ideal for electronics and electrical systems and other
industrial applications. Those who use epoxy are aware of the superb mechanical
strength and low curing contraction. They also know the epoxy resins are well-
balanced industrial materials and suited to a broad range of applications. Engineers
are faced with concerns about heat dissipation, electrical insulation, adhering
dissimilar substrates, light weighting, sound dampening, vibration, and reduction
corrosion. Appearance has to be considered, as well as, assembling costs. Epoxy is
an adhesive formulation that meets all of those concerns. Its thermal and electrical
properties, strength, and durability are what epoxy is noted for. Those properties
along with the resistance to immersion and hostile chemical vapor are the reason
epoxy often is chosen by engineers.
Performance Properties
Biocompatibility
Environmentally friendly
Flame resistant
Food Safe
It has excellent gap filling properties. Epoxy is resistant to cold, radiation, and
steam. The superior performance of epoxy remains when exposed to adverse
environmental conditions.
METHODS
DIE MAKING
The tooling involved in plastic molding is quite similar to that of stamping dies.
The principal difference is that stamping requires force, while molding does not. In
plastic molding, two units are required whose design is such that, when brought
together, they make up a system of closed cavities linked to a central orifice.
Liquid plastic is forced through the orifice and into the cavities, or molds, and
when the plastic solidifies, the molds open and the finished parts are ejected.
MAKING PROCESS
Caron fiber, Aluminium and silicon powder knitted fabric with are used in this
study. Hardener used is polyamide hardener. The epoxy resin and hardener are
mixed in the ratio of 2:1 and stirred thoroughly. Release agent used was mansion
polish. Experimental methods Most mentioned method to clean fibers found in
literature is distilled water cleaning and then alkaline treatment (NaOH). The
concentration of NaOH used is 5%. The fibers are washed with fresh water
thoroughly. The fibers are then soaked in NaOH solution for 8 hours. The fibres
were then washed several times with fresh water to remove the residual NaOH
sticking to the fibre surface and neutralized by Acetic acid finally washed again
with water. The fibers were then dried at room temperature for 10 hours. Removal
of lignin, hemicellulose, silica and pith from the fiber to have better impregnation
between fiber and matrix and improving fiber surface roughness to have a better
interaction are the main objectives of fiber chemical treatment.
MIXING PROCESS
This rating scale is a general guideline to give the user an expected level of success
in a typical bench-top dispensing scenario. Important process variables to consider
are: Cartridge type and size, wall thickness; manual or pneumatic gun type; static
mixer design and dimensions; product viscosity spread and ratio; shot size, shot
frequency, flow rate; temperature range during use. This scale also address’s
product stability in a cartridge. Factors such as filler content and settling rate,
storage temperature and cartridge orientation are important factors which affect
this. It is important for the user to define the optimum static mix for each
dispensing process, a change in any of the above variables can affect the mix
quality. Dispensing the product on a flat surface using the dispensing pattern can
help show the quality of mixing in terms of thoroughness and lead/lag consistency.
SURFACE PREPARATION
If the surfaces that you intend to adhere together are not prepared properly, the best
adhesive in the world will not hold them together. The major problems in adhesive
delamination are dirt and oil. Whenever possible, the surfaces to be adhered should
be abraded with sand paper or by sand or shot blasting before the adhesive is
applied. Oil on the surface of steel or even oil from fingerprints can ruin a bond. If
the surface to be bonded is painted, the bond of the paint to the substrate will be a
limiting factor in the overall bond quality. Plastic surfaces should be abraded and
when possible flame treated or corona treated to remove any plasticizer from the
surface and provide an oxygen rich surface environment for the adhesive. Mixing:
When hand mixing the epoxy resins and the hardeners, it is best to pour the resin,
the Part A, into the mixing vessel first. The product should be weighed to the
nearest gram or to the nearest 0.5%, whichever is more precise.
Next, the Part B is added using the same weighing procedure. Mix the two
components using a stir stick or a paint mixer in a drill or drill press. Mix the
product for at least 3 minutes by the clock. scraping the sides and bottom of the
mix vessel frequently. [Remember, it's just like baking a cake!] After the products
have been thoroughly mixed, the mixture should be poured into the mold or used in
the adhesive step. Often, the end product must be totally free of voids and bubbles.
If this is the case, the mix must be vacuumed before being poured into the mold.
This is done by putting the mix vessel into a vacuum chamber and pulling a
vacuum of at least 28" Hg. This will usually degas the product within 5 minutes.
The reaction mixture will bubble and froth. You should have a mix container at
least 4 times the volume of the liquid in the container for vacuum degassing.
Therefore, 1 quart of the liquid product will require a 1 gallon bucket to degas the
mixture. If you intend to vacuum degas a product, make sure that you tell Star
Technology about your wishes. We will need to formulate to product with a
delayed gel time and extra air release additives to allow sufficient time to
accomplish the process.
REACTION RATES
Now is probably a good time to talk about the reaction rate of the mixture and what
effects it. Reaction rates are usually stated at a certain temperature and at a certain
mass of material. If you are working with a larger mass, the reaction time will be
shorter. Lower masses and thin films will be much longer. If the reaction starting
temperature is higher, the reaction rate will be faster. A rule of thumb is that for
every 10 degrees C that you increase the temperature of the reactants, the reaction
rate will double the gel time will be cut in half. That is why larger masses will
react more quickly than small masses. As the reaction proceeds, it generates its
own heat. The heat builds up inside the mixing vessel and the reaction goes faster,
which makes more heat, which makes the reaction go even faster
Hand Lay-Up
PROCESS
Gel coat is first applied to the mold using a spray gun for a high quality surface.
When the gel coat has cured sufficiently, roll stock fiber glass reinforcement is
manually placed on the mold. The laminating resin is applied by pouring, brushing,
spraying, or using a paint roller. FRP rollers, paint rollers, or squeegees are used to
consolidate the laminate, thoroughly wetting the reinforcement and removing
entrapped air. Subsequent layers of fiber glass reinforcement are added to build
laminate thickness. Low density core materials such as end-grain balsa, foam, and
honeycomb, are commonly used to stiffen the laminate. This is known as sandwich
construction.
MOLDS
Simple, single cavity molds of fiber glass composites construction are generally
used. Molds can range from small to very large and are low cost in the spectrum of
composites molds.
MATERIALS PREPARATIONS
HARDNESS TEST
This gives the metals ability to show resistance to indentation which show it’s
resistance to wear and abrasion. Hardness testing of welds and their Heat Affected
Zones (HAZs) usually requires testing on a microscopic scale using a diamond
indenter. The Vickers Hardness test is the predominant test method with Knop
testing being applied to HAZ testing in some instances. Hardness values referred
to in this document will be reported in terms of Vickers Number, HV.
TOUGHNESS TEST
The principal measurement from the impact test is the energy absorbed in
fracturing the specimen. Energy expended during fracture is sometimes known as
notch toughness. The energy expended will be high for complete ductile fracture,
while it is less for brittle fracture. However, it is important to note that
measurement of energy expended is only a relative energy, and cannot be used
directly as design consideration. Another common result from the Charpy test is by
examining the fracture surface. It is useful in determining whether the fracture is
fibrous (shear fracture), granular (cleavage fracture), or a mixture of both.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE