PHY 112

Basic Principle of Physics II –

Electricity and Magnetism
 Electric Charge
(Existence of Electric Charge)
• A comb attracts bits of paper after it has been
run through hair on a dry day.
• An inflated balloon that has been rubbed with
a wool adheres to a wall, sometimes for hours
• Materials that behave the way the COMB and
the BALLOON behaved are said to electrically
charged
 Properties of Electric charges
• There are two kinds of electric charges (positive
and negative)

• Like charges repel one another unlike charges

attract one another.
Applications
Some cosmetics take advantage of electric
force by incorporating materials that are
electrically attracted to the skin or hair,
causing the pigment to stay once applied.
 Properties of Electric charges
• Electric charge is always conserved
Meaning
When one object is rubbed against
another charge is not created in the
process. The electrified state is due to
transfer from one object to the other. One
object gain some amount of negative
charge while the other object gains an
equal amount of positive charge.
 Properties of Electric charges
• Electric charge (q) is quantized.
Meaning
q is integer multiplied by a quantity with a
constant value. The quantity was found to
be electron charge i.e. q = Ne
 Insulators, Conductors and
Semiconductors
• Substances are classified based on whether
electric charge can flow through them or not
• Insulators: These are materials in which electric
charges can not move freely. Examples are –
glass, rubber and wood.
Implication: When insulators are charged
by rubbing, only the area rubbed becomes
charged because the charge will not be able
to flow to other regions of the material.
 Conductors
• Conductors: These are materials in which electric charges
move freely. Examples are – copper, aluminium and silver.
Implication: When the materials are charged in one
region, the charge readily redistributes itself over the
entire surface of the material.

• Note: A metal that is held in the hand when it is charged

will not attract a piece of paper because all the charges
would have moved through the hand into the Earth.

• However if the metal is held with an insulator, the charge

will be retained in it and will therefore attract paper.

• The insulator will prevent the charge from reaching the

hand.
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors: These are materials with
electrical properties between those of
insulators and semiconductors. Examples are –
silicon and germanium.
Implication: When the materials are
charged in one region, the charges move in
the materials but not as fast as in
conductors.
 Grounding of a conductor
• When a CONDUCTOR is connected to the
EARTH by means of a conducting wire or pipe,
it is said to be GROUNDED.

• The EARTH is usually referred to as an infinite

“SINK” to which electrical charge can migrate.
 Charging by Induction
• Apart from rubbing, materials can also be
charged by induction
Steps
• Step 1: Take a neutral (uncharged)
conducting sphere insulated from the
ground
•
 Charging by Induction
• Step 2: Bring a negatively charged rubber rod
near sphere, the region nearest the
rod will end up having excess positive
charges while the region farthest
away will have equal excess of
negative charges.
 Charging by Induction
(without insulation from ground)
• Step 1: Take a neutral (uncharged)
conducting sphere connected to the
ground with a conducting wire.
 Charging by Induction
(without insulation from ground)
• Step 2: Bring a negatively charged rubber rod
near sphere, the region nearest the
rod will end up having excess positive
charges while the region farthest
away will have equal excess of
negative charges.
• Some of the electrons in the conductor are so
strongly repelled by the presence of the negative
charge in the rod that they move out through the
wire to the Earth.
 Charging by Induction
(without insulation from ground)
• Step 3: When the wire to the ground is
removed the conducting sphere
contains excess induced positive
charge.
 Charging by Induction
(without insulation from ground)
• Step 4: Finally when the rubber rod is
removed, the induced positive charges remain
and are uniformly distributed over the surface
of the sphere due to the repulsive forces
among them.
 Coulomb’s Law
• The law describes the electric force between
two charged objects.
• The law states that the electric force between
two stationary charged particles is
(1) inversely proportional to thee
square of the separation r between
the particles and is directed along the
line joining them.
r
• q
1 q
2

F 1 2
r
 Coulomb’s Law
(2) proportional to the product of
charges q1 and q2 on the two
particles i.e.

F  q1  q2

(3) attractive if the charges are of

opposite sign and repulsive if they
have the same sign.
 Coulomb’s Law Equation
• From the three observations, the Coulomb law
equation for calculating the magnitude of the
electric force (Coulomb force) between two
point charges is q1 q2
F k
r2
• k is the Coulomb constant and has a value
8.9875 x 109 N.m2/C2 = 1
4
• o, permittivity for free space, is 8.8542 x 10-12
o

C2/N.m2
 Coulomb’s Law Equation
• Since force is vector quantity, the coulomb
equation in the vector form is
q1 q 2 ^
F12  k 2
r
r
• This is the electric force exerted by charge q1
on charge q2.

• The force obeys Newton’s third law, the

electric force exerted by q2 on charge q1 is
• F  F
21 12
 Coulomb’s Law Equation
• If q1 and q2 have the same sign, the force is
positive and it is therefore repulsive.
• If q1 and q2 are of opposite signs, the force is
negative and it is therefore attractive.
• Hence product q1q2 determines the direction
of the force.
• When more than two charges are present, e.g.
charges q1, q2, q3 and q4, then the resultant
force exerted on q1 by q2, q3 and q4 is
F1  F21  F31  F41
 Questions
• Question 1

• Solution to Question 1
• First calculate the number of atoms in 10.0g of
silver using the relation
 Question

m
N  NA
M
• Where N is the number of atoms

• 10.0
N  6.02 10 23  5.58 10 22 atoms
107.87

• (a) The number of electrons in the pin = number

of atoms multiply by number of electrons per
atom =5.58 x 1022 x 47 = 2.62 x 1024 electrons.
 Questions
• The total number of electrons addede to make a
charge 1 mC = this charge value divided charge
per electron = 1mC/1.6x10-19C = 1x10-
3C/1.6x10-19C/electron=6.25 x 1015 electrons.

• First calculate the number of electrons added for

every one electron = 6.25 x 1015/ 2.62 x 1024 =
2.385 x 10-9 electron.
• Hence for every 109 electrons already present the
number added = 2.385 x 10-9 x 109 = 2.385
electrons
 Questions
• Question 2
 Questions

• Solution F2,7

F-4,7

F2, 7  F2, 7 x i  F2, 7 y j

F 4, 7  F 4, 7 x i  F 4, 7 y j
 Questions
• F7 = F2,7 + F-4,7  ( F2,7 x  F 4,7 x )i  ( F2,7 y  F 4,7 y ) j

2  10 6  7  10 6 2  10 6  7  10 6
F2,7  k 2
 8.9875  10  9
2
 0.5033 N
0 .5 0 .5

4 10 6  7 10 6 4  10 6
 7  10 6
F 4, 7 k 2
 8 . 9875  10 9
 2
 1.0066 N
0 .5 0 .5
 Questions
F2 , 7 x  F2.7 cos 60  0.5033N  0.5  0.2517N
F2 , 7 y  F2.7 sin 60  0.5033N  0.8660  0.4359N
F 4 , 7 x  F 4.7 cos 60  1.0066N  0.5  0.5033N
F 4 , 7 y   F 4.7 sin 60  1.0066N  0.8660  0.8717N

• Hence F7  (F2,7 x  F4,7 x )i  (F2,7 y  F4,7 y ) j

 ( F2, 7 x  F 4, 7 x )i  ( F2, 7 y  F 4, 7 y ) j  (0.2517  0.5033)i  (0.4359  0.8717) j
 0.755i  0.4358 j
• The magnitude of the force is F  0.755  0.4358 7
2 2
 0.8717 N

• The direction is obtained from tan = -

0.4358/0.755
•  = - 30o.
Questions

F2,7

30o
F7
F-4,7
 Question
• Question 3
 Question
• Solution
• Assume that the charge on the third bead is Q.
Also that the point of equilibrium of the small
charge is at a distance c from the charge +3q.
Hence the distance of the point from the +q
charge is d-c.
c d-c

Q
 Question
• At equilibrium the net force on the third
charge must be zero.
• The net force acting on the third bead is the
addition of the exerted by the first bead on
the third bead and the one exerted by the
second bead on the third bead i.e. F13 +F23.
• The net for will be zero on the where the
directions of F13 and F23 are opposite and
F13 = F23
 Question
• F13 and F23 will be opposite direction only
when the third bead is located between the
first and the second as given in the question.
• Now the condition, F13 = F23 
3q  Q qQ
• k 2 k  3

1
c (d  c)
2
c 2 2
(d  c)

2 2 3 1
•2𝑐 −6dc + 3𝑑 =0  𝑐 = 𝑑± 3𝑑
2 2
3 1
• The valid value of c is 𝑐 = 𝑑 − 3𝑑
2 2
 Electric Field
• The field around a charged object is called
ELECTRIC FIELD
• When another charged object enters the field,
an electric force act on it.
• If a small positive test charge is placed near
another object with much greater charge.
 Electric Field
• The strength of the electric field at the location of
the test charge is electric force per unit charge.
• In other words, the electric field E at a point in
space is the electric force F acting on a positive
test charge q placed at that point divided by the
magnitude of the test charge:
𝑄𝑞
𝐹 𝑘 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑄
𝐸= = = 𝑘 2𝑟
𝑞 𝑞 𝑟
 Electric Field
• Hence if the electric field at a point in known, the
electric force experienced by charged object
(charge q) placed at the point can be determined
as
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
• In the definition of E, the test charge is assumed
to be small in order not to disturb the charge
distribution responsible for the field.
•
 Direction of Electric Field
• The direction of the electric field from a
charged object is also determined by placing a
small positive test charge near it.
• If the charged object is positive, it means the
field will be directed radially outward from it.
 Direction of Electric Field
• If the charged object is negative, it means the
field will be directed toward it.
 Superposition of Electric Field
• If more than one charged object are present,
the total electric field, at any point, due to all
the charges is the vector sum of the electric
fields of the individual objects.
• For two charqes q1 and q, the total electric
field at a point P will be
𝑞1 𝑞2
• 𝐸= 𝑘 2 𝑟1 + 𝑘 2 𝑟2 r1
q1
q2
𝑟1 𝑟2
P r2
 Questions

Fe=qE
• Solution
object

• E


Fg=mg
 Question
• If the object floats, it means it is not going up
nor coming down. Therefore the two forces Fe
and Fg are equal i.e.
𝑞𝐸 24×10−6 ×610
• mg = qE  𝑚= =
𝑔 10
• m = 1.464 x 10-3 kg = 1.464 g
 Question

• Solution 3000m +40 C

2000m

• 1000m -40 C
 Question
• First determine the directions of the fields of -
40.0 C and +40.0 C on the plane by assuming a
small test positive charge at the position of
the plane 3000m

2000m

E40

1000m E-40
 Question
40
• 𝐸40 = 𝑘 2 = 8.9875 × 109 × 40 × 10;6 = 3.595 × 105 N/C
1000
40 9 × 40 × 10;6 = 3.595 × 105 N/C
• 𝐸;40 = 𝑘 = 8.9875 × 10
10002
• The resultant field, Eplane = E40 + E-40
• with E40 = E40xi + E40y j and E-40 = E-40xi + E-40y j
• Eplane = (E40x + E-40x)i+ (E40y + E-40y)j
• To get the resultant field at the position of the plane, resolve the fields
along the x and y axes.
• The component of each of the two fields along x axis is zero
• Along y-axis,
• E40y = - 3.595 × 105
• E-40y = - 3.595 × 105
• Eplane = (0i –7.19 × 105 j )N/C = –7.19 × 105 j N/C
• 𝐸𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 7.19 × 105 N/C
 Question
• Question 3
 Question
• Solution
• Determine the directions of the fields due 6.0
nC and -3.0 nC at the origin by assuming a
small positive test charge there.

E6
E-3
 6×10−9
• 𝐸6 = 𝑘 = 8.9875 × 109 × 66.67 × 10;9 = 599.2N/C
0.32
3×10−9
• 𝐸;3 = 𝑘 = 8.9875 × 109 × 300 × 10;9 = 2696.3N/C
0.12
• 
• E6 = -599.2 i
• E-3 = -2696.3 j
• Eorigin = E6 + E-3 = (-599.2 i -2696.3 j ) N/C
• (b) The vector force on the charge 5 nC placed at the origin is
• Forigin = q x Eorigin = 5 x 10-9 x (-599.2 i -2696.3 j )
• = (-2996 x 10-9 i -13481.5 x 10-9 j) N
 Electric Field Of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
• A system of closely spaced charges is
equivalent to a total charge that is
continuously distributed along some line, over
some surface or throughout some volume.
• That is, the distances between the group of
charges are much smaller than the distance
from the group to some point of interest.
 Electric Field Of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
Steps for calculating E
• Step 1: Divide the charge distribution into
small elements, each of which
contains charge q.
• Step 2: For element i with charge qi, the
electric field is
∆𝑞𝑖
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑘 2 𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝑖
ri is the distance of element i from the
point of interest.
 Electric Field Of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
• Step 3: If the charge distribution is divided
into n elements, add together the
electric field of all the elements i.e.
∆𝑞1 ∆𝑞2 ∆𝑞𝑛
• 𝐸= 𝑘 2 𝑟1 + 𝑘 2 𝑟2 + ⋯+ 𝑘 2 𝑟𝑛
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛

𝑛 ∆𝑞𝑖
• = 𝑖<1 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟𝑖
𝑖
• When q is very small i.e. q  0
∆𝑞
• 𝐸=𝑘 2 𝑟
𝑟
 Electric Field Of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
• Estimation of q
• (a) Volume Charge Density
• If the charge, say Q, is uniformly distributed over
the volume V, then there exist a volume charge
density which is the same on any segment of the
volume i.e.
𝑄
𝜌=
𝑉
• This means the charge on the elemental volume
dV will be
∆𝑞 = 𝜌. 𝑑𝑉
• (2) Surface charge density
• If the charges are just limited to the surface of
area A and are uniformly distributed, there exist a
surface charge density which is the same on any
part of the surface i.e.
𝑄
𝜍=
𝐴
• This means the charge on the elemental surface
area dA will be
∆𝑞 = 𝜍. 𝑑𝐴
• (3) Linear charge density
• If the charges are uniformly distributed on a
linear of length l, there exist a linear charge
density which is the same on any part of the line
i.e.
𝑄
𝛾=
𝑙
• This means the charge on the elemental line dl
will be
∆𝑞 = 𝛾. 𝑑𝑙
 Question

• Solution
 Question
• The charge dq in the small segment of length dx is
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑥
• The direction of the field at P due to this segment is in the
negative x-direction. Its magnitude is
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘 2 = 𝑘 2
𝑥 𝑥
• The directions of the other elements on the rod are also in the
negative x-direction. The total electric field at P due to all the
segments of the rod which are at different distances from P is
𝑎:𝑙
𝑑𝑥 1 1 𝑙 𝑘𝑄
𝐸= 𝑘 2 = 𝑘 − = 𝑘 =
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑎+𝑙 𝑎 𝑎+𝑙 𝑎 𝑎+𝑙
What will happen if point P is very far from the rod i.e. 𝑎 ≫ 𝑙?
• Solution
θ
dE  36.0 cm

x x

dx dx
7.0 cm 7.0 cm
• The linear charge density, , is
𝑄 ;22.0 11 1100
• = = =− μC/cm= − μC/m
𝑙 14.0 7 7
• Resolve the electric field of each element to x-
and y-directions.
• x-component
• For every element on the left side of the point
there is an equivalent element with same
electric field in magnitude but opposite in
directions. Hence the total electric field in the
x-direction is zero
• i.e. Ex = 0
• Y-component
• For every element on the left side of the point there is an equivalent element with
same electric field in magnitude and direction. The direction is in the negative y-
direction. The magnitude of the electric field of one element is
𝑑𝑞 0.36 0.36𝑘𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑑𝐸𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑𝐸𝐶𝑜𝑠 = 𝑘 . = 3
0.362 + 𝑥 2 0.362 + 𝑥 2 0.362 + 𝑥 2 2

• For the two equivalent elements, the magnitude of the field is

0.72𝑘𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 3
0.362 + 𝑥 2 2
• Hence the total electric field in the y-direction is
0.07 0.72𝑘𝑑𝑥 𝑥 0.07
• 𝐸𝑦 = 0 3 = 0.72𝑘 =
0.362 :𝑥 2 2 0.362 0.362 :𝑥 2 0
0.07 0 1100×10−6
0.72𝑘 − = 0.72 × 8.9875 × 109 × × 1.4728
0.362 0.362 :0.07 2 0.362 0.362 :02 7
6
• = 1.497 × 10 N/C
• E = - 1.497 × 106 j N/C
• Solution dE
c
 


• Choose a small ring element, of the disk, with charge dq

• The field at point P due to every element on the chosen
ring has an x-component of magnitude 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝐸𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 and
a y-component of magnitude 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑑𝐸𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
• Every element on the ring has another element
on the opposite side with the same magnitude
but opposite direction in the y-component,
therefore the total electric field in the y-direction
is zero i.e.
Ey = 0
• Every element on the ring has electric field with
the same magnitude and direction in the x-
component, therefore the total electric field in
the x-direction is obtained as follows
• The electric field due to a small part of the ring with
charge q is
𝛿𝑞 𝑥 𝛿𝑞 𝛿𝑞
• 𝑑𝐸𝑥,𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑑𝐸𝐶𝑜𝑠 = 𝑘 . = 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 3
𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐3 𝑟 2 :𝑥 2 2

• Total electric field for this particular ring is

𝛿𝑞
𝐸𝑥,𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘𝑥 3
2
𝑟 +𝑥 2 2

• For this ring, r and x are constants. Hence

𝑘𝑥
𝐸𝑥,𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 3 𝛿𝑞
𝑟2 + 𝑥2 2
• 𝛿𝑞 is the total charge on the ring i.e.
• 𝛿𝑞 = area of ring x surface charge density
• = 2rdr x 0.0079 =0.0158 rdr
• Therefore
0.0158𝑘𝜋𝑥𝑟𝑑𝑟
• 𝐸𝑥,𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 3
𝑟 2 :𝑥 2 2

• The field of the disk at P is then

𝑅 0.0158𝑘𝜋𝑥𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑅 𝑟𝑑𝑟
• 𝐸𝑥,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 0 2 2 3 =0.0158𝑘𝜋𝑥 0 2 2 3
𝑟 :𝑥 2 𝑟 :𝑥 2
• To evaluate the integral, let 𝑢 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑢 =
2𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑢/2. With this transformation, the integral
becomes
𝑅 𝑟𝑑𝑟
• 𝐸𝑥,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 0.0158𝑘𝜋𝑥 0 𝑟 2 :𝑥 2 3 2
=
𝑅 2 :𝑥 2 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑅 2 :𝑥 2
2
0.0158𝑘𝜋𝑥 𝑥2 3 = 0.0158𝑘𝜋𝑥 −
𝑢 2 𝑢 𝑥2

1 1
• = 0.0158𝑘𝜋𝑥 2
−
𝑥 𝑅 2 :𝑥 2

• For the (a) part of the question R =35 cm = 0.35 m and x = 5

cm =0.05m
 Electric Field Lines
• Electric field lines are the lines, which in the same as the
electric field vector at any point, around a charged object.
• Relationship between electric field in any region of space
and electric field lines are:
• (1) The electric field vector E is tangent to the electric
field line at each point.
• (2) The number of lines per unit area through a
surface perpendicular to the lines is proportional to
the magnitude of the electric field in that region.
• Point (2) means that E is great when the field lines are close
together and small when they are far apart.
• Point (2) also means that the density of lines through
a given surface is higher when placed near the
charge object than when placed far from it (see the
figure).
• Also shown in the figure is that the directions of the
lines at different location differs. This means the
electric field around a charged object is not uniform.
 Electric Field Lines around point
charges
• For a negative point charge, the lines are
directed radially away from it.
• For a positive point charge, the lines are
directed towards it.
 Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines
• The lines must begin on a positive charge and
terminate on a negative charge.
• The number of lines leaving the positive
charge or approaching the negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
• No two field lines can cross.
• NOTE: The ratio of the number of lines
entering or leaving a charge to that of another
charge is equal to the ratio of their charges.
Examples of Electric Field lines
between two charges
 Motion of Charged Particles in a
Uniform Electric field
• If the only force that is acting on the particles of
charge q is as a result of the electric field and that
the particles of mass m is moving with an
acceleration a then,
qE = ma  a = qE/m
• If q is positive, the direction of the particles is the
direction of the field (see figure on next slide).
• If q is negative, the direction of the particles is
opposite to the direction of the field
 Examples of configurations that
produce uniform field
• The electric field in the region between two
oppositely charged flat metallic plates is
approximately constant.
Questions
• Solution
• The electric force on either the electron or proton is given
by qE
• If the particle is moving with acceleration a then, qE = ma
i.e. a=qE/m  speed/t = qE/m
• i.e. Speed =qEt/m
1.6×10−19 ×520×48×10−9
• For electron, Speed= 9.11×10−31
= 4.4 × 106 m/s

1.6×10−19 ×520×48×10−9
• For proton, Speed= = 2.4 × 103 m/s
1.67×10−27
• Solution
𝑞𝐸 1.6×10−19 ×;6×105 𝑖
• 𝑎𝑥 = = = −5.75 × 1013 𝑖 𝑚 𝑠2
𝑚 1.67×10−27
• The speed is obtained from 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠. When the proton
comes to rest at distance of 7 cm it means at that point V = 0.
• 𝑢 = −2𝑎𝑠 = −2 × −5.75 × 1013 × 0.07 = 2.84 × 106 𝑚 𝑠
• The time is obtained from v=u+at, when it comes to rest v=0 and u
has been determined then
• t =-u/a = - 2.84 × 106 / −5.75 × 1013 = 0.49 x 10;7 = 49 ns
 Electric Potential
• Work to be done in bringing a positive test charge from point A to B
in an electric field E is equal to the change in potential energy (The
charge possess an initial P.E., as it is moved in the field it gains K.E.
and therefore the P.E. decreases)
𝐵 𝐵
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = − 𝐹. 𝑑𝑠 = − 𝑞𝑜 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
𝐴 𝐴
• Potential energy per unit charge (U/qo) is electric potential OR
• The electric potential at an arbitrary point in an electric field equals
the work required per unit charge to bring a positive test charge
from infinity to that point i.e.
𝑃
𝑉𝑃 = − 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
∞
• The potential difference between two points A
and B in an electric field equals the work required
per unit charge to bring a positive test charge
from one of the point to the other i.e.
𝐵
𝑊𝐴𝐵 ∆𝑈
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜 𝐴
• Electric field lines always point in the direction of
decreasing electric potential.
• Electric potential is independent of the charges
that may be placed in the field.
• For example, let us calculate the potential
difference between two points A and B
separated by a distance d in a uniform electric
field directed along the negative y-axis.
• Solution
𝐵
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 𝐴
𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 =
𝐵 𝐵
− 𝐴
− 𝐸 𝑗. − 𝑑𝑠 𝑗 = − E 𝐴
𝑑𝑠𝑗. 𝑗 =
𝐵
−𝐸 𝐴
𝑑𝑠= −𝐸𝑑
• Negative sign means electric field lines always point in
the direction of decreasing potential (i.e. VB < VA)
• If a test charge qo moves in the field as shown in the
figure, then the change in the potential energy of the
charge is
• U = qo𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −qoEd
(For explanation of the points below, realise that a field pointing in the negative y axis is obtained only when a
negative charge is down and the test positive charge is assumed to be on top of it)

• If qo is positive it means U is negative i.e. final

potential energy is smaller than initial potential.
This means a positive charge loses electric
potential energy when it moves in the direction
of the electric field.
• If qo is negative it means U is positive i.e. final
potential energy is greater than initial potential.
This means a negative charge gains electric
potential energy when it moves in the direction
of the electric field.
General Case
• A more general case is when the direction of
motion of the charge is at an angle (different
from zero) to the direction of the electric field.
• If the field is uniform then,
𝐵 𝐵
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 𝐴
𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = −𝐸. 𝐴
𝑑𝑠 = −𝐸. 𝑠
• Also ∆𝑈 = −𝑞𝑜 𝐸. 𝑠
• This means that all the points on a plane perpendicular
to the field are at the same electric potential.
• A surface that is made up of points with the same
electric potential is referred to as EQUIPOTENTIAL
SURFACE.
• Note that ∆𝑈=0 on equipotential surface, this means
no work is done in moving a test charge between two
points on an equipotential surface.
 Question

• Solution
𝐵
• 𝑈𝐴𝐵 = −𝑞 𝐴 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
• Since E is uniform, then
𝐵
• 𝑈𝐴𝐵 = −𝑞𝐸. 𝐴
𝑑𝑠= −𝑞𝐸. 𝑠
• but E = 250i, s = 0.2i+0.5j
𝐵
•  𝑈𝐴𝐵 = −𝑞𝐸. 𝐴
𝑑𝑠= −𝑞𝐸. 𝑠 =- 12 x 10-6 x 250i.(0.2i+0.5j)=6.0 x
10-4 J
• (another approach is to calculate the displacement of the charge
from origin to (20 cm , 50 cm) and then resolve it to x and y axis)
• The potential difference is
𝑈𝐴𝐵 6.0×10−4
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = = 50 V.
𝑞 12×10−6

• Question
• Solution
• The potential difference is
𝐵
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 𝐴 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
• Since E is uniform, then
𝐵
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −𝐸. 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = −𝐸. 𝑠
• Note that electron will move in the direction opposite to that of the
uniform electric field.
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸𝑠 = 5.90 × 103 × 0.01 = 59V
• The change in potential energy of the electron =q𝑉𝐴𝐵
• = −1.6 × 10;19 × 59 = −94.4 × 10;19 J
• The negative sign means the potential energy has decreased by
94.4 × 10;19 J.
• This decrease in potential energy is the kinetic energy gain. Hence
 1
• 𝑚𝑣 2 = 94.4 × 10;19
2

2×94.4×10−19 2×94.4×10−19
• 𝑣= = = 4.55 × 106 m/s.
𝑚 9.11×10−31
Electric potential due to point charges
• The electric potential created by a point charge at
any distance r from the charge is
𝑞
• 𝑉= 𝑘
𝑟
• The total electric potential at some point P due
several point charges is the sum of the potentials
due to the individual charges i.e.
𝑞𝑖
• 𝑉=𝑘 𝑖𝑟
𝑖
•
• Solution
𝑞
• 𝑉= 𝑘
𝑟
𝑞
• (a) At 1 cm = 0.01m, the potential = 𝑘 = 9.9875 × 109 ×
𝑟
1.6×10−19
= 1.598 × 10;7 V
0.01
cm = 0.02 m, the potential = 9.9875 × 109 ×
• (b)At 2−19
1.6×10
= 0.7990 × 10;7 V
0.02
• Hence the potential difference =0.7990 × 10;7 − 1.598 ×
10;7 = −0.7990 × 10;7 𝑉
• (a)
• The two charges have the same magnitude and their distance from
the location of the test charge is the same. The signs on the two
charges are also the same, hence
• The magnitude of the force each of them exert on the test charge
will be the same.
• The directions of the force each of them exert on the test charge
will be opposite
• Therefore the total force exerted on the test charge is zero.
q1 q2
F k
r2
• By calculation,
• The magnitude of the force each of the two
charges exert on the test charge is
2  10 6  1.28  10 18 2  10 6  1.28  10 18
F2,7  k  8.9875  10 
9
 3.595  10 14 N
0 .8 2 0 .8 2
• Force due to one on the negative x-axis is
3.595 × 10;14 𝑖 while for the one on the positive
x-axis it is −3.595 × 10;14 𝑖.

• The total force is addition of the two = 0

 q
• (b) The magnitude of electric field is r2
F k
• Hence, the two 2 μC charges will have the same magnitude but opposite
directions.
• Therefore the electric field of the two charges at origin is zero

• (C) The electric potential due to each of the

two charges is 6 6
q 2  10 2  10
V k k  8.9875  10 9   2.25  10 4 V
r 0 .8 0 .8

• The total electric potential due to the two

charges is 2 x (2.25 x 104) = 4.50 x 104 V
 potential Energy due to point charges
• The potential energy of two-point charges system q1 and q2
separated by a distance r is
𝑞1.𝑞2
• 𝑈=𝑘
𝑟
• This is also the work done by an external charge in bringing charge
q2 from infinity to a distance r from charge q1 i.e. work done =q2.V.
𝑞1
where V is the electric potential of q1(= 𝑘 ) at r.
𝑟
• U positive means positive work must be done by an external agent
on the system to bring the two charges near each other (because of
repulsion between the charges).
• U negative means negative work must be done by an external agent
on the system to bring the two charges near each other(because of
attraction between the charges).
• When more than two charges are involved, the
total potential energy is the summation of the
potential energy of every pair of charges. For
example for three-point charge system (q1, q2
and q3), the total potential energy is
𝑞1.𝑞2 𝑞1.𝑞3 𝑞2.𝑞3
• 𝑈=𝑘 + +
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23
• rij is the distance between charges i and j.
• (explanation: Assume q1 is fixed and that the
other two charges is brought one after the other)
 q1
4m
2m

q3 q2
5m

• If q1=q2=q3 2 μC, (a) what is the electric

potential energy of q3? (b) what is the total
potential energy of the system?
• Solution
• (a) The potential energy of q3 is the electric potential
at the location of q3 multiply by q3 i.e.
𝑞1 𝑞2
• 𝑈 = 𝑞3. 𝑘 + 𝑘 = 2 × 10;6 × 8.9875 ×
𝑟1 𝑟2
2×10 −6 2×10 −6
109 + = 2.52 × 10;2 𝐽
2 5
• (b) total potential energy is
𝑞1.𝑞2 𝑞2.𝑞3 𝑞1.𝑞3
• 𝑈= 𝑘 +𝑘 +𝑘 = 8.9875 ×
𝑟12 𝑟23 𝑟13
9 4×10−12 4×10−12 4×10−12
10 + + = 3.42 × 10;2 𝐽
4 5 2
Electric field from Electric potential
• Electric field can be obtained from electric
potential as
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
• 𝐸 = 𝛻𝑉 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• Solution

• (a) The potential is 𝑉 = 10 − 7𝑥

• Hence V at x = 0.3 m is 10 – 7(0.3) =7.9 V/m
at x = 6 m it is 10 – 7(6) =-32 V/m
𝜕𝑉
• (b) The electric field is given by 𝐸 = = −7. This means
𝜕𝑥
the electric field is the same in the region between x = 0
and x = 6 m.
• Solution:
𝜕𝑉
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐸 = − = 6𝑥𝑦 − 5
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐸 = − = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑧 2
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑉
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐸 = − = −4𝑦𝑧
𝜕𝑧
• At (1, 0, -2) m, the x-component of E = 6(1)(0)-5=-5 N/C
• the y-component of E = 3(1)2-2(-2)2= -5 N/C
• the z-component of E = -4(0)(-2)=0
• i.e. 𝐸 = −5𝑖 − 5𝑗 + 0𝑘. Therefore the magnitude of
(−5)2 +(−5)2 + 02 = 7.07 𝑁 𝐶
 Electric potential due to continuous
charge distribution
• The approach is same as for Electric field
except that in this case the denominator is r
instead of r2.

x
dx
• Solution
• As shown in the diagram, consider a small
element dx of the rod at a distance x from
point A. The contribution of the element to
𝑑𝑞 𝛼𝑥𝑑𝑥
the potential at A is d𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑘𝛼𝑑𝑥
𝑑:𝐿 𝑑𝑞 𝑑:𝐿 𝛼𝑥𝑑𝑥
• The total potential is 𝑉 = 𝑑
𝑘 = 𝑑
𝑘 =
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑:𝐿 𝑑:𝐿
𝑑
𝑘𝛼𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝛼 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝛼 𝑑 + 𝐿 − 𝑑 = 𝑘𝛼𝐿
 Capacitors
• A capacitor consists of two conductors separated
by an insulator.
• They are devices that store electric charges
• Typical uses:
• To tune the frequency of radio receivers
• As filters in power supplies
• To eliminate sparking in automobile ignition
systems
• As energy-storing devices in electronic flash units
• A combination of two conductors carrying
charges of equal magnitude and but of
opposite signs, shown below, is an example of
a capacitor.

• The conductors are called plates

• A potential difference V exist between the conductors
due to the presence of charges.
• Experiments have shown that the quantity of charge Q
on a capacitor is linearly proportional to the potential
difference between the conductors i.e. Q  V.
• The proportionality constant is capacitance C which
depends of the shape separation of the conductors i.e.
Q =CV.
• Capacitance (=Q/V )is always a positive quantity and
is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge and
electric potential energy.
• Unit of Capacitance is Farad (F). 1 F = 1 C/V
 Calculation of Capacitance
• For an isolated spherical conductor of radius R and charge Q.
• The potential difference at the location of the conductor is
kQ/R.
𝑄 𝑅
• Hence the Capacitance = 𝑘𝑄 = = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅
𝑘
𝑅
• Therefore, capacitance increases with R but independent of Q
• For a parallel-plate capacitor
• Charge on capacitor plate increases with increase in plate area
i.e. C  A
• Charge also increases with decrease in separation between
plates i.e. C  1/d
• Combining the two relations, it means for a
parallel plate capacitor
𝐴 𝜀𝑜 𝐴
• 𝐶∝ or 𝐶 =
𝑑 𝑑
• o is the permittivity constant of vaccum.
 Combinations of Capacitors
• Parallel combinations
• Individual potential differences across capacitors
connected in parallel are all the same.(i.e. for two
𝑄1 𝑄2
capacitors = . i.e the ratio of charge = ratio of
𝐶1 𝐶2
capacitance)

• Total charge on capacitors connected in parallel is the

sum of the individual capacitor charge. i.e. Q = Q1 + Q2
+ Q3+ …+ QN
i.e. CV = C1V+ C2V+ C3V+…+ CNV
C = C1+ C2+ C3+…+ CN
• Series Combination
• Charges on capacitors connected in series are the same i.e.
for two capacitors(𝐶1 V1= 𝐶2 V2), the ratio of their
capacitances is equal to the reciprocal of the ratio of their
potential differences.
• Potential difference across the battery terminal is equal to
the sum of the potential differences across the individual
capacitors i.e.
• V = V1+ V2+ V3+…+ VN
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
•  = + + + ⋯+
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁
1 1 1 1 1
•  = + + + ⋯+
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁
 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
𝑄2
• Energy stored by a capacitor, 𝑈 = =
2𝐶
1 1 2
𝑄∆𝑉 = 𝐶 ∆𝑉
2 2
• Energy stored in a capacitor is independent of
capacitor’s geometry.
• For a parallel-plate capacitor for which C =
oA/d and ∆𝑉=Ed, the energy is 𝑈 =
1
𝜀𝑜 𝐴𝑑 𝐸 2
2
 Dielectric in Capacitors
• Dielectric is a nonconducting material such as
rubber, glass or waxed paper.
• Capacitance increases when a dielectric material
is inserted between the plates of a capacitor.
• If the dielectric material completely fills the space
between the plates the capacitance increase by a
factor , refer to as dielectric constant. i.e. C=Co
where C and Co are the capacitances with and
without dielectric material respectively
•  varies from one material to another.
• For a parallel-plate capacitor with dielectric
material in place C = oA/d
• The charge in the plates do not if no battery is
connected and therefore from Q = C ∆𝑉, it
means the potential difference with dielectric
material is equal to potential difference
without dielectric material reduced by a factor
 i.e. ∆𝑉= ∆𝑉𝑜 / 
• In summary, dielectric provides the following
advantages:
• Increases capacitance
• Increase maximum operating potential
 Questions

• Solution
• (a) Q = CV =4 x 10-6 x 12 = 48 μC
• (b) Q = CV =4 x 10-6 x 1.5 = 6 μC
• The charge will be shared according to the ratio of the
areas of the spheres i.e. 0.52 : 0.22 = 0.25 : 0.04.
• Hence the sphere with diameter 1 m will carry charge
(0.25/0.29)x 7μC = 6.03 μC
• While the sphere with diameter 0.4 m will carry charge
(0.04/0.29)x 7μC = 0.97 μC
 𝑘𝑄
• Electric potential on a conducting sphere =
𝑅
• For the sphere with diameter 1 m, the
𝑘𝑄 8.9875×109 ×6.03
potential = 𝑅 = = 1.08 × 1011 𝑉
0.5
• For the sphere with diameter 0.4 m, the potential =
𝑘𝑄 8.9875×109 ×0.97
= = 0.44 × 1011 𝑉
𝑅 0.2
• The potential of the system of sphere is the addition
of the two i.e. 1.52 × 1011 𝑉
• (a) V = Ed  E = V/d = 20/(1.8x10-3)= 11,111 V/m
• (b) Q=CV = (oA/d)(Ed)=oAE  Q/A =oE=8.85 x 10-12 x
11,111 = 98.3 nC/m2.
• (c) C= oA/d = 8.85 x 10-12 x 7.6 x 10-4/(1.8x10-3) = 3.74 x 10-12 F
• (d) Q = CV = 3.74 x 10-12 x 20 = 7.47 x 10-11 C
• Solution
• Q=CV = (oA/d) V  d = oV/(Q/A)
=8.85 x 10-12 x 120/(30 x 10-9/10-4)=
3.54 x 10-6 m
• Note: 30.0 nC/cm2 = (30 x 10-9/10-4)
• Solution
• (a) First calculate the equivalence of 15 and 3 μF
1 1 1 6 2 5
i.e. = + = =  𝐶𝑒𝑞 = μF
𝐶𝑒𝑞 15 3 15 5 2
• Now calculate the equivalence of 5/2 and 6 μF
5 17
i.e.  𝐶𝑒𝑞 = + 6 = μF
2 2
• Finally, the equivalence of 17/2 and 20 μF i.e.
1 1 1 2 1 57 340
• = 17 + = + =  𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = 5.97 μF
𝐶𝑒𝑞 20 17 20 340 57
2
• (b) Use Q = C ∆𝑉, so we first determine ∆𝑉 for each capacitor.
• Step 1 is to consider the three capacitors (with effective capacitance
17
μF) as one, so the circuit now have two capacitors in series with
2 17
values and 20 μF
2
• Recall the two conditions for capacitors in series:
• (1) The charge in the individual capacitors are the same
17
•  𝐶1 ∆𝑉1 = 𝐶2 ∆𝑉2  10;6 ∆𝑉1 = 20 × 10;6 ∆𝑉2 ……………. (a)
×
2
• (2) total potential difference is the sum of the potential differences
of the individual capacitors
• ∆𝑉= ∆𝑉1 +∆𝑉2  15= ∆𝑉1 +∆𝑉2 ……………(b)
• Solving equations (a) and (b) yields
600 255
• ∆𝑉1 = V and ∆𝑉2 = V.
57 57
• This means that
• * the potential difference across the 20 μF capacitor is
255
V
57
• * the one across the rectangular part of the circuit is
600
V. This means that the potential difference across
57
either the 6 μF or combination of (15 and 3 μF)
600
capacitor is V. This because the 6 μF and the
57
combination of (15 and 3 μF) are connected in parallel.
• Now the potential difference across each of 20 μF and
6 μF has been determined. It remains for 15 and 3 μF.
• Again, since 15 and 3 μF are connected in series use
the conditions:
• (1) The charge in the individual capacitors are the same
•  𝐶1 ∆𝑉1 = 𝐶2 ∆𝑉2  15 × 10;6 ∆𝑉1 = 3 × 10;6 ∆𝑉2 …..(a)
• (2) total potential difference is the sum of the potential
differences of the individual capacitors
600
• ∆𝑉= ∆𝑉1 +∆𝑉2  = ∆𝑉1 +∆𝑉2
57
……………(b)
• Solving equations (a) and (b) yields
100 500
• ∆𝑉1 = V and ∆𝑉2 = V.
57 57
• * the potential difference across the 15 μF
100
capacitor is V
57
• * the one across the rectangular part of the
500
circuit is V.
57
• Therefore the charge in capacitor with
255
• (i) 20 μF is C∆𝑉=20 x 10-6 x =89.5 μC
57
 600
• 10-6
(ii) 6 μF is C∆𝑉= 6 x x =63.2 μC
57
100
• -6
(iii) 15 μF is C∆𝑉=15 x 10 x =26.3 μC
57
500
• -6
(iv) 3 μF is C∆𝑉=3 x 10 x =26.3 μC
57
• Solution
25μF

5μF

100 V
1 2 1
• (a) The energy stored in the 25 μF capacitor = 𝐶 ∆𝑉 = x 25 x 10-6 x
2 2
(100)2 = 0.125 J
 1 1
• The energy stored in the 5 μF capacitor = 𝐶 ∆𝑉 2 = x 5 x 10-6 x (100)2 = 0.025 J
2 2
• Hence the total energy stored in the two capacitors = 0.125 +0.025 =0.15 J
• (b) the total energy will still be the addition of the energy in the individual capacitors
i.e.
1 1
• 0.15 = 2 x 5 x 10-6 x (∆𝑉5)2 + 2
x 25 x 10-6 x (∆𝑉25)2
• Divide both sides by 2.5 x 10-6 yields
• 6 x 104 = (∆𝑉 5)2 + 5(∆𝑉 25)2 …… *
• Now use the fact that capacitors in series store the same charge.
This means the ratio of their capacitances is the reciprocal of the
ratio their potential differences i.e.
25×10−6 ∆𝑉5
• = 𝑖. 𝑒. ∆𝑉5 = 5∆𝑉25
5×10−6 ∆𝑉25
• Hence equation (*) becomes
• 6 x 104 = (5∆𝑉 25)2 + 5(∆𝑉 25)2 = 30(∆𝑉 25)2
• i.e. (∆𝑉 25)2 = 0.2 x 104 i.e. ∆𝑉 25= 44.72 V
•  ∆𝑉 5= 5 x 44.72 V = 223.60 V
• Therefore the potential difference that will be
connected across the two capacitors = 44.72
+223.6 = 268.32 V
• Solution
• (a) Capacitance before immersion = oA/d = 8.85 x 10-12 x
25 x 10-4/(1.5 x 10-2) =1.475 x 10-12 F
• Capacitance after immersion =  x Capacitance before
• Capacitance after immersion = 80 x 1.475 x 10-12 F = 1.18 x 10-
10 F

• Potential difference before immersion = 250 V

• Potential difference after immersion = 250/=250/80=3.125 V
• Hence charge before =CV = 1.475 x 10-12 x 250 = 3.6875 x 10-
10 C

• The charge after =CV = 1.18 x 10-10 x 3.125 = 3.6875 x 10-10 C

• (b) As determined above
• Capacitance after immersion = 80 x 1.475 x 10-12 F = 1.18 x 10-
10 F

• Potential difference after immersion = 250/=250/80=3.125 V

• (c) Energy = Q2/2C
• Before Immersion = (3.6875 x 10-10)2/(2x 1.475
x 10-12) = 4.61 x 10-8 J
• After Immersion = (3.6875 x 10-10)2/(2x 1.18 x
10-10) = 5.76 x 10-10 J = 0.0576 x 10-8 J
• Change in Energy = After – before = 4.5524 x
10-8 J
 Current and Resistance
• Current (I) is the rate at which charge flows
through a surface of area A.
• If the amount of charge that pass through the
area in a time interval t is Q, then
∆𝑄
• 𝐼=
∆𝑡
• The unit of current is Ampere (A)
• The direction of current is the same as the
direction of flow of positive charge OR in
opposite direction to the direction of flow of
negative charge
• If the ends of a conducting wire are joined together no
charge will flow in it because all the points in the wire will
be at the same potential and hence electric field is zero.
• This means current exist only when there exist a potential
difference between the ends of the conducting wire.
• Usually potential difference is set up between the ends of a
wire by connecting it to a battery.
• There is a relation between the potential difference
between the ends of the wire and the current that flows in
the wire. The relation is summarized by Ohm’s Law.
• Ohm’s Law
• The statement of the law is that “the potential
difference between the ends of a conducting
wire is directly proportional to the current
flowing in it”
• V  I  V = RI
• The constant of proportionality is the
resistance
• The unit of resistance is ohm ().
• Resistivity ()
𝐴
• 𝜌= 𝑅 The unit is m
𝑙
• where A is the surface area of the wire and l is
its length.
• Conductivity ()
1
• This is the inverse of resistivity i.e. 𝜍 =
𝜌
;1
• The unit is  𝑚;1
• Resistance colour-coding
• Resistor’s values in ohms are usually indicated
using colour-coding.
• The colour codes:
• The code is usually made up of four colour bands.
• The first two colours indicate the first two digits in the
resistance value
• The value of the third colour represent the power of
ten for the multiplier of resistance value.
• The value of the fourth colour is the tolerance of the
resistance value.
• Example: if the colour bands on a resistor are red,
black, orange and gold.
• Red = 2, black = 0, orange = 3. Hence the resistor value
is 20 x 103 ohms(=20 k) with a tolerance of 5 % (1 k)
 Electrical Power
• The power (P) transferred to a resistor (resistance
R) carrying a current I and having a potential
difference V between its ends is
2 𝑉2
• 𝑃= 𝐼 𝑅= = 𝐼𝑉
𝑅
• Consider the circuit above in which a battery is
connected to a resistor. Assume the connecting
wires have no internal resistance. However, a real
battery usually has some internal resistance.
• Solution
𝑃 600
• 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 I = = =5𝐴
𝑉 120
𝑉2 𝑉2 1202
• P= R = = = 24 𝑊
𝑅 𝑃 600
• If the internal resistance of the battery is
negligible, its terminal voltage is equal to the emf
i.e. ∆𝑉 = 𝜀
• However, there is a potential drop across the
internal resistance. Hence the terminal voltage of
the battery is ∆𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟.
• Where r is the internal resistance of the battery.
• The potential difference across the resistor is the
terminal voltage of the battery i.e.
𝜀
• ∆𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟  𝐼𝑅 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 𝐼 =
𝑅:𝑟
 Connection of resistors
• Resistors in Series
• For series connection:
(1) The current across the resistors are the
same
(2) The total potential difference is the sum
of the individual potential differences of
all the resistors.
• Using the two conditions, the effective resistance
for N resistors in series is
• 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁
• Resistors in Parallel
• For parallel connection:
(1) The potential difference across the
resistors are the same
(2) The total current is the sum of the
individual current of all the resistors.
• Using the two conditions, the effective resistance
for N resistors in parallel is
1 1 1 1
• = + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁
 KIRCHHOFF’S RULE
• When a circuit is complex, analysing it using V =
IR and the rules for series and parallel
combinations of resistors will no longer be
feasible.
• The procedure for analysing complex circuits is to
use two principles called Kirchhoff’s rules.
Rule 1
• The sum of the currents entering any junction in a
circuit equal the sum of the currents leaving the
junction. 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
 Rule 2
• The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed
circuit loop must be zero 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
Hints on using the rules
(1) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit
(2) Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit that
provide new relationships among the various currents.
(3) Apply the loop rule to as many loops in the circuit as are
needed to solve for the unknowns
(4) Simultaneously solve all the generated equations.
(5) Potential difference across a resistor is positive if the direction
of going round the loop is opposite to the chosen direction of
current, otherwise negative
(6) Potential difference across a battery is positive if movement is from
negative terminal to the positive terminal, otherwise negative.
• Example: Analyse the simple circuit below to
find the current flowing in it (Assume the
internal resistances of the batteries are
negligible.
• Use V = IR and the rules of series combination
of resistors
• The effective resistance = 8 + 10 = 18 
• The potential difference across the resistor =
12 – 6 = 6 V (in the 12 V battery current moves
from positive terminal to the negative while in
the 6 V battery it is vice-versa)
𝑉 6
• Hence, the current = = = 0.33A
𝑅 18
• Use Kirchhoff’s rules
• Loop rule
• Go round the loop in a clockwise direction
• −12 − 𝐼𝑅1 + 6 − 𝐼𝑅2 = 0
• -12 - 8I + 6 - 10I = 0
• -18I = 6
• I = -6/18 = - 0.33 A (same as for the previous method)
• The negative sign indicate that the actual direction of
the current is opposite to the chosen direction.
• Find currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown below.

• Solution
(a) Assumed Directions for currents
• Note that the directions shown for the currents are
assumed.
• Directions different from the ones indicated can be
chosen
(b) Apply junction rule
• Note there are two junctions at points b and c.
• Applying the junction rule to any of the
junctions b and c yield the same equation
• 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ………………… (1)
• This is one equation with the three unknowns.
Hence two more equations are needed to be
able to determine I1, I2 and I3.
• (c) Apply loop rule
• There are three loops befcb, abcda and aefda.
• Only two of the loops are needed to form the two
needed equations.
• Going round the loops clockwisely
• Loop befcb: -4I2- 14+6I1-10 =0
3I1-2I2= 12 ……………. (2)
• Loop abcda: 10 - 6I1-2I3 =0
3I1 + I3= 5 …………….. (3)
• Solving equations (1), (2) and (3)
simultaneously yields I1= 2A, I2=-3A and I3=-1A
• The negative sign for I2 and I3 means their
directions are opposite to the assumed ones.
 Electrical Instruments
• Ammeter: Used to measure current. An ideal
ammeter should have zero resistance so that the
current being measured is not altered.
• Voltmeter: Used to measure voltage. An ideal
voltmeter should have infinite resistance so that
no current passes through it.
• Galvanometer: It consists of a coil of wire
mounted so that it is free to rotate on a pivot in a
magnetic field provided by a permanent magnet.
• Galvanometer can be converted to ammeter or
voltmeter.
• To ammeter: by connecting a shunt resistor Rp to it in
parallel. Rp very much less than galvanometer
resistance
• To voltage: by connecting a resistor Rs to it in series.
Rs very much large than galvanometer resistance
• Wheatstone bridge: Used to measure
unknown resistance.
• The bridge consists the unknown resistance
Rx, three known resistances R1, R2 and
R3(where R1is a calibrated variable resistor) , a
galvanometer and a battery.
• The variable resistor is varied until the
galvanometer reading is zero.
• Galvanometer reading is zero means there is no
current flowing between points a and b. Under
this condition the bridge is said to be balanced.
• No current between points a and b also means
that the potential at a equals the potential at b.
• Since Va = Vb, it means the potential difference
across R1 equals the one across R2, the one across
R3 equals the one across Rx 
• 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 and
• 𝐼1 𝑅3 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑋
• Use one of the equations to divide the other
gives
𝑅2 𝑅3
• 𝑅𝑋 =
𝑅1
• Potentiometer: Used to measure an unknown
emf, 𝜀𝑋 , by comparing with a known emf.
• As shown below, q potentiometer is made up of a
resistance wire, a sliding contact, a galvanometer,
a battery of known emf o, and a battery of
unknown emf x.

• Using Kirchhoff’s rule for the loop abcda,

traversing clockwise gives
• −𝜀𝑋 + 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑥 𝑅𝑥 = 0
• Adjust the sliding contact at point d until the
galvanometer reads zero (no current pass
through the galvanometer, Ix = 0).
• The kirchhoff’s loop equation therefore becomes
• 𝜀𝑋 = 𝐼𝑅𝑋
• Now replace the battery of unknown emf with a
battery of known emf S and follow similar
procedures, another equation is obtained
• 𝜀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑆
• Combining the two expressions yields
𝑅𝑋
• 𝜀𝑋 = 𝜀𝑆 ………………. (E)
𝑅𝑆
𝐿𝑋 𝐿𝑆
• Recall, 𝑅𝑋 = 𝜌 and 𝑅𝑆 = 𝜌
𝐴 𝐴
• Substituting these into equation (E)
𝐿𝑋
• 𝜀𝑋 = 𝜀𝑆
𝐿𝑆
 I1

I2
Loop 1

Loop 2 I3
I4
• Solution
Loop 3

• Four different currents must flow in different

parts of the circuit.
• Assign the currents and their directions
• Apply junction rule
• There are two junctions but the two produce the same
equation
• 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 ………………. (1)

• Apply the loop rule

• There are four loops (Loop 1, Loop 2, Loop 3 and Loop 4).
Loop 4 is the combination of Loops 1 and 2
• Three more equations are needed to determine all the
currents.
• So Loops 1, 2 and 3 can be used with clockwise movement
• Apply to Loop 1
• 10I3-10I1 + 25 =0
• i.e. 2I3-2I1 =-5 ………………….. (2)
• Apply to Loop 2
• 5I4-10I3 =0
• i.e. I3=0.5I4 …………………….(3)
• Apply to Loop 3
• -5I2-5I4-20I2=0
• i.e. I2 = -0.2I4 ………………..(4)
• Using equation (3) in (2) yields
• I1 = 0.5I4 + 2.5 …………. (5)
• Use equations (3), (4) and (5) in (1) gives
• -0.2I4 = (0.5I4 + 2.5) + 0.5I4 + I4
• I4 = -2.5/2.2 = - 1.14 A
• Use this value of I4 in equations (3), (4) and (5)
to obtain I1, I2 and I3 as
• I1 = 0.5I4 + 2.5  I1 = 0.5(-1.14) + 2.5 = 1.93 A
• I2 = -0.2(-1.14) = 0.228 A
• I3=0.5(-1.14)=-0.57 A
• Solution
𝑅2 𝑅3 1000𝑅2
• 𝑅𝑋 = = = 400 
𝑅1 2.5𝑅2
• Solution
𝑅𝑋 48
• 𝜀𝑋 = 𝜀𝑆 = × 1.0186 = 1.3581𝑉
𝑅𝑆 36